Perceived and actual competence among maltreated and comparison school children

Childhood maltreatment, emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms during spousal bereavement

BACKGROUND

Childhood maltreatment increases the risk of depression, especially after experiencing a stressful life event, such as bereavement. Employing emotion regulation strategies can mitigate the impact childhood maltreatment has on depression later in life following the loss of a spouse.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated how cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression moderated the impact of childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms following spousal bereavement.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

We examined 130 bereaved individuals 3 months after the death of a spouse, 4 months after the death of a spouse, and 6 months after the death of a spouse.

METHODS

We utilized a mixed model approach to test the interaction between childhood maltreatment and cognitive reappraisal and between childhood maltreatment and expressive suppression to predict depressive symptoms across 3 time points.

RESULTS

Cognitive reappraisal moderated the relationship between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms (b = - 0.17,p = .003); expressive suppression did not (b = 0.06,p = .452). Participants who used less cognitive reappraisal had a positive relationship between childhood maltreatment and depressive symptoms (b = 3.27,p < .001);participants who used more cognitive reappraisal did not (b = 1.09,p = .065).

CONCLUSIONS

Childhood maltreatment interacted with cognitive reappraisal, but not expressive suppression, to predict depressive symptoms following spousal bereavement. This study reveals how emotion regulation strategies can be utilized as a tool to buffer the impact of childhood maltreatment on mental health following a stressor later in life, which can serve as a target for future interventions for individuals experiencing a stressful life event.

Maternal relationship quality and peer social acceptance as mediators between child maltreatment and adolescent depressive symptoms: Gender differences

Childhood maltreatment negatively impacts the development of maternal and peer relationships and may put adolescents at risk for depression. The present study examined gender differences in maternal relationship quality and peer social acceptance as mediators of the association between childhood maltreatment and adolescent depressive symptoms in 342 (151 female, 191 male) maltreated (n = 198) and nonmaltreated (n = 144) youth in the USA. An observer report Q-Scale measure of depressive symptoms was developed and received preliminary support. Social acceptance was a significant mediator for both genders. The significant association between maltreatment and maternal relationship quality was unique to females, and the association between maternal relationship quality and depressive symptoms was significantly stronger for females. Lower maternal relationship quality marginally significantly mediated the association between maltreatment and depressive symptoms for females only. Results have implications for the prevention and intervention of depression in adolescents with a history of childhood maltreatment.

Patterns of relatedness in maltreated and nonmaltreated children: Connections among multiple representational models

This study examined children's reports of relatedness to multiple relationship figures in a population of low SES maltreated [N = 115] and nonmaltreated [N = 100] children, ranging in age from 7 to 13 years old. Relatedness scales were administered to children as part of individual interviews given in the context of a summer day camp. Consistent with prior normative research, it was found that the two dimensions of relatedness —emotional quality and psychological proximity-seeking—are negatively correlated with each other. Moreover, patterns of relatedness, based on the configuration of children's scores on both dimensions, reflect group differences, with maltreated children more likely to have confused patterns of relatedness and nonmaltreated children more likely to have optimal patterns. Connections were examined among children's self-reported feelings of relatedness for different relationship figures. Substantial concordance was found among the children's reports of relatedness with their mothers, their teachers, and their best friends. Evidence is presented to support the claim that children form both global and specific models of relationships. The findings are discussed in terms of attachment and self-system theory.

A systematic review of the emotional, behavioural and cognitive features exhibited by school-aged children experiencing neglect or emotional abuse

BACKGROUND

Interventions to minimize the long-term consequences of neglect or emotional abuse rely on prompt identification of these children. This systematic review of world literature (1947-2012) identifies features that children aged 5-14 years experiencing neglect or emotional abuse, as opposed to physical or sexual abuse, may exhibit.

METHODS

Searching 18 databases, utilizing over 100 keywords, supplemented by hand searching, 13,210 articles were identified and 111 underwent full critical appraisal by two independent trained reviewers.

