Review: welfare of dairy cows in continuously housed and pasture-based production systems

Animal-based welfare indicators for dairy cows and their validity and practicality: a systematic review of the existing literature

Animal welfare is of increasing importance, with consumers preferring animal products made with ethical practices due to growing awareness. This shift highlights the need for reliable methods to evaluate welfare. This systematic review aims to assess the validity of current animal-based welfare indicators for dairy cows to aid farmers and agricultural professionals in evaluating and improving welfare amidst the lack of a clear legislative definition. The literature search spanned five databases: CAB Direct, PubMed, Scopus, Google Scholar and Livivo, covering publications in English and German from 2011 to 2021. Specific search terms were employed, and abstracts were screened for relevance. Publications were categorized based on exclusion criteria, with a final verification process conducted by three independent scientists. Research highlights correlations between welfare measures, farm characteristics and innovative indicators like hair cortisol concentration. Farming systems and housing methods significantly affect welfare, with pasture-based systems generally resulting in reduced lameness and improved behavior. Proper housing design and management practices are important, as they influence indicators like lameness and cleanliness. Heart rate variability and heart rate monitoring provide insights into dairy cow stress levels during milking and other stressors, making them valuable for welfare assessment. Biomarker research emphasizes the need to balance productivity and health in breeding strategies, as high milk production alone does not indicate good welfare. Behavioral studies and the human-animal relationship are key to understanding welfare. Precision Livestock Farming offers real-time assessment capabilities, although validation is needed. Stress physiology is complex, and while cortisol measurement methods are promising, further research is necessary. Assessment tools like the Animal Needs Index and routine herd data analysis are valuable for identifying welfare concerns. Key findings highlight the WQ® protocol's effectiveness and versatility, the challenge of its time demands, and the DCF protocol's promise for more practical and efficient welfare assessments. Commercial animal welfare audits should prioritize easily observable indicators and herd records due to logistical constraints in measuring biomarkers or heart rate variability. This focus on easily accessible indicators, such as body condition score, lameness, claw health, cleanliness, and somatic cell count allows effective welfare assessments, enabling prompt action to enhance wellbeing.

Animal Welfare Guidelines for International Development Organisations in the Global South

International development organisations have improved billions of human lives in the Global South. However, in both their projects and advice to governments, most of these organisations neglect animal welfare. This blindspot matters. Poor welfare standards risk the organisation's reputation, particularly with donors; they reduce livestock lifespans and productivity, harming recipients; and they cause animals unnecessary pain and suffering. Here, we set out animal welfare guidelines for international development organisations. They were developed through extensive stakeholder engagement with organisations, donors, and recipients, especially in Africa. To comprehensively cover animal welfare, the guidelines encompass governance structure within the organisation, staff training, standard operating procedures, water, food, housing, social isolation, enrichment, drainage and waste disposal, disease, invasive procedures, transport, slaughter, breeds, record-keeping, and monitoring and evaluation of success. We urge international development organisations to adopt and institutionalise these guidelines, so they promote good animal welfare.

Exercise-induced muscle hormone "irisin" controls luteinizing hormone and follicle-stimulating hormone secretion by bovine gonadotrophs

Irisin is a hormone secreted by muscle in response to exercise. The irisin receptor (IrisinR) is a heterodimer of integrin alpha V (ITGAV) and integrin beta 5 (ITGB5) subunits. Since irisin may mediate some beneficial effects of exercise on animal reproduction, we tested the hypothesis that bovine gonadotrophs express IrisinR and irisin stimulates luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion by gonadotrophs. Reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction was used to detect the mRNA expression of both ITGAV and ITGB5 in the anterior pituitary glands (APs) of post pubertal heifers and mouse gonadotroph cell line "LβT2." Western blotting was used to detect protein expression in bovine APs. Immunofluorescence microscopy, utilizing the same antibody, visualized IrisinR on the plasma membrane of majority of gonadotrophs. We prepared AP cells from healthy postpubertal heifers, cultured them for 3.5 d, and treated them with increasing concentrations (0, 0.01, 0.1, 1, or 10 nM) of irisin for 5 min before either no treatment or gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) stimulation. After 2 h, media were harvested for LH and FSH assays. Irisin (0.1-10 nM) stimulated basal LH and FSH secretion, and these stimulatory effects were inhibited by the extracellular signal-regulated kinase or SMAD pathway inhibitors. In the presence of GnRH, irisin at 0.01-1 nM stimulated LH and FSH secretion. A higher dose of irisin (10 nM), however, suppressed the GnRH-induced LH and FSH levels. In conclusion, bovine gonadotrophs expressed IrisinR, and irisin controlled LH and FSH secretion from bovine gonadotrophs.

The potential of virtual fencing technology to facilitate sustainable livestock grazing management

Virtual fencing (VF) technology is gaining interest due to its potential to facilitate sustainable grazing management. It allows farmers to contain grazing livestock without physical fences, thereby reducing the time and labour associated with the implementation of conventional fences. From a conservation perspective, some sensitive areas within uplands should not be grazed during certain periods of the year, and VF provides an invisible and moveable fence line that can exclude livestock from these areas. However, there are also concerns associated with its use, including animal welfare impacts, cost-effectiveness, and public perception. The extent to which VF can contribute to make livestock systems more sustainable remains to be investigated. To address this gap, this study investigates the potential of VF to promote sustainable grazing management using the Efficiency, Substitution, and Redesign framework, which has been used for the first time in this context. The framework is particularly relevant in taking an active and normative approach to identify key aspects to focus on to help achieve sustainability. We consulted stakeholders including farmers, wildlife inspectors, veterinarians, policy officers, researchers, NGOs, farm advisors or certification managers, through focus groups (N = 4) and in-depth, semi-structured interviews (N = 5). Stakeholders have highlighted the potential of VF to provide new opportunities to increase the efficiency and sustainability of livestock grazing systems, enabling their redesign, and contributing to improved environmental and animal welfare outcomes, as well as higher financial and social performance. However, there are important aspects that remain to be addressed to achieve such redesign, including issues of reliability due to poor network signal, animals' ability to learn, biosecurity and safety issues related to the absence of physical fences, farm suitability and farmers' ability to use the systems effectively. This study highlights the need to ensure that the development and uptake of VF are mutually beneficial to farmers, animals, and the wider farming industry. This includes a highlight on the importance of participative approaches to involve key stakeholders to address concerns and maximise the potential of the technology.

Assessing the impact of biosecurity practices and animal welfare in small-scale mountain dairy farming

This study estimates the association between the level of biosecurity, animal welfare, milk quality, and economic performance on 2291 mountain dairy farms which largely differs in management and structure from large dairy operations in the lowlands mainly due to climatic and topographic constraints in mountain areas. The dairy industry's increasing emphasis on biosecurity is crucial for ensuring animal health, productivity, and disease mitigation. Therefore, in the present study the biosecurity and animal welfare status of mountain dairy farms were assessed considering the official welfare protocol for dairy cows of the Italian ClassyFarm system. Our findings reveal a suboptimal adoption of biosecurity measures, attributed to structural limitations in mountain farms and farmers' awareness gaps. Despite these challenges, the economic significance of biosecurity adoption is evident, emphasizing potential benefits for farm viability and animal health. Conversely, the study indicates a moderate to good welfare status in assessed farms, reflecting farmers' awareness of the importance of high welfare standards for dairy cows. Improved welfare positively correlates with milk sales and productivity, highlighting the economic advantages of prioritizing animal well-being. Challenges persist, particularly regarding animal housing deficiencies and related consumer concerns about animal welfare in dairy production. Therefore, targeted interventions and educational initiatives are crucial to empower farmers and promote best practices in biosecurity and animal welfare management. However, addressing resultant production cost increases necessitates society's willingness to pay more for animal-based food, emphasizing the importance of aligning economic incentives with sustainable farming practices.

