1
|
Ranøyen I, Wallander JL, Lydersen S, Thomsen PH, Jozefiak T. Promotive factors associated with reduced anxiety and depression across three years in a prospective clinical cohort of adolescents: Examining compensatory and protective models of resilience. Dev Psychopathol 2024:1-16. [PMID: 39370531 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579424001469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/08/2024]
Abstract
The rates of anxiety and depression increase across adolescence, many experience recurrence after treatment, yet longitudinal studies examining promotive factors are scarce. We prospectively examined the role of the promotive factors structured style, personal and social competencies, family functioning, and social resources in homotypic and heterotypic continuity and discontinuity of anxiety and depression across three years in a clinical sample. Participants were adolescents with anxiety or depressive disorders aged 13-18 years at T1 (N = 717, 44% initial participation rate) and aged 16-21 years at T2 (N = 549, 80% follow-up participation rate). At T1, diagnoses were collected from medical records and participants responded to questionnaires. At T2, semi-structured diagnostic interviews were conducted. Higher levels of all promotive factors were associated with reduced probability of anxiety or depression three years later. The promotive factors were not associated with homotypic continuity of anxiety, whereas personal competence beliefs, social competence, and, less strongly, family functioning were associated with reduced homotypic continuity of depression and heterotypic continuity from depression to anxiety. Analyses with interaction terms did not indicate moderation by the promotive factors. Our findings suggest that bolstering promotive factors may be vital for increasing treatment success and preventing recurrence of anxiety and depression in the transition toward adulthood.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ingunn Ranøyen
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, St. Olav's Hospital, Trondheim University Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan L Wallander
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Psychological Sciences and Health Sciences Research Institute, University of California, Merced, CA, USA
| | - Stian Lydersen
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per Hove Thomsen
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thomas Jozefiak
- Regional Centre for Child and Youth Mental Health and Child Welfare, Department of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Zheng H, Zheng Y. Understanding the Within- and Between-Person Structure of Daily Psychopathology Among Adolescents and Young Adults. Assessment 2024:10731911241283908. [PMID: 39344957 DOI: 10.1177/10731911241283908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/01/2024]
Abstract
Previous investigations on the underlying structure of psychopathology symptoms primarily focused at the between-person level and among adult samples. This study used two independent Canadian samples with month-long daily diary designs to investigate daily psychopathology structure at both within- and between-person level among adolescents (n = 99, 2,132 daily reports) and young adults (n = 313, 6,431 and 4,018 daily reports at each wave). Four mainstream types of psychopathology structure were compared based on a comprehensive set of standards. The results suggest that the general factor of psychopathology (p factor) derived from the higher-order and bifactor models performed similarly well at both within- and between-person levels, while the specific factors estimated in the bifactor models demonstrated low reliability and consistency over time. Psychopathology manifests as multidimensional at the within-person level but unidimensional at the between-person level. The current findings inform the development of future prevention and intervention programs by supporting the adoption of transdiagnostic treatment that addresses multiple psychopathology symptoms with a holistic approach.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zheng
- University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| | - Yao Zheng
- University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Picci G, Petro NM, Casagrande CC, Ott LR, Okelberry HJ, Rice DL, Coutant AT, Ende GC, Steiner EL, Wang YP, Stephen JM, Calhoun VD, Wilson TW. Anterior pituitary gland volume mediates associations between pubertal hormones and changes in transdiagnostic symptoms in youth. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.05.17.594766. [PMID: 38798387 PMCID: PMC11118574 DOI: 10.1101/2024.05.17.594766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
The pituitary gland (PG) plays a central role in the production and secretion of pubertal hormones, with documented links to the emergence and increase in mental health symptoms known to occur during adolescence. Although much of the literature has focused on examining whole PG volume, recent findings suggest that there are associations among pubertal hormone levels, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), subregions of the PG, and elevated mental health symptoms (e.g., internalizing symptoms) during adolescence. Surprisingly, studies have not yet examined associations among these factors and increasing transdiagnostic symptomology, despite DHEA being a primary output of the anterior PG. Therefore, the current study sought to fill this gap by examining whether anterior PG volume specifically mediates associations between DHEA levels and changes in dysregulation symptoms in an adolescent sample ( N = 114, 9 - 17 years, M age = 12.87, SD = 1.88). Following manual tracing of the anterior and posterior PG, structural equation modeling revealed that greater anterior, not posterior, PG volume mediated the association between greater DHEA levels and increasing dysregulation symptoms across time, controlling for baseline dysregulation symptom levels. These results suggest specificity in the role of the anterior PG in adrenarcheal processes that may confer risk for psychopathology during adolescence. This work not only highlights the importance of separately tracing the anterior and posterior PG, but also suggests that transdiagnostic factors like dysregulation are useful in parsing hormone-related increases in mental health symptoms in youth.