RESULTS

The 30 included studies highlighted behavioural features (15 studies), externalizing features being the most prominent (8/9 studies) and internalizing features noted in 4/6 studies. Four studies identified attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) associated features: impulsivity, inattention or hyperactivity. Child difficulties in initiating or developing friendships were noted in seven studies. Of 13 studies addressing emotional well-being, three highlighted low self-esteem, with a perception of external control (1), or depression (6) including suicidality (1). A negative internal working model of the mother increased the likelihood of depression (1). In assessing cognition or academic performance, lower general intelligence (3/4) and reduced literacy and numeracy (2) were reported, but no observable effect on memory (3).

CONCLUSIONS

School-aged children presenting with poor academic performance, ADHD symptomatology or abnormal behaviours warrant assessment of neglect or emotional abuse as a potential underlying cause.

The relationship between protective factors and outcomes for children investigated for maltreatment

OBJECTIVES

This research explores the relationship between hypothesized protective factors and outcomes for children investigated for maltreatment.

METHODS

Using data from the National Survey on Child and Adolescent Well-Being (NSCAW), we ran logistic regression models to examine the relationship between hypothesized protective factors (social competence, adaptive functioning skills, and peer relationships) and outcomes (externalizing behavior, internalizing behavior, reading competence).

RESULTS

For each hypothesized protective factor, we found variation in individual scores and sample mean scores at the lower end of the scales, indicating that these children fare worse than most children. However, many children experienced large changes in their individual scores over time suggesting that children can and do improve on these hypothesized protective factors. In examining the relationship between hypothesized protective factors and outcomes, children with higher levels of social competence were significantly more likely to be in the normal range for both externalizing and internalizing behaviors. Children with higher mean adaptive functioning skills were more likely to be in the normal range for both externalizing behavior and reading competence. The positive nature of the child's peer relationships was also related to externalizing behavior and reading competence.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, our analyses support the idea that social competence, adaptive functioning skills, and peer relationships are related to outcomes for children investigated for maltreatment. While further research is needed to establish a causal link, this work identifies three individual-level hypothesized protective factors as potential sources of variation in outcomes.

PRACTICE IMPLICATIONS

To prevent or alleviate the harmful consequences maltreatment, it is necessary to understand factors that help children move beyond poor outcomes. Our analyses suggest that a strong relationship exists between a child's social competence, adaptive functioning skills and positive peer relationships and select outcomes three years after being investigated for maltreatment. With these individual-level protective factors related to more positive outcomes, it suggests that intervening to increase protective factors could improve outcomes for maltreated and at-risk children.

Mean-level change and intraindividual variability in self-esteem and depression among high-risk children

This study investigated mean-level changes and intraindividual variability of self-esteem among maltreated (n=142) and nonmaltreated (n=109) school-aged children from low-income families. Longitudinal factor analysis revealed higher temporal stability of self-esteem among maltreated children compared to nonmaltreated children. Cross-domain latent growth curve models indicated that nonmaltreated children showed higher initial levels and greater increases in self-esteem than maltreated children, and that the initial levels of self-esteem were significantly associated with depressive symptoms among maltreated and nonmaltreated children. The average level (mean of repeated measurements) of self-esteem was predictive of depression at the final occasion for both maltreated and nonmaltreated children. For nonmaltreated children intraindividual variability of self-esteem had a direct contribution to prediction of depression. The findings enhance our understanding of developmental changes in self-esteem and the role of the average level and within-person variability of self-esteem in predicting depressive symptoms among high-risk children.

