On-line competitive immunoassay for insulin based on capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Twenty years of islet-on-a-chip: microfluidic tools for dissecting islet metabolism and function

Pancreatic islets are metabolically active micron-sized tissues responsible for controlling blood glucose through the secretion of insulin and glucagon. A loss of functional islet mass results in type 1 and 2 diabetes. Islet-on-a-chip devices are powerful microfluidic tools used to trap and study living ex vivo human and murine pancreatic islets and potentially stem cell-derived islet organoids. Devices developed over the past twenty years offer the ability to treat islets with controlled and dynamic microenvironments to mimic in vivo conditions and facilitate diabetes research. In this review, we explore the various islet-on-a-chip devices used to immobilize islets, regulate the microenvironment, and dynamically detect islet metabolism and insulin secretion. We first describe and assess the various methods used to immobilize islets including chambers, dam-walls, and hydrodynamic traps. We subsequently describe the surrounding methods used to create glucose gradients, enhance the reaggregation of dispersed islets, and control the microenvironment of stem cell-derived islet organoids. We focus on the various methods used to measure insulin secretion including capillary electrophoresis, droplet microfluidics, off-chip ELISAs, and on-chip fluorescence anisotropy immunoassays. Additionally, we delve into the various multiparametric readouts (NAD(P)H, Ca2+-activity, and O2-consumption rate) achieved primarily by adopting a microscopy-compatible optical window into the devices. By critical assessment of these advancements, we aim to inspire the development of new devices by the microfluidics community and accelerate the adoption of islet-on-a-chip devices by the wider diabetes research and clinical communities.

3D Printed Instrument for Taylor Dispersion Analysis with Two-Point Laser-Induced Fluorescence Detection

Precisely controlling the size of engineered biomolecules and pharmaceutical compounds is often critical to their function. Standard methods for size characterization, such as dynamic light scattering or size exclusion chromatography, can be sample intensive and may not provide the sensitivity needed for mass- or concentration-limited biological systems. Taylor dispersion analysis (TDA) is a proven analytical method for direct, calibration-free size determination which utilizes only nL-pL sample volumes. In TDA, diffusion coefficients, which are mathematically transformed to hydrodynamic radii, are determined by characterizing band broadening of an analyte under well-controlled laminar flow conditions. Here, we describe the design and development of a 3D printed instrument for TDA, which is the first such instrument to offer dual-point laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection. The instrument utilized a fully 3D printed eductor as a vacuum source for precise and stable pressure-driven flow within a capillary, evidenced by a linear response in generated static pressure to applied gas pressure (R² = 0.997) and a 30-fold improvement in stability of static pressure (0.05% RSD) as compared to a standard mechanical pump (1.53%). Design aspects of the LIF detection system were optimized to maximize S/N for excitation and emission optical axes, and high sensitivity was achieved as evidenced by an 80 pM limit of detection for the protein R-Phycoerythrin and low nM limits of detection for three additional fluorophores. The utility of the instrument was demonstrated via sizing of R-Phycoerythrin at pM concentrations.

Clinical and pharmaceutical applications of affinity ligands in capillary electrophoresis: A review

Affinity capillary electrophoresis (ACE) is a separation technique that combines a biologically-related binding agent with the separating power and efficiency of capillary electrophoresis. This review will examine several classes of binding agents that have been used in ACE and applications that have been described for the resulting methods in clinical or pharmaceutical analysis. Binding agents that will be considered are antibodies, aptamers, lectins, serum proteins, carbohydrates, and enzymes. This review will also describe the various formats in which each type of binding agent has been used in CE, including both homogeneous and heterogeneous methods. Specific areas of applications that will be considered are CE-based immunoassays, glycoprotein/glycan separations, chiral separations, and biointeraction studies. The general principles and formats of ACE for each of these applications will be examined, along with the potential advantages or limitations of these methods.

