Statistical tests of differential susceptibility: Performance, limitations, and improvements

Receptive and expressive vocabulary performance in 2- to 5-year-olds in care: The role of different care types and temperament

The detrimental role of institutionalization in children's development has prompted the introduction of alternative care types designed to offer more personalized care. The current study aimed to test whether children in alternative care types (care villages, care homes, and foster care) performed better on vocabulary than those in institutions. The role of temperament, specifically perceptual sensitivity and frustration, and the interaction between temperament and care types on vocabulary performance were also explored. The study involved 285 2- to 5-year-old children from different care types, and they were assessed through receptive and expressive vocabulary tests and temperament scales. The results of the linear mixed model revealed that children in alternative care types exhibited significantly higher vocabulary scores compared with those in institutions. Moreover, perceptual sensitivity showed a positive association with receptive and expressive vocabulary skills and seemed to act as a protective factor by mitigating the lower vocabulary scores in institutions. Frustration moderated vocabulary outcomes differently for children in institutions and foster care, aligning with the diathesis-stress model and vantage sensitivity theory, respectively. The findings emphasize the positive role of alternative care types in vocabulary performance and the importance of children's temperamental traits in this process.

Interactions Between Serotonin Transporter Gene and Adverse Childhood Experience in a Generalized Additive Model: A Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

While most people experience potentially traumatic events (PTEs), including Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), the stress reactions to PTEs on mental health outcomes are highly heterogeneous. Resilience is influenced by a complex biopsychosocial ecological system, including gene serotonin transporter-linked promoter region or 5-HTTLPR /rs25531 by ACEs interactions.

AIMS

This pilot study investigated the gene-by-environment interactions on mental health outcomes in adults enrolled in a health care profession program using a generalized additive model (GAM).

METHODS

Seventy health care college students (mean age = 27.4 years, 67.1% women) participated in this cross-sectional study. Saliva samples were collected from students to analyze 5-HTTLPR/rs25531. Participants completed the ACE Questionnaire and the Mental Health Inventory. GAMs with different interaction terms were built adjusting for age, gender, and race. The value of the effective degree of freedom (EDF) quantifies the curvature of the relationship.

RESULTS

Among participants with the long allele of 5-HTTLPR/rs25531, a linear pattern was found between the total ACE score and mental health outcomes (EDF = 1). Conversely, among participants with the short allele, EDF was approximately 2, indicating a curved association suggesting that mental health worsens in individuals exposed to up to four types of ACEs.

CONCLUSIONS

The impact of up to four ACEs on mental health was stronger among individuals with the short allele of 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 than those with the long allele. Although this study does not claim to provide a definite approach to analyzing gene-by-environment interactions, we offer a different perspective to explore the relationship.

A Bayesian approach for exploring person × environment interaction within the environmental sensitivity meta-framework

BACKGROUND

For investigating the individual-environment interplay and individual differences in response to environmental exposures as captured by models of environmental sensitivity including Diathesis-stress, Differential Susceptibility, and Vantage Sensitivity, over the last few years, a series of statistical guidelines have been proposed. However, available solutions suffer of computational problems especially relevant when sample size is not sufficiently large, a common condition in observational and clinical studies.

METHOD

In the current contribution, we propose a Bayesian solution for estimating interaction parameters via Monte Carlo Markov Chains (MCMC), adapting Widaman et al. (Psychological Methods, 17, 2012, 615) Nonlinear Least Squares (NLS) approach.

RESULTS

Findings from an applied exemplification and a simulation study showed that with relatively big samples both MCMC and NLS estimates converged on the same results. Conversely, MCMC clearly outperformed NLS, resolving estimation problems and providing more accurate estimates, particularly with small samples and greater residual variance.

CONCLUSIONS

As the body of research exploring the interplay between individual and environmental variables grows, enabling predictions regarding the form of interaction and the extent of effects, the Bayesian approach could emerge as a feasible and readily applicable solution to numerous computational challenges inherent in existing frequentist methods. This approach holds promise for enhancing the trustworthiness of research outcomes, thereby impacting clinical and applied understanding.

Interparental conflict and adolescent emotional security across family structures

This study investigated whether interparental conflict was differentially related to forms of emotional security (i.e., family, interparental, parent-child) and whether forms of emotional security were differentially associated with mental health problems for adolescents in married versus divorced/separated families. Participants were 1032 adolescents (ages 10-15; 51% male, 49% female; 82% non-Hispanic White, 9% Black/African American, 5% Hispanic, 2% Asian or Pacific Islander, 2% Native American) recruited from a public school in a middle-class suburb of a United States metropolitan area. We used multiple group multivariate path analysis to assess (1) associations between interparental conflict and multiple measures of emotional insecurity (i.e., family, interparental, and parent-child), (2) associations between measures of emotional insecurity and internalizing and externalizing problems, and (3) moderation effects of parent-child relationships. The patterns of association were similar across family structures. A high-quality parent-child relationship did not mitigate the harmful effects of interparental conflict on emotional insecurity or mental health problems. Findings suggest that regardless of family structure, emotional security across multiple family systems may be a critical target for intervention to prevent youth mental health problems, in addition to interventions that reduce conflict and improve parent-child relationships.

Longitudinal Study of Early Adversity and Disturbing Dream Frequency: Moderating Role of Early Negative Emotionality

Although disturbing dreams are prevalent in youth and are associated with psychopathology, little is known about their developmental course and risk factors. We aimed to examine the association between early social environment and subsequent disturbing dream frequency across adolescence as moderated by early negative emotionality. Measures of children's early social environment and negative emotionality were collected from the mothers of 410 children (5-42 months old) and measures of disturbing dream frequency directly from the children (13-18 years old). Preliminary steps identified subgroups of families with distinct profiles of social environment using latent variable mixture modeling, and captured changes in disturbing dream frequency using latent growth modeling. Regression and moderation analyses were conducted to test the study objectives. Results showed that the diverse family patterns were best captured by two profiles reflecting adverse and positive social environments and that overall disturbing dream frequency decreased during adolescence. Moderation analyses showed that when early negative emotionality was higher, DD frequency was not only more elevated in an adverse environment, but lower in a positive environment. These results indicate that the development of disturbing dreams is most strongly associated with a combination of individual and environment factors. Our study adds to the literature by refining our conception of individual traits and disturbing dream development and has implications for the prevention of bad dreams, nightmares, and associated psychopathologies.