Survey of drug use and its association with herd-level and farm-level characteristics on German dairy farms

The use of veterinary drugs is of similar importance to that of human drugs in addressing health challenges. In this context, pharmaceuticals and their metabolites inevitably enter soil and water in unknown quantities. Therefore, this study collects and analyzes drug data from 2020 for 50 dairy farms located in Germany. The most frequently used substance group is antibiotics (40.13%), followed by antiphlogistics (18.86%), antiparasitics (13.09%), and hormones (9.29%). Treatment frequencies record the number of days per year on which an average animal on a farm was treated with a substance. The calculated values range from 0.94 to 21.69 d/yr and are distributed heterogeneously across farms. In this study, on average, a cow was treated on 6 d in 2020: 2.34 d with antibiotics, 1.07 d with antiphlogistics, 0.76 d with antiparasitics, and 0.41 d with hormones. In addition to individual farm management practices, other factors are related to treatment frequency. Farms with a veterinary care contract used more hormonal substances than farms without a care contract. In addition, higher milk yield coincides with more frequent treatments with antiphlogistic or hormonal substances. Other related factors include grazing, longevity, farm size, and use of a claw bath. Our study represents an important first step in describing the amounts and determinants of veterinary drugs used in livestock farming. Such insights on magnitudes and farm parameters are essential to estimate potential environmental effects and derive strategies to reduce veterinary drug use.

Pasture access and eye temperature in dairy cows

Pasture access can benefit dairy cows' behavior, health, and welfare, but herds are increasingly housed indoors full-time. Recent infrared thermal-imaging (thermography) studies suggest that higher eye temperatures may be a physiological indicator of chronic stress. We, therefore, hypothesized that, compared to cows with pasture access, cows housed indoors full-time would have higher eye temperatures. In a two-phase crossover experiment, 29 Holstein-Friesian dairy cows experienced 18 days of overnight pasture access and 18 days of full-time indoor housing. We measured each animal's eye temperature 16 times (eight/phase). During Phase One, cows with pasture access had higher eye temperatures than cows housed indoors full-time (contrary to our hypothesis). However, during Phase Two, cows with pasture access had lower eye temperatures than cows housed indoors full-time. It is, therefore, unclear whether eye temperature reflected disparities in dairy cow welfare between different housing treatments.

Serum Mineral Levels in Dairy Cows Transiting from Feedlot to Pasture

The objective of the present study was to evaluate trace element and minerals levels in the serum of cows transiting from diets consumed in feedlot or under grazing. A total of 30 healthy 5-6 years old cows of the Red Steppe breed were involved in the study. Blood samples were collected at the end of the feedlot period (end of April) and during the pasture period (end of June). Serum essential trace element and mineral levels were evaluated using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The obtained data demonstrate that serum K levels in cows during the feedlot period exceeded those in the pasture period by 50%, whereas serum P values in the pasture period were significantly higher than in the feedlot period by 20%. Serum Li levels in cows during the feedlot feeding period were nearly 3-fold higher than the respective values in a pasture period. In addition, serum B, Sr, and Zn concentrations in cows during a pasture period exceeded those observed upon feedlot feeding by 38%, 40%, and 13%, respectively. In contrast, serum I and V levels in a feedlot period were 32% and 77% higher when compared to the respective values in a pasture period. Multiple regression analysis demonstrated that Cr, Cu, I, Na, and V are positively associated with feedlot feeding. At the same time, serum Zn and to a lesser extent Sr values were directly associated with the pasture period. Therefore, the results of the present study demonstrated that feedlot and pasture rations have a significant impact on trace element and mineral metabolism in dairy cows.

Biochemical methane potential of dairy manure residues and separated fractions: An Australia-wide study of the impact of production and cleaning systems

This study investigated biochemical methane potential (B0) of manure residues and solid-liquid separation fractions from Australian dairies. This is important for country-specific sector emissions and biogas potential estimates. A range of samples were collected from 12 farms across 4 Australian states, and B0 was measured. A first B0 value for grazing dairy effluent is reported, at 161 LCH4·kgVS-1. The B0 of manure residues from intensive dairies with total mixed ration feeding was not significantly different, at 202 LCH4·kgVS-1. Passive solid-liquid separation decreased B0 with potential fugitive methane losses. Mechanical separation preserved B0, allowing organic matter diversion to reduce fugitive methane emissions. Cleaning method at a dairy significantly influenced residue total solids content, important for solid-liquid separation and selection of anaerobic digestion technology. Overall, B0 for Australian dairy residues was estimated at 76.2 million m3N methane per annum, with a total energy content of 2.8 petajoules·annum-1.

N-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids as a Nutritional Support of the Reproductive and Immune System of Cattle-A Review

This paper focuses on the role of n-3 fatty acids as a nutrient crucial to the proper functioning of reproductive and immune systems in cattle. Emphasis was placed on the connection between maternal and offspring immunity. The summarized results confirm the importance and beneficial effect of n-3 family fatty acids on ruminant organisms. Meanwhile, dietary n-3 fatty acids supplementation, especially during the critical first week for dairy cows experiencing their peripartum period, in general, is expected to enhance reproductive performance, and the impact of its supplementation appears to be dependent on body condition scores of cows during the drying period, the severity of the negative energy balance, and the amount of fat in the basic feed ration. An unbalanced, insufficient, or excessive fatty acid supplementation of cows' diets in the early stages of pregnancy (during fetus development) may affect both the metabolic and nutritional programming of the offspring. The presence of the polyunsaturated fatty acids of the n-3 family in the calves' ration affects not only the performance of calves but also the immune response, antioxidant status, and overall metabolism of the future adult cow.

The Link between the Perception of Animal Welfare and the Emotional Response to Pictures of Farm Animals Kept in Intensive and Extensive Husbandry Systems: An Italian Survey

As livestock production grows to satisfy the global demand for animal products, understanding public attitudes towards different husbandry systems becomes essential for both animal welfare and socio-economic reasons. This study aimed to investigate people's emotional responses toward pictures of farm animals kept in intensive and extensive husbandry systems, their perception of animal welfare, and their choices as animal product consumers. A questionnaire that included demographic questions and photos of cows, pigs, chickens, and rabbits in both intensive and extensive systems was distributed electronically and physically and completed by 835 respondents. Photos of animals in intensive systems elicited more negative emotions, especially for pigs and rabbits (p < 0.05), as opposed to extensive systems, which elicited more positive emotions, especially for chickens (p < 0.001). Higher welfare levels were perceived for extensively farmed animals (p < 0.001) and for cattle compared to all other species, regardless of the husbandry system (p < 0.001). The quality of the emotional response was positively associated with welfare perception (p < 0.001) and negatively associated with the importance given to welfare when purchasing animal products (p < 0.001). Finally, the emotional response was found to be affected by gender, education, household composition, living area, pet ownership, and eating habits. The implications and limitations of these findings are discussed.

Free-choice pasture access for dry cows: Effects on health, behavior, and milk production

Allowing dairy cattle to access pasture or outdoor areas is known to be beneficial for cows' welfare and is considered important by the general public. However, in confinement-based operations with high-yielding cows, pasture access may be difficult to implement, especially for lactating animals. Providing pasture access to heifers and dry cows seems a more feasible option for most farms. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of providing high-yielding dairy cows with free-choice pasture access during the dry period on their health, behavior, and milk production. Over the study period, a total of 78 Holstein cows were assigned to 1 of 2 treatments during the dry period (51 ± 8 d): housing with free-choice access to the pasture (PAST) or housing continuously without any access to the outdoors (CTRL). After calving, all cows from both treatments were mixed and housed continuously. To assess the effects of the treatment on cows' performance, all animals enrolled were monitored both before calving and during the first 100 d in milk of the following lactation. The behavior of all cows involved was monitored continuously during the whole observation period using collar-based sensors. All cows were inspected monthly to assess lameness, hock lesions, cleanliness, and body condition score. During the period after calving (0-100 d in milk), milk production and composition were also monitored. Results showed that free-choice pasture access affected cows' feeding behavior. Before calving, the animals in PAST spent more time feeding than in CTRL and, interestingly, this difference tended to persist for several weeks after calving. During the dry period, cows in PAST were cleaner than in CTRL but no differences in locomotion and body condition score were found between the 2 groups. Free-choice pasture access during the dry period also affected milk production during the following lactation. The cows that spent the dry period in PAST produced more milk than CTRL counterparts, particularly for the animals that calved during summer. In the current study we have found that providing free-choice pasture access during the dry period can positively affect the performance of dairy cattle and represents a desirable practice in confinement-based dairy production systems.