Microfluidic-enabled quantitative measurements of insulin release dynamics from single islets of Langerhans in response to 5-palmitic acid hydroxy stearic acid

Proper release of insulin from pancreatic islets of Langerhans is essential for maintaining glucose homeostasis. For full efficacy, both the pattern and the amount of hormone release are critical. It is therefore important to understand how insulin levels are secreted from single islets in both a quantitative fashion and in a manner that resolves temporal dynamics. In this study, we describe a microfluidic analytical system that can both quantitatively monitor insulin secretion from single islets while simultaneously maintaining high temporal sampling to resolve dynamics of release. We have applied this system to determine the acute and chronic effects of a recently-identified lipid, 5-palmitic acid hydroxy stearic acid (5-PAHSA), which is a member of the fatty acid hydroxy fatty acid class of lipids that are upregulated in healthy individuals. Chronic incubation (48 h) with 5-PAHSA significantly increased glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (GSIS) in murine islets compared to chronic incubation without the lipid or in the presence of palmitic acid (PA). The studies were continued in human islets from both healthy donors and donors diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Total amounts of GSIS were not only augmented in islets that were chronically incubated with 5-PAHSA, but the dynamic insulin release profiles also improved as noted by more pronounced insulin oscillations. With this quantitative microfluidic system, we have corroborated the anti-diabetic effects of 5-PAHSA by demonstrating improved islet function after chronic incubation with this lipid via improved oscillatory dynamics along with higher basal and peak release rates.

A microfluidic indirect competitive immunoassay for multiple and sensitive detection of testosterone in serum and urine

We demonstrate a microfluidic-based indirect competitive chemiluminescence enzyme immunoassay (MIC) for multiple, sensitive, reliable and rapid detection of testosterone in human serum and urine samples. As MIC can detect biomarkers in a cost-effective and easy-to-operate manner, it may have great potential for clinical diagnosis and point-of-care testing (POCT).

Clinical applications of capillary electrophoresis based immunoassays

Immunoassays have long been an important set of tools in clinical laboratories for the detection, diagnosis, and treatment of disease. Over the last two decades, there has been growing interest in utilizing CE as a means for conducting immunoassays with clinical samples. The resulting method is known as a CE immunoassay. This approach makes use of the selective and strong binding of antibodies for their targets, as is employed in a traditional immunoassay, and combines this with the speed, efficiency, and small sample requirements of CE. This review discusses the variety of ways in which CE immunoassays have been employed with clinical samples. An overview of the formats and detection modes that have been employed in these applications is first presented. A more detailed discussion is then given on the type of clinical targets and samples that have been measured or studied by using CE immunoassays. Particular attention is given to the use of this method in the fields of endocrinology, pharmaceutical measurements, protein and peptide analysis, immunology, infectious disease detection, and oncology. Representative applications in each of these areas are described, with these examples involving work with both traditional and microanalytical CE systems.

Monitoring insulin aggregation via capillary electrophoresis

Early stages of insulin aggregation, which involve the transient formation of oligomeric aggregates, are an important aspect in the progression of Type II diabetes and in the quality control of pharmaceutical insulin production. This study is the first to utilize capillary electrophoresis (CE) with ultraviolet (UV) detection to monitor insulin oligomer formation at pH 8.0 and physiological ionic strength. The lag time to formation of the first detected species in the aggregation process was evaluated by UV-CE and thioflavin T (ThT) binding for salt concentrations from 100 mM to 250 mM. UV-CE had a significantly shorter (5–8 h) lag time than ThT binding (15–19 h). In addition, the lag time to detection of the first aggregated species via UV-CE was unaffected by salt concentration, while a trend toward an increased lag time with increased salt concentration was observed with ThT binding. This result indicates that solution ionic strength impacts early stages of aggregation and β-sheet aggregate formation differently. To observe whether CE may be applied for the analysis of biological samples containing low insulin concentrations, the limit of detection using UV and laser induced fluorescence (LIF) detection modes was determined. The limit of detection using LIF-CE, 48.4 pM, was lower than the physiological insulin concentration, verifying the utility of this technique for monitoring biological samples. LIF-CE was subsequently used to analyze the time course for fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled insulin oligomer formation. This study is the first to report that the FITC label prevented incorporation of insulin into oligomers, cautioning against the use of this fluorescent label as a tag for following early stages of insulin aggregation.