Investigating sensitivity through the lens of parents: validation of the parent-report version of the Highly Sensitive Child scale

Children differ in their environmental sensitivity (ES), which can be measured observationally or by self-report questionnaire. A parent-report scale represents an important tool for investigating ES in younger children but has to be psychometrically robust and valid. In the current multistudy, we validated the parent-report version of the Highly Sensitive Child (HSC-PR) scale in Italian children, evaluating its factorial structure (Study 1, N = 1,857, 6.2 years, age range: 2.6-14 years) through a multigroup Confirmatory Factory Analysis in preschoolers (n = 1,066, 4.2 years) and school-age children (n = 791, 8.8 years). We then investigated the HSC-PR relationship with established temperament traits (Study 2, N = 327, 4.3 years), before exploring whether the scale moderates the effects of parenting stress on children's emotion regulation (Study 3, N = 112, 6.5 years). We found support for a bi-factor structure in both groups, though in preschoolers minor adaptations were suggested for one item. Importantly, the HSC-PR did not fully overlap with common temperament traits and moderated the effects of parenting stress on children emotion regulation. To conclude, the HSC-PR performs well and appears to capture ES in children.

Brain network integration underpins differential susceptibility of adolescent anxiety

BACKGROUND

Parenting is a common and potent environmental factor influencing adolescent anxiety. Yet, the underlying neurobiological susceptibility signatures remain elusive. Here, we used a longitudinal twin neuroimaging study to investigate the brain network integration and its heritable relation to underpin the neural differential susceptibility of adolescent anxiety to parenting environments.

METHODS

216 twins from the Beijing Twin Study completed the parenting and anxiety assessments and fMRI scanning. We first identified the brain network integration involved in the influences of parenting at age 12 on anxiety symptoms at age 15. We then estimated to what extent heritable sensitive factors are responsible for the susceptibility of brain network integration.

RESULTS

Consistent with the differential susceptibility theory, the results showed that hypo-connectivity within the central executive network amplified the impact of maternal hostility on anxiety symptoms. A high anti-correlation between the anterior salience and default mode networks played a similar modulatory role in the susceptibility of adolescent anxiety to paternal hostility. Genetic influences (21.18%) were observed for the connectivity pattern in the central executive network.

CONCLUSIONS

Brain network integration served as a promising neurobiological signature of the differential susceptibility to adolescent anxiety. Our findings deepen the understanding of the neural sensitivity in the developing brain and can inform early identification and personalized interventions for adolescents at risk of anxiety disorders.

Phenotypic Environmental Sensitivity and Mental Health During Pregnancy and Post Partum: Protocol for the Experiences of Pregnancy Longitudinal Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Mental health problems during pregnancy and post partum are common and associated with negative short- and long-term impacts on pregnant individuals, obstetric outcomes, and child socioemotional development. Socio-environmental factors are important predictors of perinatal mental health, but the effects of the environment on mental health are heterogeneous. The differential susceptibility theory and the environmental sensitivity framework suggest that individuals differ in their degree of sensitivity to positive and negative environments, which can be captured by individual phenotypes such as temperament and personality. While there is strong evidence for these models in childhood, few studies examined them in adults, and they were not examined in pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of the Experiences of Pregnancy study is to explore whether childhood and current environments are associated with mental health and well-being in pregnancy and whether these effects depend on individual sensitivity phenotypes (personality). This study also aims to gather important psychosocial and health data for potential secondary data analyses and integrative data analyses.

METHODS

We will conduct a longitudinal cohort study. The study was not registered elsewhere, other than this protocol. Participants will be recruited through social media advertisements linking to the study website, followed by an eligibility call on Zoom (Zoom Video Communications). Participants must be aged 18 years or older, currently residing in the United States as citizens or permanent residents, and currently planning to continue the pregnancy. A minimum of 512 participants will be recruited based on power analyses for the main objectives. Since the data will also be a resource for secondary analyses, up to 1000 participants will be recruited based on the available budget. Participants will be in their first trimester of pregnancy, and they will be followed at each trimester and once post partum. Data will be obtained through self-reported questionnaires assessing demographic factors; pregnancy-related factors; delivery, labor, and birth outcomes; early infant feeding; individual personality factors; childhood and current environments; mental health and well-being; attachment; and infant temperament. A series of measures were taken to safeguard the study from web robots and fraudulent participants, as well as to reduce legal and social risks for participants following Dobbs v. Jackson.

RESULTS

The study received ethics approval in April 2023 from the University of Oklahoma-Norman Campus Institutional Review Board. Recruitment occurred from May to August 2023, with 3 follow-ups occurring over 10 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The Experiences of Pregnancy study will extend theories of environmental sensitivity, mainly applied in children to the perinatal period. This will help better understand individual sensitivity factors associated with risk, resilience, plasticity, and receptivity to negative and positive environmental influences during pregnancy for pregnant individuals.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

PRR1-10.2196/49243.

Family instability, parenting, and child externalizing problems: Moderation by maternal sympathetic stress reactivity

This multi-method longitudinal study evaluated how changes in maternal sensitive parenting may operate as an indirect factor linking family instability and the development of child externalizing problems over time. This study also investigated how mothers' stress reactivity within the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) may moderate the association between family instability and the development of maternal sensitivity. Participants were 235 families with a young child (Mage = 2.97 years at the first measurement occasion) and these families were followed for two annual measurement occasions. Maternal sensitivity was observed during two discipline tasks (i.e., forbidden toy, discipline discussion tasks), and maternal SNS stress reactivity was indicated by their salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) reactivity to an interpersonal stressor. Findings revealed significant direct effects of family instability and family instability-x-sAA reactivity interaction in association with the change in maternal sensitivity over time. For both tasks, mothers with greater sAA reactivity exhibited stronger associations between family instability and the growth of their sensitivity. Tests of indirect effects indicated that change in maternal sensitivity operated as an indirect factor between family instability-x-sAA reactivity interaction and the change in child externalizing problems. The present findings have important implications for understanding parental and child sequelae associated with unstable family contexts.

The moderating role of adrenocortical reactivity in the associations between interparental conflict, emotional reactivity, and school adjustment

This study tested whether the associations between interparental conflict, children's emotional reactivity, and school adjustment were moderated by children's cortisol reactivity in a sample of young children (N = 243; mean age = 4.6 years at Wave 1; 56% female, 44% male) and their parents. Using a longitudinal, autoregressive design, observational assessments of children's emotional reactivity at Wave 2 mediated the relationship between an observational measure of Wave 1 conflict between parents and teacher's report of children's school adjustment at Wave 3. However, children's cortisol reactivity to parent conflict at Wave 1 moderated the first link, such that emotional reactivity operated as a mediator for children with heightened cortisol reactivity but not children with low cortisol reactivity. Moderation was expressed in a "for better" or "for worse" form hypothesized by biological sensitivity to context theory. Thus, children with high cortisol reactivity experienced greater emotional reactivity than their peers when faced with more destructive conflict but also lower emotional reactivity when exposed to more constructive interparental conflict. Results are discussed as to how they advance emotional security and biological sensitivity to context theories.