Prevalence of lameness on pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms: An observational study

To understand the current impact of lameness on a system, it is important to define lameness prevalence across a range of dairy farms in that system. Prevalence estimates from dairy systems where cows are permanently managed at pasture are uncommon, although the limited data suggest that they have a lower lameness prevalence than housed cattle. One hundred and 20 farms from eight of the major dairying regions of New Zealand were randomly enrolled into a cross-sectional lameness prevalence study. On each of the farms, trained observers lameness scored cattle on two occasions, between October-December (spring, coinciding with peak lactation for most farms) and between January-March (summer, late lactation for most farms). At each visit, all lactating animals were scored using a four-point 0-3 scoring system, and included animals that had previously been identified as lame by the farmer. Animals with a lameness score (LS) ≥2 were defined as lame. Mixed logistic regression models assessed the interaction between region and season and island and season, respectively, and differences between the lameness prevalence within farm across the two seasons reported descriptively. A total of 116,317 locomotion scores over two events were conducted across the 120 farms. At the spring scoring event, 2128/60,007 (3.5 %) cows had a LS ≥2 and 1868/56,310 (3.3 %) cows had a LS ≥ 2 at the summer scoring event. At the farm level, across both scoring events, median lameness prevalence was 2.8 (interquartile range 1.5 - 4.5) %, with a range of 0.0-17.0 %. The median farm-level prevalence of LS = 3 was 0.5 % with a range of 0-4.6 %. The effect of timing of scoring was modified by region (p < 0.001), and island (p = 0.006) and at the individual farm level, differences between spring and summer farm level lameness prevalence were generally small (interquartile range: -1.8 to 1.0 %) but potentially large on individual farms (range from -12.3 % to 7.6 %). The median farm-level lameness prevalence estimate of 2.8 % across a random representative sample of New Zealand dairy farms give confidence that the overall prevalence of cattle lameness on New Zealand dairy farms is low. This adds to the growing evidence that pasture is a good management system with respect to hoof health. The evidence of strong seasonality of lameness was lacking. Instead of using lameness scoring to identify farms with large lameness problems, lameness scoring should be encouraged to farmers as a tool to improve the identification of lame animals.

On-farm investments into dairy cow health: evidence from 15 case study countries

Managing investments in dairy cow health at a national and global scale, requires an improved understanding of current on-farm expenses for cow health (e.g., expenditure for medicine and veterinary consultations). The aim of this study was to assess on-farm health investments for typical dairy farms in 15 case study countries, including Argentina, Australia, Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, India, China, Colombia, Indonesia, Kenya, New Zealand, Uganda, UK, Uruguay, and USA. The study was conducted using a descriptive analysis of a secondary data set that was obtained from the International Farm Comparison Network (IFCN). The results suggest that health expenditures take up a relatively small proportion (<10%) of the annual total production costs per cow across all countries in the sample. The means of production costs (e.g., feed, machinery) can take up to 90% of the total production costs for highly intensive systems, while these costs can be as low as 9% for extensive systems. This study highlights the importance of understanding on-farm animal health investments as a contribution to improved national and global decision making about animal health in the dairy sector.

Climate change and socio-economic assessment of PLF in dairy farms: Three case studies

Precision Livestock Farming (PLF) techniques include sensors and tools to install on livestock farms and/or animals to monitor them and support the decision making process of farmers, finally early detecting alerting conditions and improving the livestock efficiency. Direct consequences of this monitoring include enhanced animal welfare, health and productivity, improved farmer lifestyle, knowledge, and traceability of livestock products. The indirect consequences, instead, include improved Carbon Footprint and socio-economic indicators of livestock products. In this context, the aim of this paper is to develop an indicator applicable to dairy cattle farming that takes into account concurrently these indirect consequences. The indicator was developed combining the three sustainability pillars (with specific criteria): environmental (carbon footprint), social (5 freedoms of animal welfare and antimicrobial use) and economic (cost of technology and manpower use). The indicator was then tested on 3 dairy cattle farms located in Italy, where a baseline traditional scenario (BS) was compared with an alternative scenario (AS) where PLF techniques and improved management solutions were adopted. The results highlighted that the carbon footprint reduced in all AS by 6-9 %, and the socio-economic indicators entailed improvements in animals and workers welfare with some differences based on the tested technique. Investing in PLF techniques determines positive effects on all/almost all the criteria adopted for the sustainability indicator, with case-specific aspects to consider. Being a user-friendly tool that supports the testing of different scenarios, this indicator could be used by stakeholders (policy makers and farmers in particular) to identify the best direction towards investments and incentive policies.

Contact with Mature Cows and Access to Pasture during Early Life Shape Dairy Heifer Behaviour at Integration into the Milking Herd

This study aimed to determine the effects of early-life physical and social enrichment on the ability of dairy heifers to integrate into a herd of mature cows. Fifty heifer calves were reared from the ages of 2-13 weeks in one of three treatments: (1) Hand-reared and group-housed in sheds (CC); (2) Hand-reared and group-housed at pasture (-S); or (3) Hand-reared and group-housed at pasture, with 3 non-familial dry cows per group (+S). At 23 months of age, these heifers were introduced in groups to small herds of cows (Cows) at pasture. Social interactions were recorded continuously for two 1-h periods. Feeding, ruminating and resting behaviours of all animals and walking, standing and lying behaviours of 36 heifers only (+S = 14, -S = 13, CC = 9) were recorded for 48 h after mixing. Heifers that were managed as calves according to the CC treatment delivered less agonistic behaviour to other heifers after mixing than those reared in the +S or -S treatments (p = 0.002 and p = 0.041, respectively). On Day 2, +S heifers and cows spent the lowest proportion of time feeding (p = 0.961), with -S heifers spending significantly more time feeding than cows (p = 0.046), while CC heifers spent more time feeding than both +S heifers and cows (p = 0.027 and p < 0.002, respectively). Increasing the complexity of the early-life environment, particularly socially, may aid heifers in integrating into groups of multiparous cows later in life and shape their lifelong social experiences with same-age conspecifics.

Welfare of dairy cows

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission's mandate on the welfare of dairy cows as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. It includes three assessments carried out based on literature reviews and complemented by expert opinion. Assessment 1 describes the most prevalent housing systems for dairy cows in Europe: tie-stalls, cubicle housing, open-bedded systems and systems with access to an outdoor area. Per each system, the scientific opinion describes the distribution in the EU and assesses the main strengths, weaknesses and hazards potentially reducing the welfare of dairy cows. Assessment 2 addresses five welfare consequences as requested in the mandate: locomotory disorders (including lameness), mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, inability to perform comfort behaviour and metabolic disorders. Per each welfare consequence, a set of animal-based measures is suggested, a detailed analysis of the prevalence in different housing systems is provided, and subsequently, a comparison of the housing systems is given. Common and specific system-related hazards as well as management-related hazards and respective preventive measures are investigated. Assessment 3 includes an analysis of farm characteristics (e.g. milk yield, herd size) that could be used to classify the level of on-farm welfare. From the available scientific literature, it was not possible to derive relevant associations between available farm data and cow welfare. Therefore, an approach based on expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) was developed. The EKE resulted in the identification of five farm characteristics (more than one cow per cubicle at maximum stocking density, limited space for cows, inappropriate cubicle size, high on-farm mortality and farms with less than 2 months access to pasture). If one or more of these farm characteristics are present, it is recommended to conduct an assessment of cow welfare on the farm in question using animal-based measures for specified welfare consequences.