Microfluidic device for multimodal characterization of pancreatic islets

A microfluidic device to perfuse pancreatic islets while simultaneously characterizing their functionality through fluorescence imaging of the mitochondrial membrane potential and intracellular calcium ([Ca(2+)](i)) in addition to enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) quantification of secreted insulin was developed and characterized. This multimodal characterization of islet function will facilitate rapid assessment of tissue quality immediately following isolation from donor pancreas and allow more informed transplantation decisions to be made which may improve transplantation outcomes. The microfluidic perfusion chamber allows flow rates of up to 1 mL min(-1), without any noticeable perturbation or shear of islets. This multimodal quantification was done on both mouse and human islets. The ability of this simple microfluidic device to detect subtle variations in islet responses in different functional assays performed in short time-periods demonstrates that the microfluidic perfusion chamber device can be used as a new gold standard to perform comprehensive islet analysis and obtain a more meaningful predictive value for islet functionality prior to transplantation into recipients, which is currently difficult to predict using a single functional assay.

Capillary electrophoresis-based immunoassays: principles and quantitative applications

The use of CE as a tool to conduct immunoassays has been an area of increasing interest over the last decade. This approach combines the efficiency, small sample requirements, and relatively high speed of CE with the selectivity of antibodies as binding agents. This review examines the various assay formats and detection modes that have been reported for these assays, along with some representative applications. Most CE immunoassays in the past have employed homogeneous methods in which the sample and reagents are allowed to react in solution. These homogeneous methods have been conducted as both competitive binding immunoassays and as noncompetitive binding immunoassays. Fluorescent labels are most commonly used for detection in these assays, but enzyme labels have also been utilized for such work. Some additional work has been performed in CE immunoassays with heterogeneous methods in which either antibodies or an analog of the analyte is immobilized to a solid support. These heterogeneous methods can be used for the selective isolation of analytes prior to their separation by CE or to remove a given species from a sample/reagent mixture prior to analysis by CE. These CE immunoassays can be used with a variety of detection modes, such as fluorescence, UV/Vis absorbance, chemiluminescence, electrochemical measurements, MS, and surface plasmon resonance.

Analysis of proteins in solution using affinity capillary electrophoresis

Analysis of protein interactions by means of capillary electrophoresis (CE) has unique challenges and rewards. The choice of analysis conditions, especially involving electrophoresis buffers, are crucial and not universal for protein analysis. If conditions for analysis can be worked out, it is possible to utilize CE quantitatively and qualitatively to characterize protein-ligand binding involving unmodified molecules in solution and taking place under physiological conditions. This chapter deals with the most important practical considerations in capillary electrophoretic affinity approaches, affinity CE (ACE). The text emphasizes the most critical factors for successful analyses and has application examples illustrating various types of information offered by ACE-based studies. Also included are step-by-step accounts of the two main classes of experimental design: the pre-equilibration ACE (in the form of CE-frontal analysis (CE-FA)) and mobility shift ACE together with examples of their use. The ACE approaches for binding assays of proteins should be considered when the biological material is scarce, when any kind of labeling is not possible or desired, when the interacting molecules are the same size and when rapid and simple method development is a priority.

Assay for glucosamine 6-phosphate using a ligand-activated ribozyme with fluorescence resonance energy transfer or CE-laser-induced fluorescence detection

A naturally occurring aptazyme, the glmS ribozyme, is adapted to an assay for glucosamine 6-phosphate, an effector molecule for the aptazyme. In the assay, binding of analyte allosterically activates aptazyme to cleave a fluorescently labeled oligonucleotide substrate. The extent of reaction, and hence analyte concentration, is detected by either fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) or capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence (CE-LIF). With FRET, assay signal is the rate of increase in FRET in presence of analyte. With CE-LIF, the assay signal is the peak height of cleavage product formed after a fixed incubation time. The assay has a linear response up to 100 (CE-LIF) or 500 microM (FRET) and detection limit of approximately 500 nM for glucosamine 6-phosphate under single-turnover conditions. When substrate is present in excess of the aptazyme, it is possible to amplify the signal by multiple turnovers to achieve a 13-fold improvement in sensitivity and detection limit of 50 nM. Successful signal amplification requires a temperature cycle to alternately dissociate cleaved substrate and allow fresh substrate to bind aptazyme. The results show that aptazymes have potential utility as analytical reagents for quantification of effector molecules.