Vagal flexibility to negative emotions moderates the relations between environmental risk and adjustment problems in childhood

Neurobiological and social-contextual influences shape children's adjustment, yet limited biopsychosocial studies have integrated temporal features when modeling physiological regulation of emotion. This study explored whether a common underlying pattern of non-linear change in respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) across emotional scenarios characterized 4-6 year-old children's parasympathetic reactivity (N = 180). Additionally, we tested whether dynamic RSA reactivity was an index of neurobiological susceptibility or a diathesis in the association between socioeconomic status, authoritarian parenting, and the development of externalizing problems (EP) and internalizing problems over two years. There was a shared RSA pattern across all emotions, characterized by more initial RSA suppression and a subsequent return toward baseline, which we call vagal flexibility (VF). VF interacted with parenting to predict EP. More authoritarian parenting predicted increased EP two years later only when VF was low; conversely, when VF was very high, authoritarian mothers reported that their children had fewer EP. Altogether, children's patterns of dynamic RSA change to negative emotions can be characterized by a higher order factor, and the nature by which VF contributes to EP depends on maternal socialization practices, with low VF augmenting and high VF buffering children against the effects of authoritarian parenting.

Domain specificity of differential susceptibility: Testing an evolutionary theory of temperament in early childhood

According to differential susceptibility theory (DST), some children may be more sensitive to both positive and negative features of the environment. However, research has generated a list of widely disparate temperamental traits that may reflect differential susceptibility to the environment. In addition, findings have implicated these temperament × environment interactions in predicting a wide variety of child outcomes. This study uses a novel evolutionary model of temperament to examine whether differential susceptibility operates in a domain-general or domain-specific manner. Using a racially and socioeconomically diverse sample of 243 preschoolers and their parents (56% female; 48% African American), we examined the interactions between maternal and paternal parenting quality and two evolutionary informed temperament profiles (i.e., Hawks and Doves) in predicting changes in teacher-reported conduct problems and depressive symptoms from preschool to first grade. Results suggest that differential susceptibility operates in a domain-specific fashion. Specifically, the "Hawk" temperament was differentially susceptible to maternal parenting in predicting externalizing problems. In contrast, the "Dove" temperament was susceptible to both paternal and maternal parenting quality in predicting changes in depressive symptoms. Findings provide support for an integrative framework that synthesizes DST with an evolutionary, function-based approach to temperament.

Exploring the interplay of dopaminergic genotype and parental behavior in relation to executive function in early childhood

Child genotype is an important biologically based individual difference conferring differential sensitivity to the effect of parental behavior. This study explored dopaminergic polygenic composite × parental behavior interactions in relation to young children's executive function. Participants were 135 36-month-old children and their mothers drawn from a prospective cohort followed longitudinally from pregnancy. A polygenic composite was created based on the number of COMT, DAT1, DRD2, and DRD4 alleles associated with increased reward sensitivity children carried. Maternal negative reactivity and responsiveness were coded during a series of structured mother-child interactions. Executive function was operationalized as self-control and working memory/inhibitory control. Path analysis supported a polygenic composite by negative reactivity interaction for self-control. The nature of the interaction was one of diathesis-stress, such that higher negative reactivity was associated with poorer self-control for children with higher polygenic composite scores. This result suggests that children with a higher number of alleles may be more vulnerable to the negative effect of negative reactivity. Negative reactivity may increase the risk for developing behavior problems in this population via an association with poorer self-control. Due to the small sample size, these initial findings should be treated with caution until they are replicated in a larger independent sample.

Differential susceptibility to parenting influences on reactive and proactive aggression: The role of testosterone and cortisol in children

This study explored whether cortisol and testosterone moderate the effect of parenting style on children's aggressive behavior, in accordance with the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility theory; i.e., whether children are vulnerable to negative parenting styles (diathesis-stress) or, in addition to this vulnerability, also benefit more from positive parenting (differential susceptibility). The sample group comprised 279 eight-year-old children (154 boys and 125 girls) from Spain. Aggressive behavior was assessed using the "Reactive and Proactive Questionnaire" (RPQ) and parenting styles were measured using the "Parenting Styles and Dimensions Questionnaire" (PSDQ). Additionally, three saliva samples were collected to measure testosterone and cortisol levels, which were analyzed using ELISA. The results revealed that girls' high testosterone levels moderated the association between mothers' authoritarian parenting style and reactive aggression. This result can be explained by the differential susceptibility model. None of the interactions were statistically significant in boys' proactive aggression. The study emphasizes the importance of investigating biological and social factors that may influence aggressive behavior.

Understanding heterogeneity in pathways between interparental conflict and children's involvement: The moderating role of affect-biased attention

The study examined the moderating role of children's affect-biased attention to angry, fearful, and sad adult faces in the link between interparental conflict and children's distinct forms of involvement. Participants included 243 preschool children (M_age  = 4.60 years, 56% female) and their parents from racially (48% African American, 43% White) and socioeconomically (median annual household income = $36,000) diverse backgrounds. Data collection took place in the Northeastern United States (2010-2014). Utilizing a multi-method, multi-informant, longitudinal design, attention away from anger selectively amplified the link between interparental conflict and children's subsequent coercive involvement (β = -.15). Greater attention to fear potentiated the pathway between interparental conflict and children's later cautious (β = .14) and caregiving involvement (β = .15). Findings are interpreted in the context of environmental sensitivity models.

Biological sensitivity to context as a dyadic construct: An investigation of child-parent RSA synchrony among low-SES youth

Parenting behaviors are significantly linked to youths' behavioral adjustment, an association that is moderated by youths' and parents' self-regulation. The biological sensitivity to context theory suggests that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) indexes youths' varying susceptibility to rearing contexts. However, self-regulation in the family context is increasingly viewed as a process of "coregulation" that is biologically embedded and involves dynamic Parent×Child interactions. No research thus far has examined physiological synchrony as a dyadic biological context that may moderate associations between parenting behaviors and preadolescent adjustment. Using a two-wave sample of 101 low-socioeconomic status (SES) families (children and caretakers; mean age 10.28 years), we employed multilevel modeling to examine dyadic coregulation during a conflict task, indicated by RSA synchrony, as a moderator of the linkages between observed parenting behaviors and preadolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. Results showed that high dyadic RSA synchrony resulted in a multiplicative association between parenting and youth adjustment. High dyadic synchrony intensified the relations between parenting behaviors and youth behavior problems, such that in the context of high dyadic synchrony, positive and negative parenting behaviors were associated with decreased and increased behavioral problems, respectively. Parent-child dyadic RSA synchrony is discussed as a potential biomarker of biological sensitivity in youth.