The use of a narrative story stem technique with maltreated children: Implications for theory and practice

Maltreatment can impact the earliest stages of development during which time patterns of emotion regulation and attachment begin to be established (Carlson, Cicchetti, Barnett, & Braunwald, 1989b; Cicchetti, Ganiban, & Barnett, 1991). These disruptive patterns are problematic for early moral development and are likely to play a role in the development of conduct disorders (Aber & Cicchetti, 1984). Thus, maltreated children are clearly in a high-risk situation. To examine emotion regulation, internal representations of relationships, and early moral development, the use of a play narrative story stem technique (Bretherton, Ridgeway, & Cassidy, 1990; Buchsbaum & Emde, 1990) with maltreated children and a nonmaltreated disadvantaged comparison group of children is described. Representative case examples from each group are used to illustrate the effectiveness of this technique for eliciting themes about family relationships, conflicts, and their resolution or lack thereof as well as defenses and coping styles. The potential usefulness of this paradigm for clinical assessment and intervention are discussed.

Problems defining resiliency: Illustrations from the study of maltreated children

In this article, operational definitions of resiliency used in previous studies are reviewed. Data from a sample of 56 maltreated school-age children are then explored to highlight how variations in the source, type, and number of assessments obtained affect the rates of children classified as resilient. Assessments were obtained in three domains: academic achievement, social competence, and clinical symptomatology. Two sources of information were used to assess each domain, and three different data integration procedures were used to calculate rates of resiliency in the maltreated cohort. It is concluded that the most appropriate definition of resiliency to be used in future investigations depends on the aims of the study. If the goal of the study is to assess overall functioning, there is an advantage to using more broad, multidimensional assessments. If, in contrast, the goal of the study is to determine why some high-risk children develop particular types of problems, to identify underlying etiological processes associated with different outcomes, there is an advantage to using narrower definitions.

Patterns of relatedness in maltreated and nonmaltreated children: Connections among multiple representational models

This study examined children's reports of relatedness to multiple relationship figures in a population of low SES maltreated (N = 115) and nonmaltreated (N = 100) children, ranging in age from 7 to 13 years old. Relatedness scales were administered to children as part of individual interviews given in the context of a summer day camp. Consistent with prior normative research, it was found that the two dimensions of relatedness–emotional quality and psychological proximity-seeking–are negatively correlated with each other. Moreover, patterns of relatedness, based on the configuration of children's scores on both dimensions, reflect group differences, with maltreated children more likely to have confused patterns of relatedness and nonmaltreated children more likely to have optimal patterns. Connections were examined among children's self-reported feelings of relatedness for different relationship figures. Substantial concordance was found among the children's reports of relatedness with their mothers, their teachers, and their best friends. Evidence is presented to support the claim that children form both global and specific models of relationships. The findings are discussed in terms of attachment and self-system theory.

Child maltreatment, attachment, and the self system: Emergence of an internal state lexicon in toddlers at high social risk

The ability to talk about the internal states (ISs) and feelings of self and other is an age-appropriate development of late toddlerhood hypothesized to reflect toddlers' emergent self–other understanding and to be fundamental to the regulation of social interaction. This study examined the effects of child maltreatment on the emergence of low-socioeconomic status 30-month-old toddlers' IS lexicons. Children's lexicons were derived both from maternal interviews and from observations of children's spontaneous IS utterances in four laboratory contexts. Results from both data sources indicated that maltreated toddlers produced significantly fewer IS words, fewer IS word types, and proportionately fewer IS words denoting physiological states and negative affect than nonmaltreated toddlers. In addition, maltreated toddlers were more context bound in IS language use and more restricted in their attributions of internal states to self and other. Gender differences were also observed. Individual differences in children's IS language production were significantly related to general linguistic maturity in both groups but to toddlers' conversational skills only in the comparison group. In addition, a cumulative risk model describing the effects of the child's attachment relationship with the caregiver on early IS language was tested. Toddlers most severely at risk (maltreated/insecure) had the most compromised IS language. Thus, secure attachment may serve as a protective mechanism against self-dysfunction in maltreated toddlers.