Two-color electrophoretic immunoassay for simultaneous measurement of insulin and glucagon content in islets of Langerhans

A multianalyte CE competitive immunoassay using two-color detection was developed to measure insulin and glucagon in islets of Langerhans. Insulin was quantified with FITC-insulin (Ins*) and anti-insulin antibodies (Ins Ab) and glucagon was quantified with Cy5-glucagon (Glu*) and anti-glucagon antibodies (Glu Ab). A 3 mW Ar(+) laser at 488 nm and a 25 mW laser diode at 635 nm were used to excite FITC and Cy5, respectively. Fluorescence was split with a half-silvered mirror and passed through a 520 +/- 20 nm bandpass filter or a 663 nm longpass filter for the detection of insulin and glucagon, respectively. The two-color detection format enabled independent quantitation of both analytes even with concentrations of insulin immunoassay reagents 20-fold higher than glucagon reagents. Simultaneous calibration curves were generated and used to determine insulin and glucagon content in islets of Langerhans. Amounts of insulin and glucagon were 56.6 +/- 3.2 and 1.0 +/- 0.5 ng/islet, respectively. LODs were 7 nM insulin and 3 nM glucagon. The assay will be applicable to fast monitoring of multiple peptides secreted from islets of Langerhans and can be applied to other systems for the quantitation of multiple analytes with large differences in concentrations.

Protein-aptamer binding studies using microchip affinity capillary electrophoresis

The use of traditional CE to detect weak binding complexes is problematic due to the fast-off rate resulting in the dissociation of the complex during the separation process. Additionally, proteins involved in binding interactions often nonspecifically stick to the bare-silica capillary walls, which further complicates the binding analysis. Microchip CE allows flexibly positioning the detector along the separation channel and conveniently adjusting the separation length. A short separation length plus a high electric field enables rapid separations thus reducing both the dissociation of the complex and the amount of protein loss due to nonspecific adsorption during the separation process. Thrombin and a selective thrombin-binding aptamer were used to demonstrate the capability of microchip CE for the study of relatively weak binding systems that have inherent limitations when using the migration shift method or other CE methods. The rapid separation of the thrombin-aptamer complex from the free aptamer was achieved in less than 10 s on a single-cross glass microchip with a relatively short detection length (1.0 cm) and a high electric field (670 V/cm). The dissociation constant was determined to be 43 nM, consistent with reported results. In addition, aptamer probes were used for the quantitation of standard thrombin samples by constructing a calibration curve, which showed good linearity over two orders of magnitude with an LOD for thrombin of 5 nM at a three-fold S/N.

Insulins in equine urine: qualitative analysis by immunoaffinity purification and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry for doping control purposes in horse-racing

Insulin is a peptide hormone consisting of two peptide chains (A- and B-chain) that are cross-linked by two disulfide bonds. To obtain improved pharmacokinetic onset of action profiles of insulin treatment in diabetic patients, recombinant long-, intermediate-, and rapid-acting insulin analogs are produced, in which the C-terminal end of the B-chain plays an especially important role.A review of the veterinary literature reveals the low prevalence of equine type I diabetes mellitus, which indicates that the therapeutic use of insulin in racing horses is unlikely. Although there is no unequivocal evidence of an overall performance-enhancing effect of insulin, in human sports the misuse of insulin preparations is reported among elite athletes. The desired effects of insulin include the increase of muscular glycogen prior to sports event or during the recovery phase, in addition to a chalonic action, which increases the muscle size by inhibiting protein breakdown. In the present study urinary insulin was detected in equine samples and differences between equine insulin, human insulin, as well as rapidly acting recombinant insulin variants were examined. The method was based on sample purification by solid-phase extraction (SPE) and immunoaffinity chromatography (IAC), and subsequent analysis by microbore liquid chromatography (LC) and tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) using top-down sequencing for the determination of various insulins. Product ion scan experiments of intact proteins and B-chains enabled the differentiation between endogenously produced equine insulin, its DesB30 metabolite, human insulin and recombinant insulin analogs, and the assay allowed the assignment of individual product ions, especially those originating from modified C-termini of B-chains.