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor, Kynurenine Pathway, and Lipid-Profiling Alterations as Potential Animal Welfare Indicators in Dairy Cattle

Complete animal welfare evaluation in intensive farming is challenging. With this study, we investigate new biomarkers for animal physical and mental health by comparing plasma expression of biochemical indicators in dairy cows reared in three different systems: (A) semi-intensive free-stall, (B) non-intensive tie-stall, and (C) intensive free-stall. Additionally, protein levels of mature brain-derived neurotrophic factor (mBDNF) and its precursor form (proBDNF) and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO1) specific activity were evaluated in brain samples collected from 12 cattle culled between 73 and 138 months of age. Alterations in plasma lipid composition and in the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism were observed in the tie-stall-reared animals. The total plasma BDNF concentration was higher in tie-stall group compared to the two free-housing groups. Brain analysis of the tie-stall animals revealed a different mBDNF/proBDNF ratio, with a higher level of proBDNF (p < 0.001). Our data are similar to previous studies on animal models of depression, which reported that inhibition of the conversion of proBDNF in its mature form and/or elevated peripheral kynurenine pathway activation may underlie cerebral biochemical changes and induce depressive-like state behavior in animals.

Changes in amount and length of periods of stereotypic behavior in Jersey cows with and without access to pasture

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether the access to pasture affects the stereotypic behavior of Jersey cows kept in loose housing systems. Therefore, a total of 21 randomly selected Jersey cows housed in two different investigation farms were observed once a week for four weeks in winter and summer, respectively, using the focal sampling method. On every examination day, each cow was observed for 15 min and the amount (AP) and length (LP) of periods, in which the cows showed stereotypic behavior within this observation time, were counted. Wilcoxon signed rank tests were carried out to estimate differences between pasture access and no pasture access regarding AP and LP. Welch two sample t-tests were performed to detect differences in AP and LP between both investigation farms. The results of the study show significant differences between the option of pasture access and no pasture access regarding the values of AP and LP. The values of AP (p = 0.001) as well as the values of LP (p = 0.006) were lower when the cows had access to the pasture. No differences could be found between the investigation farms. It could be concluded that the access to pasture has a significant influence on the stereotypic behavior of Jersey cows. Further studies are needed to intensively analyze the causes of stereotypic behavior in Jersey cows.

“If you were a cow, what would you want?” Findings from participatory workshops with dairy farmers

When looking to improve animal welfare, it is essential to understand the viewpoints of stakeholders in the industry. Previous research has engaged stakeholders such as farmers, veterinarians, and the public to better understand future dairy industry directions. However, the use of perspective-taking as a tool to overcome farmer's focus on current barriers to the industry has not been explored. Therefore, the aims of this study were to have farmers take the perspective of the cow, to elicit: (1) farm elements that are essential to create a cow-centric dairy system, and (2) how this system can be achieved in the next 50 years. To do this, we employed participatory methods (photo elicitation, timelining) to generate discussion with 12 New Zealand dairy farmers. Pasture access is frequently cited as an integral component for promoting good welfare in dairy cows, thus, this cohort of farmers was considered a good case study as they all had experience managing cows in grazing systems. Participants were asked to create a cow-centric farm design, and a pathway to implementation. Following thematic analysis of the multiple data sources, the results are presented under the following three themes: (1) cow-centric farm designs (environmental considerations, cow handling and care), (2) timeline to achieve and sequence of implementation ("low hanging fruit" and long-term investments), and (3) assumptions and resources needed (including financial considerations, technology, farmer buy-in, regulations and enforcement and other stakeholder involvement). By better understanding how current industry practice aligns, and also differs, from what the cow would want, we can work towards future management systems that incorporate the requirements of all stakeholders, including the cow.

Short-term physiological responses to moderate heat stress in grazing dairy cows in temperate climate

Even in temperate climate regions, an increase in ambient temperature and exposure to solar radiation can cause heat stress in lactating dairy cows. We hypothesised that grazing dairy cows exhibit short-term physiological changes due to increasing heat load under moderate climate conditions. Over two consecutive summers, 38 lactating Holstein dairy cows were studied in a full-time grazing system. Data were collected in 10 experimental periods of up to three consecutive days with a moderate comprehensive climate index (CCI). The individual animals' vaginal temperature (VT), heart rate, and locomotor activity data were automatically monitored with sensors. Blood samples and proportional whole milk samples were collected at afternoon milking. The concentrations of beta-hydroxybutyrate, glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, urea nitrogen, plasma thyroxine and triiodothyronine were analysed in blood plasma, and fat, protein, lactose, urea nitrogen, cortisol, Na⁺, K⁺, and Cl^- concentrations were analysed in milk. The daily distribution of VT recordings greater than 39 °C showed a circadian rhythm with a proportion of recordings of 2% and lower during the night and a percentage of 10% or higher in the afternoon. The cows' maximal daily vaginal temperature (VT_MAX) between 0830 and 1430 h was positively related to the mean daily CCI in the same time period (CCI_MEAN; mean and SD 23.6 ± 5.4 °C). Cows with greater VT_MAX had an increased mean heart rate, plasma glucose and milk cortisol concentrations and decreased concentrations of plasma thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The concentration of Na⁺ in milk was lower, and the concentration of K⁺ in milk tended to be higher in cows with increased VT_MAX. For beta-hydroxybutyrate, non-esterified fatty acids and urea nitrogen concentrations in plasma and fat and lactose concentrations in milk no relationships were found in terms of increasing VT. For milk urea nitrogen and protein concentrations, the proportion of total variance explained by inter-individual or -period variance was high. In conclusion, changes observed in milk and blood likely reflected short-term physiological responses to moderate heat stress. In particular, milk cortisol and Na⁺ may be useful traits for timely monitoring of heat stress in individual cows because their inter-individual variances were relatively small and samples can be collected non-invasively.

The effects of spring feeding strategy on pasture productivity, sward quality, and animal performance within intensive pasture-based dairy systems

The objective of this research was to evaluate how different feeding strategies based on various pasture availability (PA) treatments within intensive seasonal production systems affected pasture production and utilization, sward quality, and the milk production, body weight (BW), and body condition score (BCS) of dairy cows. The performance data were obtained from a 3-yr experiment conducted previously (2018-2020, inclusive). In total, records from 208 spring-calving dairy cows were available for analysis. The animals were randomly allocated to 1 of 3 PA grazing treatments in spring that varied in average pasture cover (measured as herbage mass available above 3.5 cm) that was established via different pasture management strategies in the previous autumn. Thus, the opening average pasture cover across all paddocks on February 1 was 1,100 kg of dry matter (DM)/ha for high pasture availability (HPA), 880 for medium pasture availability (MPA), and 650 for low pasture availability (LPA), respectively. The measurements were taken over an 8-wk period during the first grazing rotation in spring, commencing on February 16 (±2 d) and finishing when all paddocks were grazed once on April 12 (±5 d). Paddocks that were part of the HPA treatment showed the highest pregrazing herbage masses and pregrazing sward heights (1,645 kg of DM/ha and 8.2 cm, respectively) compared with MPA (1,412 kg of DM/ha and 7.5 cm, respectively) and LPA (1,170 kg of DM/ha and 6.9 cm, respectively). Owing to the differences in PA, daily herbage allowance was greatest for HPA (11.7 kg of DM/cow), intermediate for MPA (10.2 kg of DM/cow), and lowest for LPA (8.8 kg of DM/cow), with the remaining feed deficit composed of additional daily grass silage supplementation (0.8, 1.5, and 2.8 kg of DM/cow for HPA, MPA, and LPA, respectively), while the daily concentrate and daily total feed allowance were equal between treatments during spring (2.7 and 15.0 kg of DM/cow). Despite salient differences in fresh pasture used, complementing pasture intake with grass silage did not affect daily or cumulative milk, solids-corrected milk, fat, or protein yield or milk constituents. Similarly, BW and BCS were also unaffected by PA treatment. The results highlight the importance of high spring pasture utilization and grazing efficiency achievable with higher pregrazing herbage masses, which also allow larger animal intakes from grazed pasture as the cheapest feed source during spring. Moreover, targeting an adequate pasture supply at the commencement of calving increases the grazing days per hectare and lowers the requirement for supplementary feed on farm, particularly when facing increasing variability in climatic conditions.