Intrinsic connectivity within the affective salience network moderates adolescent susceptibility to negative and positive peer norms

Not all adolescents are equally susceptible to peer influence, and for some, peer influence exerts positive rather than negative effects. Using resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging, the current study examined how intrinsic functional connectivity networks associated with processing social cognitive and affective stimuli predict adolescents' (n = 87, ages 11-14 years) prosocial tendencies and risky behaviors in the context of positive and negative peer norms. We tested the moderating role of four candidate intrinsic brain networks-associated with mentalizing, cognitive control, motivational relevance, and affective salience-in peer influence susceptibility. Only intrinsic connectivity within the affective salience network significantly moderated the association between peer norms and adolescent behavior above and beyond the other networks. Adolescents with high intrinsic connectivity within the affective salience network reported greater prosocial tendencies in contexts with more positive peer norms but greater risk-taking behavior in contexts with more negative peer norms. In contrast, peer norms were not associated with adolescent behavior for individuals with low affective salience within-network intrinsic connectivity. The mentalizing network, cognitive control network, and motivational relevance network were not associated with individual differences in peer influence susceptibility. This study identifies key neural mechanisms underlying differential susceptibility to positive and negative peer influence in early adolescence, with a particular emphasis on the role of affective salience over traditional mentalizing, regulatory, and motivational processes.

The interplay between father-adolescent phenotypic resemblance and interparental conflict in predicting harsh discipline

Phenotypic resemblance refers to the degree of physical and behavioral similarity between parent and child. Evolutionary approaches to the determinants of parenting have consistently found father-child phenotypic resemblance to serve as a risk factor for harsh discipline, but we still know little about the mechanisms underlying these associations. To address this gap in the literature, the present study employed a mediated moderation model to understand how interparental conflict and dysfunctional child-oriented attributions for children's misbehavior can help explain associations between father-child phenotypic resemblance and harsh discipline during the period of adolescence. Participants included 151 parents of adolescents (Mage = 12.3, range = 12-14) recruited from a northeastern region in the United States. Fathers reported on father-child phenotypic resemblance, interparental conflict, dysfunctional child-oriented attributions, and harsh discipline. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed a significant moderating role of interparental conflict in amplifying associations between phenotypic resemblance and harsh discipline in a for-better-and-for-worse manner over a 1-year period. In support of mediated moderation, we further found that the interaction between phenotypic resemblance and interparental conflict in predicting harsh discipline was partially accounted for by increases in dysfunctional child-oriented attributions over a 1-year period, which in turn, was associated with harsh discipline concurrently. Findings are discussed within evolutionary and developmental frameworks. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Sensory processing sensitivity behavior moderates the association between environmental harshness, unpredictability, and child socioemotional functioning

Building on Ellis et al.'s theorization for potent dimensions of environmental adversity, the present work sought to evaluate how environmental harshness and unpredictability might function directly and in interaction with child sensory processing sensitivity (SPS) to shape the development of child socioemotional functioning. Participants were 235 young children (M_age = 2.97 at the first measurement occasion) and their parents, who were followed for two consecutive annual measurement occasions. Child SPS was measured through behavioral observation across multiple tasks within the laboratory setting. Greater environmental unpredictability was significantly associated with the development of children's externalizing problems over a year only for children with high SPS. Follow-up analyses indicated that the unpredictability-x-SPS interaction was consistent with differential susceptibility, such that high SPS children showed greater increases in externalizing problems under high unpredictability, but also lower increases/greater decreases in externalizing problems under low unpredictability. Such association did not apply to children with low SPS.

Beyond the diathesis-stress paradigm: Effect of the environmental sensitivity × pubertal tempo interaction on depressive symptoms

Based on the Differential Susceptibility Theory, we examined whether the relationship between pubertal maturation and depressive symptoms can be moderated by individual differences in environmental sensitivity. The current article used the three-wave data collected from Japanese adolescents aged from 12 to 15 years (girls = 111, boys = 98). Consequently, a significant Sensitivity × Pubertal Development interaction was observed in 12- to 13-year-old boys, but not girls. Sensitive boys who experienced accelerated physical maturation reported decreased depressive symptoms, while those who experienced less maturation had increased depressive symptoms. The shape of the interaction supported both the Differential Susceptibility Theory and the Diathesis-Stress Model. Our findings suggest that sensitivity during early puberty among boys could be reconsidered as susceptibility rather than vulnerability.

Parenting and Child Personality as Modifiers of the Psychosocial Development of Youth with Cerebral Palsy

This two-year longitudinal study addressed the joint contribution of parent-rated parenting behaviors and child personality on psychosocial outcomes in 118 families of children with Cerebral Palsy (M age Time 1 = 10.9 years old, 64.4% boys). Latent change modeling revealed intra-individual changes in children's psychosocial development as internalizing and externalizing behaviors increased from the first to the second assessment and psychosocial strengths increased from the second to the third assessment, whereas externally controlling and autonomy-supportive parenting behavior remained stable over time. Externally controlling parenting related to higher levels of, and increases in behavioral problems, with these associations being most pronounced among children low on Extraversion, Conscientiousness, or Imagination. Autonomy-supportive parenting related to higher levels of psychosocial strengths, with this association being most pronounced among children high on Emotional Stability.

Interparental conflict as a quadratic predictor of children's reactivity to interparental conflict and school adjustment: Steeling effects or risk saturation?

This study examined interparental conflict as a curvilinear predictor of children's reactivity to interparental conflict and, in turn, their school problems across three annual measurements. Participants included 243 preschool children (M_age  = 4.60 years; 56% girls) and their parents from racially (e.g., 48% Black; 16% Latinx) diverse backgrounds. Interparental conflict was a significant quadratic predictor of children's emotional reactivity (β = .23) and behavioral dysregulation (β = .27) to conflict over a 1-year period. The robust association between interparental conflict and behavioral dysregulation weakened at high levels of interparental conflict. In contrast, interparental conflict more strongly predicted children's emotional reactivity as conflict exposure increased. Children's emotional reactivity, in turn, predicted their greater school problems 1 year later (β = .25).