Collapse
|
4
|
Harris JL, Swanson B, Petersen IT. A Developmentally Informed Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Strength of General Psychopathology in Childhood and Adolescence. Clin Child Fam Psychol Rev 2024; 27:130-164. [PMID: 38112921 PMCID: PMC10938301 DOI: 10.1007/s10567-023-00464-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Considerable support exists for higher-order dimensional conceptualizations of psychopathology in adults. A growing body of work has focused on understanding the structure of general and specific psychopathology in children and adolescents. No prior meta-analysis has examined whether the strength of the general psychopathology factor (p factor)-measured by explained common variance (ECV)-changes from childhood to adolescence. The primary objective of this multilevel meta-analysis was to determine whether general psychopathology strength changes across development (i.e. across ages) in childhood and adolescence. Several databases were searched in November 2021; 65 studies, with 110 effect sizes (ECV), nested within shared data sources, were identified. Included empirical studies used a factor analytic modeling approach that estimated latent factors for child/adolescent internalizing, externalizing, and optionally thought-disordered psychopathology, and a general factor. Studies spanned ages 2-17 years. Across ages, general psychopathology explained over half (~ 56%) of the reliable variance in symptoms of psychopathology. Age-moderation analyses revealed that general factor strength remained stable across ages, suggesting that general psychopathology strength does not significantly change across childhood to adolescence. Even if the structure of psychopathology changes with development, the prominence of general psychopathology across development has important implications for future research and intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan L Harris
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, 340 Iowa Avenue G60, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA.
| | - Benjamin Swanson
- Department of Psychological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, USA
| | - Isaac T Petersen
- Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences, University of Iowa, 340 Iowa Avenue G60, Iowa City, IA, 52242, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Fonagy P, Luyten P, Allison E, Campbell C. Taking stock to move forward: Where the field of developmental psychopathology might be heading. Dev Psychopathol 2024:1-10. [PMID: 38389294 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579424000312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
In this paper, dedicated to Dante Cicchetti's contributions and enduring influence, we explore the prospective directions of developmental psychopathology. Our focus centers on key domains where Cicchetti's significant achievements have continually shaped our evolving thinking about psychological development. These domains include (a) the concepts of equifinality and multifinality, along with the challenges in predicting developmental trajectories, (b) the imperative to integrate wider sociocultural viewpoints into developmental psychopathology frameworks, (c) the interplay of genetic and environmental influences in developmental courses, (d) the significance of mental state language, and (e) the progress, or its absence, in the development of prevention and intervention tactics for children, adolescents, and their caregivers. While many of our forecasts regarding the future of developmental psychopathology may not materialize, we maintain optimistic that the essential ideas presented will influence the research agenda in this field and contribute to its growth over the next fifty years.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peter Fonagy
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Patrick Luyten
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
- Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elizabeth Allison
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Chloe Campbell
- Research Department of Clinical, Educational and Health Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Pettersson E. Opportunities of measuring hierarchical models of psychopathology. JCPP ADVANCES 2023; 3:e12187. [PMID: 38054064 PMCID: PMC10694532 DOI: 10.1002/jcv2.12187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
All psychiatric phenomena are positively associated, and several different models can account for this observation. These include the correlated factors, network, general psychopathology as outcome, and hierarchical models. Advantages of hierarchical models, which consist of one general and several (general factor-residualized) specific factors, is that the general factor provides an opportunity to reliably measure global distress and impairment, while the specific factors might improve the ability to discriminate between individuals with different kinds of problems. Nevertheless, other models also have their respective advantages, and it remains challenging to empirically determine which model best accounts for the positive manifold in psychiatry. Instead, I present two non-empirical arguments in favor of hierarchical models. First, by measuring the general factor in isolation, the specific factors tend to include both favorable and unfavorable correlates, which might reduce stigma compared to psychiatric diagnoses that by and large are associated with only unfavorable outcomes. Second, the general psychopathology factor displays an unusual psychometric property in that it includes symptoms of opposite meaning if they have similar valence (e.g., self-reported symptoms such as gullible and paranoid, lazy and workaholic, and terrified and apathetic load in the same direction), which one might want to measure in isolation from variance capturing the content of symptoms. I conclude by speculating that tests designed based on hierarchical models might help clinical assessment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erik Pettersson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and BiostatisticsKarolinska InstitutetStockholmSweden