Clinical, empirical, and developmental perspectives on the therapeutic relationship in child psychotherapy

Despite substantial interest in the therapeutic relationship by child clinicians, relationship processes in child therapy have been neglected by clinical researchers. In this paper, clinical and empirical perspectives on the therapeutic relationship in child treatment were reviewed. Initial findings indicated that the quality of the child's affective relationship with the therapist is associated with collaboration on therapy tasks. Given the recurrent finding of links between treatment collaboration and treatment outcome, research on factors that influence children's ability to form therapeutic relationships is recommended. To this end, a developmental social cognitive model of therapeutic alliance formation is proposed.

The classroom performance and behavior of sexually abused females

This study examines the relationship of child sexual abuse to classroom academic performance and behavior in a sample of 6–16-year-old girls. Half of the sample was sexually abused by a family member. The other half is a demographically similar nonabused comparison group. Measures of academic performance include school records, teacher's ratings of classroom behavior and performance, and parental reports of school performance. Possible mediators of the impact of sexual abuse on classroom performance and behavior – cognitive capability, perceived competence, and behavior problems–are also measured. Results can be summarized as follows, (a) A history of sexual abuse does predict academic performance: Abuse is directly negatively related to ratings of classroom social competence, competent learner, and overall academic performance and positively related to school avoidant behavior, but is not related to grades, (b) Sexual abuse is negatively related to cognitive ability and positively related to measures of behavior problems indicating depression, destructiveness, and dissociation, (c) Cognitive ability and perceived competence predict the more “academic” aspects of academic performance—grades, ratings as a competent learner, and overall academic performance. Behavior problems predict ratings as a competent learner, classroom social competence, school avoidant behavior, and overall academmic performance.

Relations between early maltreatment and mental representations of relationships assessed with projective storytelling in middle childhood

Children who participate in the Mother-Child Project, a longitudinal study of high-risk children, were giver projective storytelling task during their sixth-grade year. Story sets were coded for relationship themes like peer acceptance and problem solving, and responses were compared between groups identified based on pas maltreatment. The maltreatment group included 43 children who were identified as having been physically abused, sexually abused, or neglected or having psychologically unavailable care. A control group of 53 children from this high-risk sample was identified as having received adequate care. The remaining participants whose care was questionable were not included in this study. Based on quantitative analyses using a factor measuring relationship expectations and controlling for IQ and socioeconoraic status, the maltreate group told stories significantly more negative compared to the control group. Findings are introduced and discussed in terms of attachment theory and related work addressing the mental representations of maltreated children. In particular, it is proposed that, based on early maltreatment experiences, children acquire internal working models of themselves as unworthy and of others as unavailable. In subsequent relationship situations they would be constricted in cognitively processing events, have difficulty regulating their own emotions, an employ processes of defensive exclusion (e.g. projection, introjection, displacement, splitting, preoccupatioi idealization) to manage their distress feelings.

True and false recall and dissociation among maltreated children: the role of self-schema

The current investigation addresses the manner through which trauma affects basic memory and self-system processes. True and false recall for self-referent stimuli were assessed in conjunction with dissociative symptomatology among abused (N=76), neglected (N=92), and nonmaltreated (N=116) school-aged children. Abused, neglected, and nonmaltreated children did not differ in the level of processing self-schema effect or in the occurrence and frequency of false recall. Rather, differences in the affective valence of false recall emerged as a function of maltreatment subtype and age. Regarding dissociation, the abused children displayed higher levels of dissociative symptomatology than did the nonmaltreated children. Although abused, neglected, and nonmaltreated children did not exhibit differences in the valence of their self-schemas, positive and negative self-schemas were related to self-integration differently among the subgroups of maltreatment. Negative self-schemas were associated with increased dissociation among the abused children, whereas positive self-schemas were related to increased dissociation for the neglected children. Thus, positive self-schemas displayed by the younger neglected children were related to higher dissociation, suggestive of defensive self-processing. Implications for clinical intervention are underscored.