A brief video-coaching intervention buffers young children's vulnerability to the impact of caregivers’ depressive symptoms: Examination of differential susceptibility

Informed by the National Institute of Mental Health's Research Domain Criteria (RDoC) and developmental psychopathology frameworks, the current study used cortisol area under the curve with respect to ground (AUCg) as an index of differential sensitivity to context, which was expected to predispose young children with elevated vulnerability to adverse caregiving experiences and adaptive sensitivity to intervention effects. Particularly, the study aimed to determine whether improving caregivers’ responsive parenting through the Filming Interactions to Nurture Development (FIND) intervention would buffer children's biologically embedded vulnerability to caregivers’ depressive symptoms. Data were derived from a randomized controlled trial using pretest–posttest design with low-income families of children aged 4 to 36 months (N = 91). Young children's differential sensitivity was measured using cortisol AUCg during a structured stress paradigm. As hypothesized, children whose cortisol AUCg indicated greater sensitivity to social context exhibited more internalizing and externalizing behaviors in relation to caregivers’ elevated depressive symptoms. Critically, the intervention program was effective in attenuating psychopathology symptoms among the more biologically sensitive children. As proven by rigorous statistical tests, the findings of this study partially supported the differential susceptibility hypotheses, indicating both greater vulnerability to adverse conditions and responsiveness to intervention among children with high levels of cortisol AUCg.

An 11-year prospective study of personality X parenting interactions as predictors of self-efficacy in young adults: diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility?

BACKGROUND

Self-efficacy, individuals' beliefs regarding their capacities to perform actions or control (potentially stressful or novel) events, is thought to be important for various life domains. Little however is known about its early precursors. This study examined the predictive effects of childhood personality and parental behaviors (i.e., overreactive discipline and warmth) for general self-efficacy in young adulthood. Furthermore, it was examined whether personality and parenting behaviors interacted and whether these interactions supported the diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility model. These aims were examined in an 11-year prospective study of 336 participants (Mage at T1 = 10.83 years, range = 9-12 years, 53.9% girls). Personality and parental behaviors were reported at T1 by both mothers and fathers, whereas self-efficacy was self-reported at T2 11 years later. Hypotheses were tested in Mplus using multilevel structural equation modeling.

RESULTS

Results revealed that (only) emotional stability, and not parenting, predicted higher self-efficacy 11 years later. Benevolence functioned as a susceptibility marker in the association between overreactivity and self-efficacy.

CONCLUSIONS

The results show that childhood emotional stability is an important long-term predictor of self-efficacy, even into emerging adulthood. Moreover, the integration of individual differences in models of parenting effects may further improve our understanding of early adults' adjustment.

Amygdalar Activation as a Neurobiological Marker of Differential Sensitivity in the Effects of Family Rearing Experiences on Socioemotional Adjustment in Youths

BACKGROUND

Substantial heterogeneity exists in how rearing environments influence youths' socioemotional outcomes. This heterogeneity, as suggested by the biological sensitivity to context theory and the differential susceptibility theory, is associated with emotional reactivity patterns and underlying neural functions. The present study investigated amygdalar reactivity to emotional stimuli as a neural signature that amplified the influence of rearing environments on youths' socioemotional outcomes.

METHODS

To increase replicability and generalizability, this investigation included two independent studies that methodologically complemented each other. Study 1 employed a large, national, longitudinal dataset (the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development study; N = 11,875). Study 2 used a community sample of youths (N = 123) with multimethod and multireporter assessments.

RESULTS

In study 1, high left amygdalar reactivity to positive stimuli significantly amplified the impact of parental warmth on youths' prosocial behaviors. In study 2, left and right amygdalar reactivity to positive stimuli significantly intensified the associations between family functioning and youths' internalizing problems. These findings were consistent with the biological sensitivity to context theory/differential susceptibility theory hypothesis because significant socioemotional differences were observed at both negative and positive extremes of rearing environments. Additionally, study 2 partially supported the diathesis-stress hypothesis by showing significant differences in youths' vulnerability to negative family environments. Specifically, left amygdalar response to negative stimuli exacerbated the associations between unbalanced family functioning and heightened internalizing/externalizing symptoms. Left amygdalar reactivity to positive stimuli intensified the link between unbalanced family functioning and elevated externalizing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Among youths and adolescents, amygdalar emotional reactivity may serve as a biomarker of differential sensitivity to rearing environments.

Children's dove temperament as a differential susceptibility factor in child rearing contexts

This multistudy article examines whether children's susceptibility to their socialization experiences varies as a function of their dove temperament dispositions, an evolutionarily informed pattern of traits marked by a low threshold of environmental stimulation and greater behavioral flexibility across environmental contexts. Participants in Study 1 consisted of 70 mothers and their 4- to 6-year-old children: M age = 4.79 years; 57% girls; 33% Black or multiracial; 14% Latinx; median annual income range = $55,000 - $74,999. For Study 2, participants were 243 families, including mothers, fathers, and preschool children: M age = 4.60 years; 56% girls; 54% Black or multiracial, 16% Latinx; median annual income = $36,000). The studies used multimethod, multiinformant measurement batteries within a cross-sectional design (i.e., Study 1) or longitudinal design with three annual measurement occasions (i.e., Study 2). Study 1 findings indicated that associations among maternal parenting quality and psychological problems were only significant for children who were high in dove temperament. Consistent with these findings, Study 2 latent growth curve analyses showed that children experiencing high family adversity (i.e., maternal and paternal parenting difficulties, interparental conflict) were more susceptible to subsequent internalizing and social problems only when they were high in dove temperament. Supporting its role as a susceptibility factor, findings revealed that children with dove temperaments evidenced lower levels of psychological problems under supportive family conditions and higher psychological difficulties in adverse family contexts. Analyses further showed that the composition and moderating effects of dove temperament were distinct from other temperamental susceptibility candidates. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Negative Controlling Parenting and Child Personality as Modifiers of Psychosocial Development in Youth with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A 9-Year Longitudinal Study at the Level of Within-Person Change

This nine-year longitudinal study addresses the joint contribution of parent-rated negative controlling parenting and child personality on psychosocial outcomes in 141 families of children with autism spectrum disorder (83% boys, mean age Time 1 = 10.1). Latent change modeling revealed substantial variation in within-person change in parenting and psychosocial outcomes across a six- and three-year-interval. Over time, negative controlling parenting and child personality were consistently related to externalizing problems, whereas child personality was differentially related to internalizing problems and psychosocial strengths. Three personality-by-parenting interactions were significant, suggesting that children with less mature personality traits show more externalizing behaviors in the presence of controlling parenting. This study identified both parenting and child personality as important modifiers of developmental outcomes in youth with autism.

Moderation of associations between interparental stress and (mal)adaptation by adolescents' personality: Contrasting differential susceptibility and diathesis-stress models

Objective

This study aimed to contrast differential susceptibility and diathesis–stress models in examining adolescents' Big Five personality dimensions as moderators of longitudinal associations between interparental stress and (mal)adaptation in emerging adulthood (i.e., self‐efficacy, externalizing and internalizing behavior).

Method

Data from the large longitudinal Flemish Study on Parenting, Personality and Development were used (475 families, adolescents' M_age = 15.82, SD_age = 1.15), with both parents reporting on their interparental stress and mothers reporting on the adolescent's personality and in 2009, and emerging adults reporting on their own (mal)adaptive functioning in 2009 and 2015 and their personality in 2015.