Effect of claw blocks on the healing duration and lesion severities of claw lesions in lame cows in Western Thailand

Background and Aim: Lameness is a major complication in dairy cattle affecting health and milk production. Several factors are found to contribute to this condition and specific treatments are required, including the process of claw trimming. The elevation of the claw, such as with the application of a claw block, was reported to be beneficial in the more severe cases. This study aimed to determine the efficiency of a claw block on claw lesions of lame cows in dairy farms in Western Thailand. Materials and Methods: Locomotion scores of 376 dairy cows were determined by a veterinarian using a scale of 1–5 (1 = normal; 5 = severely lame) at the time of the visit. Cows with a score of 3 or greater were defined as clinically lame. In total, 134 clinically lame cows from 11 dairy farms in the Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces were included in the analysis. Claw lesions included a white line abscess, bruised sole, sole ulcer, sole abscess, white line separate, and double soles. Wooden or rubber claw blocks were applied to the unaffected claw of the same hoof as the injured claw of 116 cows, which were classified as the treatment cases, and 18 cows were left untreated and classified as the control cases. Each cow was checked on every week of the healing process for 2 months unless the cow was culled earlier. Survival analysis was based on the Kaplan–Meier estimator and Cox Proportional Hazard regression. Results: The median healing time for lame cows with and without claw blocks was 21 and 36 days, respectively. After adjusting for the lesion severity and type, the lame cows with and without a claw block had hazard ratios of 2.16 and 3.08, respectively. The healing times between the four lesion types in cows with a claw block were not significantly different. The healing time was longer in lame cows, with a severity score of 4. Conclusion: The results from this study reveal that the treatment of lame cows with claw blocks promoted the healing capacity of claw lesions after claw trimming.

Positive Welfare Indicators in Dairy Animals

Nowadays, there is growing interest in positive animal welfare not only from the view of scientists but also from that of society. The consumer demands more sustainable livestock production, and animal welfare is an essential part of sustainability, so there is interest in incorporating positive welfare indicators into welfare assessment schemes and legislation. The aim of this review is to cite all the positive welfare indicators that have been proposed for dairy animals in theory or practice. In total, twenty-four indicators were retrieved. The most promising are exploration, access to pasture, comfort and resting, feeding, and behavioral synchronicity. Qualitative behavioral assessment (QBA), social affiliative behaviors, play, maternal care, ear postures, vocalizations, visible eye white, nasal temperature, anticipation, cognitive bias, laterality, and oxytocin have been also studied in dairy ruminants. QBA is the indicator that is most often used for the on-farm welfare assessment. Among all dairy animals, studies have been performed mostly on cattle, followed by sheep and goats, and finally buffaloes. The research on camel welfare is limited. Therefore, there is a need for further research and official assessment protocols for buffaloes and especially camels.

Applying a New Proposed Welfare Assessment Protocol to Suckler Herds from Three Different Autochthonous Breeds

The welfare of farm animals has become an increasingly important issue for society, especially for consumers of animal products. Currently, there is no standardized and validated protocol in Portugal for assessing the welfare of suckler cow herds in extensive systems. This work aims to study and apply previously used indicators, based on behavior, mental status, health, body condition, and interactions with the environment. Criteria and measures were adapted from protocols for cattle in other production systems (Welfare Quality^®, WQ) or protocols set for pasture-based cattle in New Zealand. To the WQ measures, such as body condition, absence of injuries and diseases, positive emotional state and management indicators, we added behavior when in the chute, distance to water points, positioning of ear tags, and thermal comfort. The feasibility of the protocol was assessed in herds with cows belonging to three different Portuguese autochthonous beef breeds. The welfare of the herds was considered good or excellent, with only the behavior at the chute being negatively scored in the Brava breed. The application and validation of indicators to correctly assess animal welfare all along the production chain is crucial to achieve certification, and to the identification and correction of causes of poor welfare.

Dairy vs beef production - expert views on welfare of cattle in common food production systems

Consumers' views and concerns about the welfare of farm animals may play an important role in their decision to consume dairy, meat and/or plants as their primary protein source. As animals are killed prematurely in both dairy and beef industries, it is important to quantify and compare welfare compromises in these two sectors before the point of death. Seventy world-leading bovine welfare experts based in 23 countries were asked to evaluate the likelihood of a bovine to experience 12 states of potential welfare concern, inspired by the Welfare Quality® protocol. The evaluation focused on the most common beef and dairy production systems in the experts' country and was carried out separately for dairy/beef calves raised for red meat, dairy/beef calves raised for veal, dairy/beef calves raised as a replacement, and for dairy/beef cows. The results show experts rated the overall likelihood of a negative welfare state (i.e. welfare risk) to be higher in animals from dairy herds than from beef herds, for all animal categories, regardless of whether they were used to produce milk, red meat or veal. These findings suggest that consuming food products derived from common dairy production systems (dairy or meat) may be more harmful to the welfare of animals than consuming products derived from common beef production systems (i.e. from animals solely raised for their meat). Raising awareness about the linkage between dairy and meat production, and the toll of milk production on the welfare state of animals in the dairy industry, may encourage a more sustainable and responsible food consumption.

The Welfare of Dairy Cows in Pasture, Free Stall, and Compost Barn Management Systems in a Brazilian Subtropical Region

The effect of milk production systems on the welfare of dairy cows has been studied worldwide, but studies that compare pasture-based, compost barn, and free stall systems, according to animal welfare, are more scarce. In this work, the welfare of 51 dairy herds, including 17 from each management system, was investigated through the application of the Welfare Quality® protocol. Descriptive statistics and the Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric method were used to analyze variables. In the present work, the welfare of the evaluated herds was significantly better in the pasture-based system than in the confinement systems. However, the pasture-based system presented weaknesses in providing water resources. The compost barn had fewer animal welfare critical points than the free stall system, as well as it was better than the free stall in measures related to comfort and health. The free stall did not present better scores than the other systems. It is concluded that the welfare of dairy cows is affected by the rearing system, with better scores, in most measures, in the pasture-based system, followed by the compost barn and, finally, the free stall.

Review: Assessment of dairy cow welfare at pasture: measures available, gaps to address, and pathways to development of ad-hoc protocols

Pasture is generally perceived as positive for dairy cow welfare, but it nevertheless exposes cows to heat, parasites, and other challenges. This review is intended for people ready to design comprehensive protocols for assessing the welfare of dairy cows at pasture. We provide an overview of the benefits and risks of pasture for cows, and then go on to identify the available and feasible measures for assessing cow welfare at pasture and the gaps that need to be addressed to develop specific welfare measures. Some of the measures from on-farm welfare assessment protocols designed for indoor use (e.g. Welfare Quality®) are relevant for cows at pasture (e.g. lameness scoring). However, the timing, location and/or method for certain measures (e.g. observation of social behaviour) need to be adapted to the pasture context, as cows at pasture can roam over a large area. Measures to address specific pasture-related risks (e.g. heat stress, biosecurity) or benefits (e.g. expression of a wide range of behaviours) should be implemented in order to capture all dimensions of cow welfare at pasture. Furthermore, cow welfare is liable to vary over the grazing season due to changes in weather conditions, grass quality and pasture plots that induce variations in lying surface conditions, food availability, distance to walk to the milking parlour, and so on. It is therefore important to investigate the variability in different welfare measures across the pasture season to check whether they hold stable over time and, if not, to determine solutions that can give an overview across the grazing season. Sensors offer a promising complement to animal and environment observations, as they can capture long-term animal monitoring data, which is simply not possible for a one-day welfare-check visit. We conclude that some measures validated for indoor situations can already be used in pasture-based systems, while others need to be validated for their fitness for purpose and/or use in pasture conditions. Furthermore, thresholds should probably be determined for measures to fit with pasture contexts. If all measures can be made adaptable to all situations encountered on farms or variants of the measures can at least be proposed for each criterion, then it should be possible to produce a comprehensive welfare assessment protocol suitable for large-scale use in near future.