Child maltreatment

Child maltreatment exemplifies a toxic relational environment that poses significant risks for maladaptation across biological and psychological domains of development. Research on child maltreatment can inform developmental theory, but more importantly, it can enhance the quality of clinical, legal, and policy-making decisions for maltreated children. This chapter addresses definitional, epidemiological, and etiological aspects of child maltreatment. A developmental psychopathology perspective is directed toward the discussion of the psychological and neurobiological sequelae of child maltreatment. Implications for prevention, intervention, and social policy are discussed, and recommendations for future research are proffered.

Reactive attachment disorder in maltreated twins follow-up: from 18 months to 8 years

The best means for the diagnosis and treatment of reactive attachment disorder of infancy and early childhood have not been established. Though some longitudinal data on institutionalized children is available, reports of maltreated young children who are followed over time and assessed with measures of attachment are lacking. This paper presents the clinical course of a set of maltreated fraternal twins who were assessed and treated from 19 months to 30 months of age and then seen in follow-up at 3 and 8 years of age. A summary of the early assessment and course is provided and findings from follow-up assessments of the cognitive, behavioral, and interpersonal functioning of each child is analysed. Follow-up measures, chosen to capture social-cognitive processing of these children from an attachment perspective, are highlighted. Finally, findings from the case are discussed from nosological and theoretical perspectives.

Longitudinal trajectories of self-system processes and depressive symptoms among maltreated and nonmaltreated children

This study used latent growth modeling to investigate longitudinal relationships between self-system processes and depressive symptoms among maltreated (n = 142) and nonmaltreated children (n = 109) aged 6-11 years. On average, self-esteem and self-agency increased and depressive symptoms decreased over time. Multivariate growth modeling indicated that, regardless of gender, physical abuse was negatively related to initial levels of self-esteem, and physical abuse and physical neglect were positively associated with initial levels of depressive symptoms. Emotional maltreatment was predictive of changes in self-esteem and changes in depressive symptoms. Initial levels of self-esteem were negatively associated with initial levels of depressive symptoms. The findings contribute to enhancing our understanding of the developmental processes whereby early maltreatment experiences are linked to later maladjustment.

Social perspective-taking skills in maltreated children and adolescents

The primary goal of this study was to assess the ability of maltreated school-age children and adolescents to understand the thoughts, feelings, and points of view of others. Level of egocentrism and social perspective-taking coordination were assessed in a group of 49 maltreated and 49 demographically matched nonmaltreated children. Twenty-six elementary and 23 high school students in each group were individually interviewed and their responses to hypothetical interpersonal situations coded for egocentricity and level of perspective-taking ability. The findings revealed that maltreated children and adolescents were more egocentric and delayed in their social perspective-taking development than their nonmaltreated peers and that they reported lower levels of global self-worth. However, differences within the group of maltreated children and adolescents emerged with regard to negotiating novel relationships, as those with fewer internalizing or externalizing symptoms exhibited better skills in this area than their peers who displayed more symptoms.

Social self-efficacy and behavior problems in maltreated and nonmaltreated children

Investigated the relations among child maltreatment, children's social self-efficacy, and behavioral adjustment. Data were collected on 305 maltreated and 195 non-maltreated children from low-income families (ages 5 to 12 years) who were assessed on perceived social self-efficacy and evaluated by camp counselors on internalizing and externalizing symptomatology. Younger (< 8 years) maltreated children exhibited inflated levels of perceived self-efficacy in confictual peer interactions compared to younger nonmaltreated children. Younger maltreated children with higher levels of social self-efficacy showed significantly less internalizing behaviors compared to younger maltreated children with lower levels of social self-efficacy. For older children (> 8 years), regardless of maltreatment status, higher levels of perceived social self-efficacy in conflict situations were related to lower levels of internalizing symptomatology. The results are discussed as suggestive of the role of children's social self-efficacy as a protective factor in the link between maltreatment and internalizing symptomatology.