Results

Multivariate models showed that extraversion, benevolence, emotional stability and imagination were uniquely related to (mal)adaptation across the 6‐year interval. In general, our results exhibited no consistent moderating role for adolescents' personality. Only for girls, high levels of extraversion functioned as a “susceptibility maker” in associations between father's interparental stress and self‐efficacy, and, low levels of emotional stability functioned as a “vulnerability marker” in associations between parents' interparental stress and self‐efficacy.

Conclusions

The interaction effects as well as their (restricted) generalizability across gender should be replicated before drawing firm conclusions. Adolescents' personality characteristics were important predictors of (mal)adaptation during the transition into emerging adulthood.

Testing three hypotheses about effects of sensitive-insensitive parenting on telomeres

Telomeres are the protective DNA-protein sequences appearing at the ends of chromosomes; they shorten with each cell division and are considered a biomarker of aging. Shorter telomere length and greater erosion have been associated with compromised physical and mental health and are hypothesized to be affected by early life stress. In the latter case, most work has relied on retrospective measures of early life stressors. The Dutch research (n = 193) presented herein tested 3 hypotheses prospectively regarding effects of sensitive-insensitive parenting during the first 2.5 years on telomere length at age 6, when first measured, and change over the following 4 years. It was predicted that (1) less sensitive parenting would predict shorter telomeres and greater erosion and that such effects would be most pronounced in children (2) exposed to prenatal stress and/or (3) who were highly negatively emotional as infants. Results revealed, only, that prenatal stress amplified parenting effects on telomere change-in a differential-susceptibility-related manner: Prenatally stressed children displayed more erosion when they experienced insensitive parenting and less erosion when they experienced sensitive parenting. Mechanisms that might initiate greater postnatal plasticity as a result of prenatal stress are highlighted and future work outlined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Highs and lows: Genetic susceptibility to daily events

Why people differ in their susceptibility to external events is essential to our understanding of personality, human development, and mental disorders. Genes explain a substantial portion of these differences. Specifically, genes influencing the serotonin system are hypothesized to be differential susceptibility factors, determining a person’s reactivity to both positive and negative environments. We tested whether genetic variation in the serotonin transporter (5-HTTLPR) is a differential susceptibility factor for daily events. Participants (N = 326, 77% female, mean age = 25, range = 17–36) completed smartphone questionnaires four times a day over four to five days, measuring stressors, uplifts, positive and negative affect. Affect was predicted from environment valence in the previous hour on a within-person level using three-level autoregressive linear mixed models. The 5-HTTLPR fulfilled all criteria of a differential susceptibility factor: Positive affect in carriers of the short allele (S) was less reactive to both uplifts and stressors, compared to homozygous carriers of the long allele (L/L). This pattern might reflect relative affective inflexibility in S-allele carriers. Our study provides insight into the serotonin system’s general role in susceptibility and highlights the need to assess the whole spectrum of naturalistic experiences.

Parenting × Brain Development interactions as predictors of adolescent depressive symptoms and well-being: Differential susceptibility or diathesis-stress?

It is unclear how individual differences in parenting and brain development interact to influence adolescent mental health outcomes. This study examined interactions between structural brain development and observed maternal parenting behavior in the prediction of adolescent depressive symptoms and psychological well-being. Whether findings supported diathesis-stress or differential susceptibility frameworks was tested. Participants completed observed interactions with their mothers during early adolescence (age 13), and the frequency of positive and aggressive maternal behavior were coded. Adolescents also completed structural magnetic resonance imaging scans at three time points: mean ages 13, 17, and 19. Regression models analyzed interactions between maternal behavior and longitudinal brain development in the prediction of late adolescent (age 19) outcomes. Indices designed to distinguish between diathesis-stress and differential susceptibility effects were employed. Results supported differential susceptibility: less thinning of frontal regions was associated with higher well-being in the context of low levels of aggressive maternal behavior, and lower well-being in the context of high levels of aggressive maternal behavior. Findings suggest that reduced frontal cortical thinning during adolescence may underlie increased sensitivity to maternal aggressive behavior for better and worse and highlight the importance of investigating biological vulnerability versus susceptibility.

Children's attentional biases to emotions as sources of variability in their vulnerability to interparental conflict

Little is known about the role children's processing of emotions plays in altering children's vulnerability to interparental conflict. To address this gap, the present study examined whether the mediational cascade involving children's exposure to interparental conflict, their insecure responses to interparental conflict, and their psychological problems varied as a function of children's preexisting biases to attend to angry, fearful, sad, and happy expressions. Participants included 243 children (M age = 4.60 years) and their parents assessed at 3 annual measurement occasions. Moderated-mediation analyses within a cross-lagged autoregressive design indicated that the indirect paths among interparental conflict, emotional insecurity, and psychological problems were significant for children who exhibited greater attentional biases toward angry and fearful emotions. Greater attention to anger and fear specifically moderated the first link in the mediational path. Interparental conflict was a significantly stronger predictor of emotional insecurity for children who attended to angry and fearful cues longer. Consistent with environmental sensitivity theories, children with attentional biases to angry and fearful emotions exhibited disproportionately higher levels of emotional insecurity following exposure to heightened interparental conflict but also lower levels of emotional insecurity after experiencing minimal interparental conflict. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Differential Susceptibility to Parenting in Adolescent Girls: Moderation by Neural Sensitivity to Social Cues

This research examined whether heightened neural activation to social cues confers adjustment advantages in supportive social contexts but adjustment disadvantages in stressful social contexts. Forty-five adolescent girls were exposed to social exclusion during an fMRI scan and reported on parent-child relationship quality and depressive symptoms. Stressful parent-child relationships predicted subsequent depressive symptoms in girls with high and moderate but not low dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, subgenual anterior cingulate cortex, and anterior insula activation during exclusion. In the context of supportive parent-child relationships, however, neural activation to exclusion predicted particularly low levels of depressive symptoms. This support for a biological sensitivity to context model suggests the possibility of redirecting adolescent girls' neural sensitivity to social cues toward more positive adaptation.