Effects of Housing and Management Factors on Selected Indicators of the Welfare Quality® Protocol in Loose-Housed Dairy Cows

The objective of this study was to examine the effects of housing and management factors on animal welfare indicators in dairy cows using a benchmarking approach. In total, 63 conventional dairy cattle farms with zero-grazing in Northern Germany were assessed using selected animal welfare indicators (body condition score, integument alterations, lameness, milk somatic cell count, and social behaviour) of the Welfare Quality® protocol. Additionally, housing characteristics such as designs of barns, cubicles, and floors were documented during farm visits and farmers were interviewed concerning their common management routines. Farms were categorized into a high welfare or low welfare group by calculating upper and lower tertiles for each of the animal welfare indicators separately. Both groups were compared regarding housing conditions and management practices using univariable and multivariable logistic regressions. Several associations between housing and management factors and animal welfare indicators were demonstrated in univariable analysis (p < 0.20). Significant effects within multivariable logistic regression analysis were determined for lameness (routine use of foot-baths), milk somatic cell count (milking frequency) and social behaviour (cow-to-stall ratio) (p < 0.05). Comparing farms with higher and lower animal welfare status can provide useful information about effective options to improve animal welfare.

Sociotechnological Sustainability in Pasture Management: Labor Input and Optimization Potential of Smart Tools to Measure Herbage Mass and Quality

Investing labor time in herbage measurements is important for precision pasture management. In this study, the labor input of three smart herbage measurement tools—multispectral imagery linked to an unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), a semi-automated rising plate meter (RPM), and near-infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) of cut herbage samples—and of direct observation was modeled based on the REFA work element method. Three to five users were observed during work execution to identify best-practice workflows. Time measurements were conducted using video footage. The resulting standard times of work elements were used to model labor input for herbage measurements in different farm sizes (i.e., milking platforms of 6–100 ha) and subdivisions of a farm’s milking platform (i.e., 4–45 paddocks). Labor time requirement differed between the smart farming tools (0.7–5.9 h) depending on the farm size and milking platform scenario. The labor time requirement increased for all tools with an increase in farm size and was lowest for the RPM. For the UAV tool, it did not increase noticeably when the division of the milking platform changed. Nevertheless, the potential to save time was identified for the UAV and the NIRS. Therefore, the automation of certain steps in the workflows would contribute to sociotechnological sustainable pasture management.

Lameness prevalence and management practices on Irish pasture-based dairy farms

Background

Lameness is a painful disease, which negatively impacts dairy cow production and welfare. The aim of this observational study was to determine herd lameness prevalence, describe current lameness management practices and identify the presence of established risk factors for lameness on Irish pasture-based dairy farms. Farms were visited once during grazing (99 farms) and again during housing (85 farms). Lameness scoring was carried out at each visit (AHDB 0–3 scale); cows were classified as lame if they scored two or three. Farm management practices and infrastructure characteristics were evaluated via farmer questionnaires and direct measurements of farm infrastructure.

Results

Median herd-level lameness prevalence was 7.9% (interquartile range = 5.6 – 13.0) during grazing and 9.1% (interquartile range = 4.9 – 12.0) during housing; 10.9% of cows were lame at a single visit and 3.5% were lame at both visits (chronically lame or had a repeat episode of lameness). Fifty-seven percent of farmers were not familiar with lameness scoring and only one farm carried out lameness scoring. Only 22% of farmers kept records of lame cows detected, and 15% had a lameness herd health plan. Twenty-eight percent of farmers waited more than 48 h to treat a lame cow, and 21% waited for more than one cow to be identified as lame before treating. Six percent of farmers carried out routine trimming and 31% regularly footbathed (> 12 times per year). Twelve percent put severely lame cows in a closer paddock and 8% stated that they used pain relief to treat severely lame cows. Over 50% of farms had at least one cow track measurement that was classified as rough or very rough, and cow tracks were commonly narrow for the herd size. On 6% of farms, all cubicle beds were bare concrete (no matting or bedding) and on a further 6% of farms, there was a combination of cubicles with and without matting or bedding. On 56% of farms, all pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow and on 28% of farms, a proportion of pens contained less than 1.1 cubicles per cow.

Conclusions

Overall, this study identified infrastructure and management practices which could be improved upon. The comparatively low lameness prevalence demonstrated, compared to fully housed systems, also highlights the benefits of a pasture-based system for animal welfare; however, there remains scope for improvement.

Historical Evolution of Cattle Management and Herd Health of Dairy Farms in OECD Countries

This work aimed to review the important aspects of the dairy industry evolution at herd level, interrelating production with health management systems. Since the beginning of the industrialization of the dairy cattle sector (1950s), driven by the need to feed the rapidly growing urban areas, this industry has experienced several improvements, evolving in management and technology. These changes have been felt above all in the terms of milking, rearing, nutrition, reproductive management, and design of facilities. Shortage of labor, emphasis on increasing farm efficiency, and quality of life of the farmers were the driving factors for these changes. To achieve it, in many areas of the world, pasture production has been abandoned, moving to indoor production, which allows for greater nutritional and reproductive control of the animals. To keep pace with this paradigm in milk production, animal health management has also been improved. Prevention and biosecurity have become essential to control and prevent pathologies that cause great economic losses. As such, veterinary herd health management programs were created, allowing the management of health of the herd as a whole, through the common work of veterinarians and farmers. These programs address the farms holistically, from breeding to nutrition, from prevention to consultancy. In addition, farmers are now faced with a consumer more concerned on animal production, valuing certified products that respect animal health and welfare, as well as environmental sustainability.

Locomotion behavior of dairy cows on traditional summer mountain farms in comparison with modern cubicle housing without access to pasture

Pasture based systems enable cattle to express their natural behavior and are thus expected to provide better welfare than the majority of confinement systems. The aim of this study was to objectively measure locomotion activity of healthy dairy cattle kept on mountain pastures (n = 44) compared with cows kept in cubicle housing systems (n = 38). Selected cows were equipped with a validated 3D-accelerometer on one hind limb, and locomotion behavior was recorded for 48 hours. The 1-hour summaries of the variables lying time, walking time, standing bouts, walking bouts and number of strides were summed up to 24-hour summaries, and the means of the stride distance and stride duration were weighted by the variable number of strides. Mountain pasture cows had higher locomotor activity levels in comparison to cubicle cows. Mountain pasture cows spent less time lying down (528.1±109.5 min/day vs. 693.3±73.8 min/day; P<0.0001) and more time walking (75.6±25.9 min/day vs. 38.8±15.8 min/day; P <0.0001) than cubicle cows. Lying bout duration was longer in cubicle than in mountain pasture cows (90.9± 15.2 min/bout vs. 74.2 ± 21.1 min/bout; P = 0.0001), whilst the number of walking bouts was higher in mountain pasture cows than cubicle cows (199.1 ± 49.1 vs. 123.8 ± 43.8 bouts per day; P < 0.001). Likewise, the number of strides was higher in mountain pasture cows than cubicle cows (2040.5 ± 825.3 vs. 916.7 ± 408.6; P < 0.001). Mountain pasture cows had shorter stride duration (P < 0.0001) and shorter strides (P = 0.0002) than cubicle cows (1.8 ± 0.1 s/stride vs 2 ± 0.2 s/stride and 126.3 ± 18.1 vs 142.1 ± 17.8 m/stride, respectively). In summary, cows kept on mountain pasture were more active and spent longer than 12 hours / day standing. Lying markedly less than 12 hours per day seems to represent the normal behavior of pastured cows searching for fresh grass. This does not cause any obvious damage to the locomotor system as claws of cattle are well adapted to long periods of movement on mountain pastures.