Father involvement and children's functioning at age 6 years: a multisite study

Research suggests that fathers' involvement in their children's lives is associated with enhanced child functioning. The current study examined (a) whether presence of a father was associated with better child functioning, (b) whether children's perceptions of fathers' support was associated with better functioning, and (c) whether the above association was moderated by the father's relationship to the child, the child's race, and the child's gender. Participants included 855 six-year-old children and their caregivers. Father presence was associated with better cognitive development and greater perceived competence by the children. For children with a father figure, those who described greater father support had a stronger sense of social competence and fewer depressive symptoms. The associations did not differ by child's gender, race, or relationship to the father figure. These findings support the value of fathers' presence and support to their children's functioning. Priorities for future research include clarifying what motivates fathers to be positively involved in their children's lives and finding strategies to achieve this.

Women in special hospitals: understanding the presenting behaviour of women diagnosed with borderline personality disorder

This paper critically examines the development of the concept of borderline personality disorder (BPD) in terms of the assumed centrality of abnormal early environments and abusive relationships. It is suggested that if BPD is conceptualized as an expression of past experiences in adult life, information regarding early histories can assist in 'making sense' of later behaviour. The aim of this review therefore is to explore how histories of women diagnosed as BPD, within a High Secure Psychiatric Hospital, may facilitate an interpretation of the 'adaptive' nature of presenting 'symptomology'. Case note material is utilized to gain insight into specific aspects of childhood experiences that have been documented, and are thus deemed significant. These findings support the perception that the role of the early environment and associated relationships are significant within written accounts of women diagnosed as having BPD. By exploring the links between trauma and BPD, this article suggests that an understanding of the effects of trauma and the importance of relationships can offer a way forward for self-reflection and future care.

The effects of family and community violence on children

This review examines theoretical and empirical literature on children's reactions to three types of violence--child maltreatment, community violence, and interparental violence. In addition to describing internalizing and externalizing problems associated with exposure to violence, this review identifies ways that violence can disrupt typical developmental trajectories through psychobiological effects, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), cognitive consequences, and peer problems. Methodological challenges in this literature include high rates of co-occurrence among types of violence exposure, co-occurrence of violence with other serious life adversities, heterogeneity in the frequency, severity, age of onset, and chronicity of exposure, and difficulties in making causal inferences. A developmental psychopathology perspective focuses attention on how violence may have different effects at different ages and may compromise children's abilities to face normal developmental challenges. Emphasis is placed on the variability of children's reactions to violence, on outcomes that go beyond diagnosable disorders, and on variables that mediate and moderate children's reactions to violence.

Perceived and actual academic competence in maltreated children

OBJECTIVE

The aims were twofold: 1) to determine whether maltreated and nonmaltreated children differed in the accuracy of their self-assessments of academic achievement; and 2) to determine whether discrepancies between perceived and actual academic competence were related to perceptions of social support from mothers, teachers, and peers.

METHOD

A sample of 195 maltreated children known to a state protective service agency was compared to a control group of 179 nonmaltreated children. The groups were matched on child's gender, age, ethnicity, and birth order; socioeconomic ranking of neighborhood; and family structure.

RESULTS

Although maltreated children had significantly lower achievement scores than did nonmal-treated children, the two groups did not differ on perceived academic competence. With regard to discrepancies between perceived and actual competence, maltreated children were more likely than nonmaltreated children to overestimate their level of competence, particularly for reading and arithmetic. Overall, children who reported low maternal support were more likely to overestimate reading competence than were those who reported average or high maternal support. When maltreatment status was considered, maltreated children with low support seemed likely to overestimate abilities, whereas nonmaltreated children with low support seemed likely to underestimate competence.

CONCLUSIONS

Maltreated children may overestimate their academic abilities in order to compensate for self-perceptions of low self-worth. Efforts to improve academic performance in maltreated children should focus not only on increasing academic skills but also on enhancing self-esteem.