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Roberts C, Sahakian BJ, Chen S, Sallie SN, Walker C, White SR, Weber J, Skandali N, Robbins TW, Murray GK. Impact and centrality of attention dysregulation on cognition, anxiety, and low mood in adolescents. Sci Rep 2023; 13:9106. [PMID: 37277504 PMCID: PMC10241800 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-34399-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Accepted: 04/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Functional impairments in cognition are frequently thought to be a feature of individuals with depression or anxiety. However, documented impairments are both broad and inconsistent, with little known about when they emerge, whether they are causes or effects of affective symptoms, or whether specific cognitive systems are implicated. Here, we show, in the adolescent ABCD cohort (N = 11,876), that attention dysregulation is a robust factor underlying wide-ranging cognitive task impairments seen in adolescents with moderate to severe anxiety or low mood. We stratified individuals high in DSM-oriented depression or anxiety symptomology, and low in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), as well as vice versa - demonstrating that those high in depression or anxiety dimensions but low in ADHD symptoms not only exhibited normal task performance across several commonly studied cognitive paradigms, but out-performed controls in several domains, as well as in those low in both dimensions. Similarly, we showed that there were no associations between psychopathological dimensions and performance on an extensive cognitive battery after controlling for attention dysregulation. Further, corroborating previous research, the co-occurrence of attention dysregulation was associated with a wide range of other adverse outcomes, psychopathological features, and executive functioning (EF) impairments. To assess how attention dysregulation relates to and generates diverse psychopathology, we performed confirmatory and exploratory network analysis with different analytic approaches using Gaussian Graphical Models and Directed Acyclic Graphs to examine interactions between ADHD, anxiety, low mood, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), social relationships, and cognition. Confirmatory centrality analysis indicated that features of attention dysregulation were indeed central and robustly connected to a wide range of psychopathological traits across different categories, scales, and time points. Exploratory network analysis indicated potentially important bridging traits and socioenvironmental influences in the relationships between ADHD symptoms and mood/anxiety disorders. Trait perfectionism was uniquely associated with both better cognitive performance and broad psychopathological dimensions. This work suggests that attentional dysregulation may moderate the breadth of EF, fluid, and crystalized cognitive task outcomes seen in adolescents with anxiety and low mood, and may be central to disparate pathological features, and thus a target for attenuating wide-ranging negative developmental outcomes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Clark Roberts
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Barbara J Sahakian
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Shuquan Chen
- Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology, Columbia University Teachers College, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Clare Walker
- University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Simon R White
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jochen Weber
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Nikolina Skandali
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Trevor W Robbins
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Behavioural and Clinical Neuroscience Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Graham K Murray
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Cambridgeshire and Peterborough NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Tiemeier H. Modeling the malleable mental health trajectory - a commentary on Oldehinkel and Ormel (2023). J Child Psychol Psychiatry 2023; 64:503-505. [PMID: 36799564 DOI: 10.1111/jcpp.13766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023]
Abstract
In their Annual Research Review titled 'Stability of psychopathology: Lessons learned from longitudinal population surveys' (Oldehinkel & Ormel, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 2022) argue that psychological and psychiatric researchers should not only compare groups but also focus on the within-person variability using repeated measurements in longitudinal studies to advance our understanding of emotional and behavioral problems. I argue adopting such within-person approaches might also change how we think about causality and might lead us to more successful intervention research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Henning Tiemeier