A randomised controlled trial to evaluate the impact of indoor living space on dairy cow production, reproduction and behaviour

As a global society, we have a duty to provide suitable care and conditions for farmed livestock to protect animal welfare and ensure the sustainability of our food supply. The suitability and biological impacts of housing conditions for intensively farmed animals is a complex and emotive subject, yet poorly researched, meaning quantitative evidence to inform policy and legislation is lacking. Most dairy cows globally are housed for some duration during the year, largely when climatic conditions are unfavourable. However, the impact on biology, productivity and welfare of even the most basic housing requirement, the quantity of living space, remains unknown. We conducted a long-term (1-year), randomised controlled trial (CONSORT 10 guidelines) to investigate the impact of increased living space (6.5 m2 vs 3 m2 per animal) on critical aspects of cow biology, behaviour and productivity. Adult Holstein dairy cows (n = 150) were continuously and randomly allocated to a high or control living space group with all other aspects of housing remaining identical between groups. Compared to cows in the control living space group, cows with increased space produced more milk per 305d lactation (primiparous: 12,235 L vs 11,592 L, P < 0.01; multiparous: 14,746 L vs 14,644 L, P < 0.01) but took longer to become pregnant after calving (primiparous: 155 d vs 83 d, P = 0.025; multiparous: 133 d vs 109 d). In terms of behaviour, cows with more living space spent significantly more time in lying areas (65 min/d difference; high space group: 12.43 h/day, 95% CI = 11.70-13.29; control space group: 11.42 h/day, 95% CI = 10.73-12.12) and significantly less time in passageways (64 min/d), suggesting enhanced welfare when more space was provided. A key physiological difference between groups was that cows with more space spent longer ruminating each day. This is the first long term study in dairy cows to demonstrate that increased living space results in meaningful benefits in terms of productivity and behaviour and suggests that the interplay between farmed animals and their housed environment plays an important role in the concepts of welfare and sustainability of dairy farming.

Milk Fatty Acid Profile of Holstein Cows When Changed from a Mixed System to a Confinement System or Mixed System with Overnight Grazing

This study is aimed at comparing the milk fatty acid profile (FAP) of cows that changed from a mixed system (MS) of double grazing plus total mixed ration (TMR) to a total confinement system (TCS, 100% TMR) with cows that changed to another MS with one overnight grazing plus TMR and compare with cows that were kept unchanged in TCS. The diet change was made in the second month of lactation. The milk samples were collected at one (M1-spring) and three months of lactation (M3-summer). Three treatments are as follows (each n = 10): confined cows fed with TMR throughout the period (GTMR), cows that changed from MS with double grazing plus TMR in M1 to TCS in M3 (GCHD), and cows that changed from a MS with double grazing plus TMR in M1 to a MS with overnight grazing plus TMR in M3 (GTMR+P). Unlike GTMR+P, GCHD improved milk production after change (increased 14% from M1 to M3), but milk FAP was impaired. In M3, conjugated linoleic acid (C18 : 2-CLA) in GTMR and GCHD was lower than GTMR+P (p < 0.05), and linolenic (C18 : 3-n-3) was lower in GCHD than GTMR+P. Maintaining grazing in summer overnight sustained milk fat quality, evidenced by higher C18 : 3 (n-3); C18 : 2 (CLA); and n-6/n-3 ratio than cows that changed to TCS.

Effet du type de stabulation sur le bien-être des vaches laitières en Algérie

Le but de la présente étude était d'examiner l’effet du type de stabulation sur le bien-être des vaches laitières de race Holstein dans les fermes du Nord-est algérien au niveau de quatre wilayas sur la base du protocole d'évaluation Welfare Quality® pour les bovins. Par conséquent, nous avons appliqué ce protocole à 50 fermes laitières en stabulation libre et à 50 en stabulation entravée. Un total de 2200 vaches laitières a été évalué en période hivernale. Il y avait des différences significatives entre les deux types de logements pour la majorité des critères étudiés : Confort autour de repos (33, 54±5,60 vs 22,34±2,70, absence de soif prolongée (42,40±6,60 vs 20, 40±6,60), facilité de mouvement (100,00±00 vs 44,50± 3,40) et absence de blessures (38,50±10,30 vs 25,12±8,40), cependant l'analyse des mesures liées indique d'importants échecs de gestion dans les deux types de logements dans la région d’étude. En effet, de multiples contraintes ont été observées d’ordre alimentaire (indisponibilité de fourrages et non maitrise du rationnement) et sanitaire (non-respect des normes hygiéniques). Cette situation nécessite d’informer et de communiquer avec l’éleveur sur ce qu’est réellement le bien‐être des animaux afin d’améliorer les conditions d’élevage.

Performance and feeding behavior of Holstein and Holstein × Gyr crossbred heifers grazing temperate forages

This study aimed to investigate the difference between Holstein and Holstein × Gyr breeds on feeding behavior and performance of heifers grazing temperate pasture. The experiment was carried out in 89 days, split into 14 days of adaptation, and 3 periods of 25 days. Two treatments were used: Holstein (HOL; n = 7) and Holstein × Gyr (HG; n = 7). Heifers grazed a consortium of ryegrass and bristle oats and were supplemented individually daily with cornmeal at 0.33% of body weight plus 5 kg/day of corn silage. For 3 consecutive days, feeding behavior was observed for individual animals from direct visual observation recording at 10-min intervals. The digestibility trial was performed on day (d) 16 to d24 of each period. Body measurements and weight were taken at d0 and at d23, 24, and 25 of each period. Grazing duration, grazing frequency, and bite rate were greater for HOL than those for HG. Rumination characteristics, intake, digestibility, and body measurements were not affected by breed. Breeds had differences in grazing characteristics, but they did not influence performance or intake parameters. Therefore, HOL and HG heifers managed under temperate pasture in tropical countries have similar performances.

Dairy farmer practices and attitudes relating to pasture-based and indoor production systems in Scotland

This study assesses the practices and views of Scottish dairy farmers relating to pasture-based and indoor systems. There are the debates about the environmental, economic and animal welfare implications of these systems. Indoor dairy farming is a contentious practice among the public. While this controversy is sometimes represented as a lack of public understanding, there is a need for more research on farmers' views to facilitate discussion in the industry. A survey was posted to 909 dairy farmers in Scotland with questions about their grazing practices and attitudes to grazing and indoor systems. 254 surveys were completed, online and in paper form. There was a 26% response rate to the paper version of the survey. The results showed that 19% of respondents housed some or all the cows all year-round. 68% agreed or strongly agreed that cows should graze for part of the year and 51% agreed or strongly agreed that welfare was better if cows grazed for part of the year. These views coexisted with the view that management was more important than the type of system for determining profitability or welfare outcomes (83% and 82% strongly agree or agree respectively). Respondents whose system involved grazing and respondents who had spent longer in farming were moderately more likely to agree that cows should have access to pasture, and slightly less likely to agree that management was more important than system for determining welfare outcomes. The results indicate that the picture is more complicated than the public rejecting indoor dairy farming and those in the industry accepting it. The results showed that a majority preference for cows to graze co-existed with the view that management was more important than system. In terms of industry and policy recommendations, the research suggests that measures should be taken to safeguard farmers' ability to graze through for instance research and advisory support on grazing; ensuring different systems are not penalised in the development of dairy sector environmental measures and recommendations; and potentially supply chains that financially rewards farmers for grazing.

Production and Health Management from Grazing to Confinement Systems of Largest Dairy Bovine Farms in Azores: A Farmers' Perspective

Simple Summary

This study aimed to evaluate differences and critical factors in production and health management between dairy cattle farms with fixed milk parlours (FMP), and mobile milk systems (MMS) from Azorean grasslands. According to the farmers’ perspective, calf diarrhea, calf pneumonia, infertility/poor reproductive management, and mastitis were the main problems that farms faced in 2020. FMP was associated with more advanced and mechanized production systems, with a higher adherence to preventive and biosecurity control programs, than traditional MMS farms. MMS farms also showed a greater vocation for dual-purpose farming (beef and milk), smaller herd sizes and more grazing time for cows. In conclusion, inherent and non-inherent differences in production and health management between FMP and MMS were quantified by authors. These results indicate that a greater adoption of preventive veterinary medicine and biosecurity measures should be taken, especially among MMS farms. The education of farmers should also be improved and stimulated.