Narrative representations of caregivers and self in maltreated pre-schoolers

This study examined narrative representations of parents and of self, as well as child behavior during the assessment, in maltreated (N = 56) and demographically comparable non-maltreated (N = 37) pre-school-aged children in a one-year longitudinal study. Maltreated children evidenced more negative representations of parents and of self at Time 2, including the juxta-position of both a negative and a grandiose self. Over time there was a marginal interaction such that maltreated children portrayed fewer disciplining parent representations and nonmaltreated children portrayed more. Also over time, maltreated children portrayed marginally more grandiose self-representations and nonmaltreated children fewer. Furthermore, maltreated children demonstrated less responsivity to the examiner over time and nonmaltreated children demonstrated more. The deleterious effects of maltreatment on representations of self and of others, especially as development proceeds, are discussed, and the importance of providing attachment-informed intervention prior to the consolidation of these negative representations is highlighted.

Research on resilience to child maltreatment: empirical considerations

OBJECTIVE

To review the current research literature on resilience to maltreatment in childhood and adolescence.

METHOD

First, this paper addresses the methodological issues applicable to this area of research. Second, it reviews the empirical literature on the protective factors believed to contribute to resilience to maltreatment and offers commentary on specific issues raised in each study.

RESULTS

The current findings are summarized and an integrated descriptive picture, based on the extant literature of the processes and factors contributing to the development of resilience to childhood maltreatment is outlined.

CONCLUSION

Based on this extensive review and critique of the current empirical literature on resilience to maltreatment, suggestions for future investigations in this area are recommended.

Perceived abuse and neglect as risk factors for suicidal behavior in adolescent inpatients

The aim of this study was to assess relative risk of histories of different types of abuse (sexual, physical, and emotional) and neglect (physical and emotional) for suicidal behavior (attempts, ideation, and self-mutilation) in psychiatrically hospitalized adolescents. Seventy-one adolescent inpatients (34 boys, 37 girls) completed self-report measures of abuse and neglect, current suicidal ideation, and lifetime suicide and self-mutilation attempts. The prevalence of sexual and physical abuse was 37.5% and 43.7%, respectively, with 31.3% and 61% of youngsters reporting emotional and physical neglect. Fifty-one percent of youngsters had made suicide attempts, and 39% had self-mutilated. Suicide attempters were significantly more likely to be female, Latino, to report sexual, physical, and emotional abuse, and to endorse emotional neglect. In multivariate analyses, female gender, sexual abuse, and emotional neglect remained significant predictors of self-mutilation and suicidal ideation. Female gender and sexual abuse remained significant predictors of suicide attempts. These findings suggest that emotional neglect is an important and deleterious component of maltreatment experiences and may be a more powerful predictor of suicidal behavior in hospitalized adolescents than physical abuse, emotional abuse, and physical neglect.

Psychosocial characteristics of physically abused children and adolescents

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association between physical abuse and selected psychosocial measures in a community-based probability sample of children and adolescents.

METHOD

A sample of 9- through 17-year-olds (N = 665) and their caretakers in New York State and Puerto Rico were interviewed in the Methods for the Epidemiology of Child and Adolescent Mental Disorders (MECA) Study. Assessments included the Columbia Impairment Scale, the Instrumental and Social Competence Scale, the Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, and questions regarding physical abuse. Regression analyses were conducted controlling for family income, family psychiatric history, perinatal problems, physical health, and sexual abuse.

RESULTS

A history of physical abuse was reported in 172 (25.9%) of the sample. It was significantly associated with global impairment, poor social competence, major depression, conduct disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, agoraphobia, overanxious disorder, and generalized anxiety disorder but not with suicidality, school grades, or receptive language ability.

CONCLUSION

A community probability sample of children and adolescents demonstrated significant associations between physical abuse and psychopathology, after controlling for potential confounders. This supports comprehensive screening for psychopathology among physically abused children and for physical abuse among those with psychopathology. Interventions aimed at improving social competence may be indicated.