The interplay between parenting and temperament in associations with children's executive function

Guided by a domain-specific approach to parenting framework, this research examined differential associations among three domains of parenting (e.g., guided learning, reciprocity, control) and children's executive function. The second aim was examine whether child surgency and negative emotionality temperament traits moderated associations among the parenting domains and children's executive function in a manner consistent with differential susceptibility theory. The sample consisted of 160 mothers and their 5-year-old children. Results showed that guided learning was positively and uniquely associated with children's executive function, even after controlling for the other parenting and covariate variables. Child surgency only moderated the association between guided learning and children's executive function, and it was in a manner that was consistent with differential susceptibility theory. Unexpectedly, child negative emotionality selectively moderated the association between the control domain and children's executive function in alignment with the vantage sensitivity model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Moderation of parenting by inhibitory control in the prediction of the common and unique variance of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention

This study examined whether the interaction between parenting and inhibitory control predicts hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention in 195 children. Observation data of positive parenting were collected at 4 years, and mother reports of coercive parenting at 5 years, inhibitory control at 6 years, and hyperactivity-impulsivity/inattention at 7 years were obtained. The common and unique variance of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention symptoms were examined as outcomes using a bifactor model. Results indicated that positive parenting practices predicted lower levels of hyperactivity-impulsivity/inattention behaviors at age 7 only when children's inhibitory control was high. These results support the vantage sensitivity model, which posits that some individuals show an increased sensitivity to positive experiences exclusively, and support the appropriateness of a targeted prevention approach in early childhood.

Interactive effects of family instability and adolescent stress reactivity on socioemotional functioning

This study investigated whether adolescent vagal stress reactivity to parent-adolescent conflict moderates the effects of family instability on the development of adolescent behavioral problems. Participants were 192 adolescents (M age = 12.4) and their parents across 2 measurement occasions. Results indicated that the interaction between family instability and vagal stress reactivity significantly predicted change in externalizing problems. Greater family instability was associated with increases in externalizing problems only for adolescents showing greater vagal suppression (i.e., higher vagal reactivity) during a laboratory triadic family conflict discussion. Further tests suggested the interaction was consistent with diathesis stress, such that adolescents with higher vagal stress reactivity show higher increases in externalizing problems under high instability but not lower increases in externalizing symptoms with low family instability. Findings indicate disruptions in the proximal rearing contexts may differentially influence development for adolescents, but the impact may differ as a function of stress reactivity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Differential Susceptibility to the Environment and Borderline Personality Disorder

Evolutionary models of psychopathology can shed light on gene-environment interactions. Differential susceptibility to the environment means that heritable traits can have positive or negative effects, depending on environmental context. Thus, traits that increase risk for mental disorders when the environment is negative can be adaptive when the environment is positive. This model can be applied to borderline personality disorder, with predictors such as emotional dysregulation and impulsivity seen as temperamental variations leading to negative effects in an unfavorable environment but to positive effects in a favorable environment. This model may also be useful in conceptualizing the mechanisms of effective therapy for borderline personality disorder.

Emotional insecurity as a mediator of the moderating role of dopamine genes in the association between interparental conflict and youth externalizing problems

This study tested whether the association between interparental conflict and adolescent externalizing symptoms was moderated by a polygenic composite indexing low dopamine activity (i.e., 7-repeat allele of DRD4; Val alleles of COMT; 10-repeat variants of DAT1) in a sample of seventh-grade adolescents (Mean age = 13.0 years) and their parents. Using a longitudinal, autoregressive design, observational assessments of interparental conflict at Wave 1 predicted increases in a multi-informant measurement of youth externalizing symptoms 2 years later at Wave 3 only for children who were high on the hypodopaminergic composite. Moderation was expressed in a “for better” or “for worse” form hypothesized by differential susceptibility theory. Thus, children high on the dopaminergic composite experienced more externalizing problems than their peers when faced with more destructive conflicts but also fewer externalizing problems when exposed to more constructive interparental conflicts. Mediated moderation findings indicated that adolescent reports of their emotional insecurity in the interparental relationship partially explained the greater genetic susceptibility experienced by these children. More specifically, the dopamine composite moderated the association between Wave 1 interparental conflict and emotional insecurity 1 year later at Wave 2 in the same “for better” or “for worse” pattern as externalizing symptoms. Adolescent insecurity at Wave 2, in turn, predicted their greater externalizing symptoms 1 year later at Wave 3. Post hoc analyses further revealed that the 7-repeat allele of the dopamine receptor D4 (DRD4) gene was the primary source of plasticity in the polygenic composite. Results are discussed as to how they advance process-oriented Gene x Environment models of emotion regulation.

The interplay of polygenic plasticity and adrenocortical activity as sources of variability in pathways among family adversity, youth emotional reactivity, and psychological problems

This study examined the interplay between a polygenic composite and cortisol activity as moderators of the mediational pathway among family adversity, youth negative emotional reactivity to family conflict, and their psychological problems. The longitudinal design contained three annual measurement occasions with 279 adolescents (Mean age = 13.0 years) and their parents. Latent difference score analyses indicated that observational ratings of adversity in interparental and parent-child interactions at Wave 1 predicted increases in a multimethod, multi-informant assessment of youth negative emotional reactivity to family conflict from Waves 1 to 2. Changes in youth negative emotional reactivity, in turn, predicted increases in a multi-informant (i.e., parents, adolescent, and teacher) assessment of psychological problems from Waves 1 to 3. Consistent with differential susceptibility theory, the association between family adversity and negative emotional reactivity was stronger for adolescents who carried more sensitivity alleles in a polygenic composite consisting of 5-HTTLPR, DRD4 VNTR, and BDNF polymorphisms. Analyses of adolescent cortisol in the period surrounding a family disagreement task at Wave 1 revealed that overall cortisol output, rather than cortisol reactivity, served as an endophenotype of the polygenic composite. Overall cortisol output was specifically associated with polygenic plasticity and moderated the association between family adversity and youth negative emotional reactivity in the same for better or for worse manner as the genetic composite. Finally, moderator-mediated-moderation analyses indicated that the moderating role of the polygenic plasticity composite was mediated by the moderating role of adolescent cortisol output in the association between family adversity and their emotional reactivity.

Genetic and peripheral markers of the oxytocin system and parental care jointly support the cross-generational transmission of bonding across three generations

BACKGROUND

Human and animal research indicates that oxytocin (OT) plays a key role in the cross-generational transmission of parental bonding, and human studies suggest that allelic variations on the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and circulating OT levels interact with patterns of parental care to shape children's social-affiliative competencies. Yet, no study to date has tested the joint contribution of OT and parental care across three generations.

METHODS

The study included 345 participants comprising 115 family lines of grandmothers, mothers, and their infants. Salivary OT and allelic variations on the OXTR (rs53576 and rs2254298) and CD38 (rs3796863) single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which have been previously associated with parental bonding, were assessed in all participants. Parental care was measured from grandmothers to mothers and from mothers to their infants.