- Department of Social and Behavioral Science, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Choate AM, Bornovalova MA, Hipwell AE, Chung T, Stepp SD. Mutualistic processes in the development of psychopathology: The special case of borderline personality disorder. JOURNAL OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND CLINICAL SCIENCE 2023; 132:185-197. [PMID: 36808962 PMCID: PMC9978933 DOI: 10.1037/abn0000800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) is a serious mental illness characterized by instability in affective, cognitive, and interpersonal domains. BPD co-occurs with several mental disorders and has robust, positive associations with the general factors of psychopathology (p-factor) and personality disorders (g-PD). Consequently, some researchers have purported BPD to be a marker of p, such that the core features of BPD reflect a generalized liability to psychopathology. This assertion has largely stemmed from cross-sectional evidence and no research to date has explicated the developmental relationships between BPD and p. The present study aimed to investigate the development of BPD traits and the p-factor by examining predictions of two opposing frameworks: dynamic mutualism theory and the common cause theory. Competing theories were evaluated to determine which perspective best accounted for the relationship of BPD and p from adolescence into young adulthood. Data were drawn from the Pittsburgh Girls Study (PGS; N = 2,450) and included yearly self-assessments of BPD and other internalizing and externalizing indices from ages 14 to 21. Theories were examined using random-intercept cross-lagged panel models (RI-CLPMs) and network models. Results indicated that neither dynamic mutualism nor the common cause theory could fully explain the developmental relations between BPD and p. Instead, both frameworks were partially supported, with p found to strongly predict within-person change in BPD at several ages. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Tammy Chung
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute for Health, Healthcare Policy and Aging Research; Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Zainal NH, Newman MG. Executive Functioning Constructs in Anxiety, Obsessive-Compulsive, Post-Traumatic Stress, and Related Disorders. Curr Psychiatry Rep 2022; 24:871-880. [PMID: 36401677 PMCID: PMC9676877 DOI: 10.1007/s11920-022-01390-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW We synthesize theories proposing complex relations between cognitive functioning and anxiety-related concepts. We evaluate vulnerability theories suggesting that deficits in various cognitive functioning domains predict future anxiety-associated concepts. We examine scar theories asserting the opposite direction of effects (i.e., anxiety predicting cognitive dysfunction). Furthermore, we examine more novel frameworks on this topic. RECENT FINDINGS Reliable evidence exists for the scar and vulnerability theories. This includes mounting data on diverse anxiety symptoms predicting cognitive dysfunction (and conversely) unfolding at between- and within-person levels (dynamic mutualism theory). It also includes data on the stronger effects or central influence of anxiety (versus non-anxiety) symptoms on executive functioning (EF; i.e., higher-order cognitive control governing myriad thinking and action repertoires) versus non-EF domains and vice versa (network theory). In addition, it reviews emerging evidence that enhanced cognitive control can correlate with higher anxiety among children (overgeneralized control theory). The generally inverse relations between anxiety symptoms and cognitive dysfunction are bidirectional and complex within and between persons. Plausible mediators and moderators merit more attention, including immune, metabolism, and neural markers and the social determinants of health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Michelle G Newman
- The Pennsylvania State University, 371 Moore Building, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Barlati S, Lisoni J, Nibbio G, Baldacci G, Cicale A, Ferrarin LC, Italia M, Zucchetti A, Deste G, Vita A. Current Evidence and Theories in Understanding the Relationship between Cognition and Depression in Childhood and Adolescence: A Narrative Review. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:2525. [PMID: 36292214 PMCID: PMC9600470 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12102525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The present narrative review has covered the current evidence regarding the role of cognitive impairments during the early phase of major depressive disorder (MDD), attempting to describe the cognitive features in childhood, adolescence and in at-risk individuals. These issues were analyzed considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses of MDD by examining the cold and hot dimensions, the latter explained in relation to the current psychological theoretical models of MDD. This search was performed on several electronic databases up to August 2022. Although the present review is the first to have analyzed both cold and hot cognitive impairments considering the trait, scar and state hypotheses, we found that current evidence did not allow to exclusively confirm the validity of one specific hypothesis since several equivocal and discordant results have been proposed in childhood and adolescence samples. Further studies are needed to better characterize possible cognitive dysfunctions assessing more systematically the impairments of cold, hot and social cognition domains and their possible interaction in a developmental perspective. An increased knowledge on these topics will improve the definition of clinical endophenotypes of enhanced risk to progression to MDD and, to hypothesize preventive and therapeutic strategies to reduce negative influences on psychosocial functioning and well-being.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Barlati
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Jacopo Lisoni
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Gabriele Nibbio
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giulia Baldacci
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Cicale
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Laura Chiara Ferrarin
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Mauro Italia
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Andrea Zucchetti
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Giacomo Deste
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| | - Antonio Vita
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
- Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services, ASST Spedali Civili of Brescia, 25123 Brescia, Italy
| |
Collapse
|