Self-perceptions, motivation, and school functioning of low-income maltreated and comparison children

Maltreated children are at risk for disturbances and delays in their socioemotional and scholastic functioning. This study examined the impact of child maltreatment and age on perceptions of competence, and the relations among perceived competence, motivation, and school functioning. The sample included 76 school children living in poverty, approximately two-thirds of whom had been victims of child maltreatment. Results indicated that both maltreated and nonmaltreated children exhibited maladaptive motivational orientations toward scholastic tasks and poor academic performance, supporting the idea that threats to scholastic functioning reside as much within the ecology of poverty as in that of maltreatment. Over and above the general effects of poverty, maltreatment was found to disrupt the psychological processes accounting for children's scholastic performance. Results revealed that younger maltreated children (6- and 7-year-olds) reported more inflated self-perceptions of competence and social acceptance than nonmaltreated children. In contrast, older maltreated children (8- through 11-year-olds) reported lower perceived social acceptance than nonmaltreated children. Among older nonmaltreated children, perceived competence was positively related to teacher's ratings of their effort, intrinsic motivation, and grades. For older maltreated children, these relations among self-perceptions and school functioning were in the opposite direction from those of nonmaltreated children, suggesting that the determinants of academic engagement are different for maltreated and nonmaltreated children.

Depression and maltreatment as predictors of social competence and social problem-solving skills in school-age children

Childhood depression and child maltreatment have been shown to be important predictors of childhood adjustment problems, including difficulties in the spheres of home, school, and peer relationships. In this study, depression and maltreatment were used to predict social competence and social problem-solving skills, as rated by self, parent, and teacher. The total sample contained 68 children (35 girls, 33 boys), most of whom were at high-risk either due to poverty, physical abuse and neglect (as determined by substantiated Protective Services reports), or exposure to negative life events. Hierarchical multivariate regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of depression and maltreatment to social competence and social problem-solving skills. Depression predicted parents' and teachers' ratings of social competence and parents' ratings of peer rejection. Additionally, depression predicted children's ratings of social competence and both measures of social problem-solving skills. Maltreatment predicted parents' and teachers' ratings of social competence. Gender predicted teachers' ratings of peer rejection and social competence. An additive effect of depression and maltreatment was found such that children who are depressed and maltreated have the lowest social competence as rated by parents and teachers. These children are, therefore, doubly at risk for problems in future relationships.

A developmental psychopathology perspective on child abuse and neglect

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this review is to conceptualize child abuse and neglect within a developmental psychopathology perspective. Toward this end, issues of definition and epidemiology, etiology, and sequelae are addressed.

METHOD

Research and theory on child abuse and neglect with relevance to a developmental perspective is reviewed.

RESULTS

Considerable progress has been made in our understanding of the etiology and consequences of child abuse and neglect. Less progress has been made in utilizing this knowledge to inform treatment efforts.

CONCLUSIONS

Incorporation of a developmental psychopathology perspective into efforts to understand and ameliorate the adverse effects of child abuse and neglect holds considerable promise for advancing research and intervention in the area of child maltreatment. The importance of providing comprehensive and coordinated services that incorporate knowledge of how maltreated youngsters negotiate stage-salient issues of development is stressed. The provision of child-focused treatment, parent-based models of intervention, and ecologically driven approaches to prevention all can benefit from an understanding of the adverse effects that maltreatment exerts on the process of development.

Toward an ecological/transactional model of community violence and child maltreatment: consequences for children's development

In recent decades it has become increasingly apparent that violence affects a significant proportion of families in the United States (Bureau of Justice Statistics 1983). Violence, in fact, is becoming a defining characteristic of American society. A recent comparison of the rates of homicide among 21 developed nations indicates that the United States has the highest homicide rate in the world, and its rate is more than four times higher than the next highest rate (Fingerhut and Kleinman 1990). What is even more alarming is the high incidence of violent death and injury for children and adolescents in the United States. Acts of violence are the cause of death for over 2000 children between the ages of 0 and 19 years each year, and more than 1.5 million children and adolescents are abused by their adult caretakers each year (Christoffel 1990).