RESULTS

Mothers receiving parenting characterized by high overprotection from grandmothers showed more rejection toward their infants only when carrying the G allele on the OXTRrs53576 (AG/GG). These mothers of highly overprotective grandmothers also had lower oxytocin levels. Infants who were OXTRrs2254298 A carriers (AA/AG) and whose mothers reported more rejection toward their infants had higher oxytocin levels. Grandmothers receiving higher overprotection from great-grandmothers showed poorer parenting style compared to grandmothers experiencing lower parental overprotection only when carrying the OXTRrs2254298 GG genotype.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are the first to demonstrate how genetic and peripheral markers on the oxytocin system interact with experienced parenting to shape bonding across three generations. Results have important implications for specifying the biological and behavioral determinants associated with the continuity of adaptive versus maladaptive patterns of attachment across generations.

Developmental Adaptation to Stress: An Evolutionary Perspective

The assumption that early stress leads to dysregulation and impairment is widespread in developmental science and informs prevailing models (e.g., toxic stress). An alternative evolutionary–developmental approach, which complements the standard emphasis on dysregulation, proposes that early stress may prompt the development of costly but adaptive strategies that promote survival and reproduction under adverse conditions. In this review, we survey this growing theoretical and empirical literature, highlighting recent developments and outstanding questions. We review concepts of adaptive plasticity and conditional adaptation, introduce the life history framework and the adaptive calibration model, and consider how physiological stress response systems and related neuroendocrine processes may function as plasticity mechanisms. We then address the evolution of individual differences in susceptibility to the environment, which engenders systematic person–environment interactions in the effects of stress on development. Finally, we discuss stress-mediated regulation of pubertal development as a case study of how an evolutionary–developmental approach can foster theoretical integration.

Association between maternal childhood maltreatment and mother-infant attachment disorganization: Moderation by maternal oxytocin receptor gene and cortisol secretion

This study examined maternal oxytocin receptor (OXTR, rs53576) genotype and cortisol secretion as moderators of the relation between maternal childhood maltreatment history and disorganized mother-infant attachment in the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). A community sample of 314 mother-infant dyads completed the SSP at infant age 17 months. Self-reported maltreatment history more strongly predicted mother-infant attachment disorganization score and disorganized classification for mothers with more plasticity alleles of OXTR (G), relative to mothers with fewer plasticity alleles. Maltreatment history also more strongly predicted mother-infant attachment disorganization score and classification for mothers with higher SSP cortisol secretion, relative to mothers with lower SSP cortisol secretion. Findings indicate that maltreatment history is related to disorganization in the next generation, but that this relation depends on maternal genetic characteristics and cortisol.

Individual differences in developmental plasticity: A role for early androgens?

Developmental plasticity is a widespread property of living organisms, but different individuals in the same species can vary greatly in how susceptible they are to environmental influences. In humans, research has sought to link variation in plasticity to physiological traits such as stress reactivity, exposure to prenatal stress-related hormones such as cortisol, and specific genes involved in major neurobiological pathways. However, the determinants of individual differences in plasticity are still poorly understood. Here we present the novel hypothesis that, in both sexes, higher exposure to androgens during prenatal and early postnatal life should lead to increased plasticity in traits that display greater male variability (i.e., a majority of physical and behavioral traits). First, we review evidence of greater phenotypic variation and higher susceptibility to environmental factors in males; we then consider evolutionary models that explain greater male variability and plasticity as a result of sexual selection. These empirical and theoretical strands converge on the hypothesis that androgens may promote developmental plasticity, at least for traits that show greater male variability. We discuss a number of potential mechanisms that may mediate this effect (including upregulation of neural plasticity), and address the question of whether androgen-induced plasticity is likely to be adaptive or maladaptive. We conclude by offering suggestions for future studies in this area, and considering some research designs that could be used to empirically test our hypothesis.

Interaction between FKBP5 variability and recent life events in the anxiety spectrum: Evidence for the differential susceptibility model

Background

Gene-environment interaction (GxE) research has highlighted the importance of investigating the FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP5) gene as a sensitivity gene. However, previous GxE studies with FKBP5 have not measured the full environmental spectrum or applied statistical tests to discern whether the GxE interaction fits better with the differential-susceptibility or diathesis-stress hypotheses. This study examined whether single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) on FKBP5 gene moderate the association of positive and negative recent life events (LEs) with depressive symptoms, state-anxiety, neuroticism, and social anxiety traits.

Methods

A total of 86 nonclinical young adults were administered psychological measures and were genotyped for five FKBP5 SNPs (rs3800373, rs9296158, rs1360780, rs9470080 and rs4713916).

Results

Regression analyses indicated significant GxE interactions for social anxiety and neuroticism. The interactions predicting neuroticism fit different models for different SNPs, although the overall effect indicated by the haplotype was consistent with the differential-susceptibility hypothesis: the risk-haplotype group presented higher neuroticism in the presence of more negative LEs and lower neuroticism in the presence of more positive LEs. The GxE interactions for social anxiety were consistent with the diathesis-stress model. The lack of significance in the for-better side for social anxiety might be related to the fact that it mapped onto low extraversion, which is associated with a lower permeability to positive experiences.

Discussion

Findings underscore the importance of testing the differential-susceptibility model in relation to FKBP5 to adequately characterize its role in healthy and pathological developmental processes.

Gene × Environment contributions to autonomic stress reactivity in youth

Dysregulated physiological stress reactivity has been suggested to impact the development of children and adolescents with important health consequences throughout the life span. Both environmental adversity and genetic predispositions can lead to physiological imbalances in stress systems, which in turn lead to developmental differences. We investigated genetic and environmental contributions to autonomic nervous system reactivity to a psychosocial stressor. Furthermore, we tested whether these effects were consistent with the differential susceptibility framework. Composite measures of adverse life events combined with socioeconomic status were constructed. Effects of these adversity scores in interaction with a polygenic score summarizing six genetic variants, which were hypothesized to work as susceptibility factors, were tested on autonomic nervous system measures as indexed by heart rate and heart rate variability. Results showed that carriers of more genetic variants and exposed to high adversity manifested enhanced heart rate variability reactivity to a psychosocial stressor compared to carriers of fewer genetic variants. Conversely, the stress procedure elicited a more moderate response in these individuals compared to carriers of fewer variants when adversity was low.

Sometimes It's Good to be Short: The Serotonin Transporter Gene, Positive Parenting, and Adolescent Depression

In threatening environments, the short (S) allele of 5-HTTLPR is proposed to augment risk for depression. However, it is unknown whether 5-HTTLPR variation increases risk for depression in environments of deprivation, lacking positive or nurturant features. Two independent longitudinal studies (n = 681 and 176, respectively) examined whether 5-HTTLPR moderated associations between low levels of positive parenting at 11-13 years and subsequent depression at 17-19 years. In both studies only LL homozygous adolescents were at greater risk for depression with decreasing levels of positive parenting. Thus, while the S allele has previously been identified as a susceptible genotype, these findings suggest that the L allele may also confer sensitivity to depression in the face of specific environmental challenges.