Abstract

The intensification of bovine milk production in the Azores has led farmers to increase farm size and specialization in grasslands, implementing confined and semi-confined production systems. Fixed milking parlours (FMP) have progressively gained more popularity, at the expense of conventional mobile milking systems (MMS). The present study aimed to evaluate the associations between production and health management in dairy cattle farms, with FMP or MMS, in grasslands (São Miguel, Azores), according to the farmers’ perspective. A total of 102 questions about production and health management were surveyed in 105 farms with >30 dairy cows each. Farms with FMP were associated (p ≤ 0.05) with larger herd size, better facilities, and specialized management, however, the adoption of preventive and biosecurity measures should be improved by these farmers. MMS farms implemented a lower level of disease prevention or control programs, less frequent transhumance, and showed a wider vocation to dual-purpose (milk and cross beef) than FMP farms. In conclusion, MMS and FMP farms tried to optimize yield and economic viability in different ways using grasslands. Several biosecurity and health prevention constraints were identified for improvement.

Management Factors Influence Animal Welfare and the Correlation to Infectious Diseases in Dairy Cows

The present study assessed dairy cow welfare through the application of the Italian National Animal Welfare Reference Center (CReNBA) checklist in 36 dairy farms located in Ragusa (Italy) subjected to two different management conditions, housing with free access to pasture (Group 1, farms n = 17) and indoor housing (Group 2, farms n = 19). Five areas of investigation were considered: Area A, "Farm management and personnel"; Area B, "Facilities and equipment"; Area C, "Animal-based measures"; Area D, "Inspection of microclimatic environmental conditions and alarm systems"; and Area E, "Biosecurity". Blood samples were collected by coccygeal venipuncture from all animals (4081 cows). The specific antibodies against Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis, Chlamydiophila abortus, Neospora caninum, bovine viral diarrhea virus, and the bovine herpesvirus were assessed by enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) serological test. Group 1 (access to pasture) showed a lower value of percentage score recorded in Area A (p = 0.02) and E (p = 0.01) than Group 2 (indoor housing). Herpesvirus (Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis - IBR - detection of gB antibodies/IBR-gB) blood concentrations were higher in the cows housed indoor versus those with access to pasture (p = 0.01). Farm management and personnel (score A) was correlated with the level of bovine viral diarrhea virus (τ = 0.3754) and bovine-herpesvirus-specific antibodies (IBR-gB) (τ = 0.4159). "Biosecurity" percentage score showed a significant correlation with Chlamydiophila abortus (τ = -0.4621) in the cows with access to pasture and IBR-gB (τ = 0.3435) in the cows housed fully indoors. Group 2 showed a significantly reduced level of antibodies against Neospora caninum. In conclusion, differences in the welfare assessment score were observed in the "Farm management and personnel" and "Biosecurity" between the two management conditions. It had an effect on the prevalence of herpesvirus, which occurred more in cattle with access to pasture. Therefore, an accurate application of the checklist could be an instrument to prevent and control the spread of infections in farms.

Feasibility and Reliability of the AWIN Welfare Assessment Protocol for Dairy Goats in Semi-extensive Farming Conditions

The aim of this study was to test the feasibility and reliability of the Animal Welfare Indicators (AWIN) protocol for welfare assessment of dairy goats when applied to semi-extensive farming conditions. We recruited 13 farms located in the NW Italian Alps where three assessors individually and independently applied a modified version of the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for goats integrated with some indicators derived from the AWIN welfare assessment protocol for sheep. The applied protocol consisted of nine individual-level (body condition score, hair coat condition, abscesses, overgrown claws, udder asymmetry, fecal soiling, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, and improper disbudding) and seven group-level (severe lameness, Qualitative Behavior Assessment-QBA, thermal stress, oblivion, Familiar Human Approach Test-FHAT, synchrony at grazing, synchrony at resting) animal-based indicators. On most farms, the level of welfare was good. Many of the considered welfare problems (overgrown claws, fecal soiling, discharges, and thermal stress) were never recorded. However, oblivion, severe lameness, hair coat condition and abscesses were detected on some farms, with percentages ranging from 5 to 35%. The mean percentage of animals with normal body condition was 67.9 ± 5.7. The level of synchronization during resting was on average low (14.3 ± 7.2%). The application of the whole protocol required more than 4 h/farm and 3 min/goat. The inter-observer reliability varied from excellent (udder asymmetry, overgrown claws, discharges, synchrony at resting, use of shelter) to acceptable (abscesses, fecal soiling, and oblivion), but insufficient for hair coat condition, improper disbudding, synchrony at grazing, QBA. Differences in background of the assessors and feasibility constraints (i.e., use of binoculars in unfenced pastures, individual-level assessment conducted during the morning milking in narrow and dark pens, difficulties when using the scan and instantaneous sampling method due to the high number of animals that moved at the same time) can affect the reliability of data collection. Extensive training seems necessary for properly scoring animals when applying the QBA, whereas the FHAT to evaluate the Human-Animal Relationship of goats at pasture seems promising but needs to be validated. Indicators that evaluate the synchrony of activities require to be validated to identify the best moment to perform the observations during the day.

Daytime Grazing in Mountainous Areas Increases Unsaturated Fatty Acids and Decreases Cortisol in the Milk of Holstein Dairy Cows

The effects of grazing lactating cows in mountainous areas for 12 and 24 h compared with the confined indoor system were evaluated by examining the overall milk fatty acid and cortisol. Twenty-one dairy cows were allocated to three treatment groups: (1) control (confined management system in a free-stall barn; TMR based), (2) grazing for 12 h (12 hG; TMR plus grazing pasture), and (3) grazing for 24 h (24 hG; pasture-based feeding system). Dry matter intake was higher in the control and 12 hG groups than in the 24 hG group. The yields of total milk and the 3.5% fat-corrected milk were the lowest in the 24 hG group. Milk fat was the highest in the 24 hG group and higher in 12 hG compared with the control group. Milk protein and lactose levels were the highest in the 12 hG group. The highest somatic cell count was observed in the 24 hG group. The saturated fatty acid levels were higher in the control group compared with the 12 hG and 24 hG groups. There was no difference in overall mono-unsaturated fatty acids between 12 hG and 24 hG groups. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids were higher in the 12 hG group compared with the control and 24 hG groups. There was no difference in omega-6 (ω-6) fatty acids among the groups, and omega-3 fatty acids were higher in the 12 hG group than in the control group. Milk cortisol was the highest in the 24 hG group and higher in the control group compared with the 12 hG group. Taken together, grazing for 12 h is advisable for farms that have access to mountainous areas to improve the milk fatty acid profile and decrease the stress levels in high-yielding Holstein lactating cows.

Dairy farmer practices and attitudes relating to grass-based, high-feed-input, and indoor production systems in Ireland

Grazing has become a less common dairy farming practice in most European countries. Ireland is an exception with its predominantly grass-based system. After the removal of European milk quotas, farmers were encouraged to expand within a grass-based paradigm rather than pursuing yield increases through feeding more concentrate. This research assessed Irish dairy farmer attitudes toward grass-based, higher-feed-input, and indoor paradigms. A paradigm of agriculture is a shared understanding about how agriculture should be carried out. Grass-based, higher-feed-input, and indoor paradigms propose different solutions to economic, environmental, and animal-welfare challenges facing dairy farming. An online survey was distributed to Irish dairy farmers in August 2018, which received 396 responses. There was support among respondents for the grass-based paradigm of maximizing milk from forage and minimizing concentrate use, with 73% of respondents strongly agreeing or agreeing this was the best option for Irish dairy farmers. The results suggest there were not significant ideological disagreements among respondents about the economic, environmental, and animal-welfare merits of different paradigms. Rather, the results showed respondents supported grass-based or higher-feed-input paradigms for different reasons as follows: profitability and lifestyle for the former, and the ability to expand production without access to additional land and less dependence on weather for the latter. These findings could be of interest in countries where grazing is less widely practiced, but where there is a desire to increase the uptake of grazing practices. Messaging about the profitability and simplicity of the grass-based system clearly resonated with respondents, and could be replicated in other countries. There is a desire within the Irish government, industry, and advisory bodies to keep dairy expansion within a grass-based paradigm. The results suggested individuals may diverge from this paradigm not because they disagree with messaging about its benefits, but rather if difficulties with land access or managing weather variability lead them to expand through feeding more concentrate. To maintain production within the grass-based paradigm, more opportunities could be created for farmers who are restricted from further expansion, such as alternative supply chains or payments for environmental services.