High-sensitivity detection of biological amines using fast Hadamard transform CE coupled with photolytic optical gating

Here, we report the first utilization of Hadamard transform CE (HTCE), a high-sensitivity, multiplexed CE technique, with photolytic optical gating sample injection of caged fluorescent labels for the detection of biologically important amines. Previous implementations of HTCE have relied upon photobleaching optical gating sample injection of fluorescent dyes. Photolysis of caged fluorescent labels reduces the fluorescence background, providing marked enhancements in sensitivity compared to photobleaching. Application of fast Hadamard transform CE (fHTCE) for fluorescein-based dyes yields a ten-fold higher sensitivity for photolytic injections compared to photobleaching injections, due primarily to the reduced fluorescent background provided by caged fluorescent dyes. Detection limits as low as 5 pM (ca. 18 molecules per injection event) were obtained with on-column LIF detection using fHTCE in less than 25 s, with the capacity for continuous, online separations. Detection limits for glutamate and aspartate below 150 pM (1-2 amol/injection event) were obtained using photolytic sample injection, with separation efficiencies exceeding 1 x 10(6) plates/m and total multiplexed separation times as low as 8 s. These results strongly support the feasibility of this approach for high-sensitivity dynamic chemical monitoring applications.

Design, characterization, and utilization of a fast fluorescence derivatization reaction utilizingo-phthaldialdehyde coupled with fluorescent thiols

We have developed a chemical derivatization scheme for primary amines that couples the fast kinetic properties of o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) with the photophysical properties of visible, high quantum yield, fluorescent dyes. In this reaction, OPA is used as a cross-linking reagent in the labeling reaction of primary amines in the presence of a fluorescent thiol, 5-((2-(and-3)-S-(acetylmercapto)succinoyl)amino)fluorescein (SAMSA fluorescein), thereby incorporating fluorescein (epsilon = 78 000 M(-1), quantum yield of 0.98) into the isoindole product. Detection is based on excitation and emission of the incorporated fluorescein using the 488 nm laser line of an Ar(+) laser rather than the UV-excited isoindole, thereby eliminating the UV light sources for detection. Using this method, we have quantitatively labeled biologically important primary amines in less than 10 s. Detection limits for analysis of glutamate, glycine, GABA, and taurine were less than 2 nM. We present the characterization of OPA/SAMSA-F reaction and the potential utility of the derivatization reaction for dynamic chemical monitoring of biologically relevant analytes using CE.

Self-assembled PEG monolayer based SPR immunosensor for label-free detection of insulin

A simple and rapid continuous-flow immunosensor based on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) has been developed for detection of insulin as low as 1 ng ml-1 (ppb) with a response time of less than 5 min. At first, a heterobifunctional oligo(ethyleneglycol)-dithiocarboxylic acid derivative (OEG-DCA) containing dithiol and carboxyl end groups was used to functionalize the thin Au-film of SPR chip. Insulin was covalently bound to the Au-thiolate monolayer of OEG-DCA for activating the sensor surface to immunoaffinity interactions. An on-line competitive immunosensing principle is examined for detection of insulin, in which the direct affinity binding of anti-insulin antibody to the insulin on sensor surface is examined in the presence and absence of various concentrations of insulin. Immunoreaction of anti-insulin antibody with the sensor surface was optimized with reference to antibody concentration, sample analysis time and flow-rate to provide the desired detection limit and determination range. With the immunosensor developed, the lowest detectable concentration of insulin is 1 ng ml-1 and the determination range covers a wide concentration of 1-300 ng ml-1. The developed OEG-monolayer based sensor chip exhibited high resistance to non-specific adsorption of proteins, and an uninterrupted highly sensitive detection of insulin from insulin-impregnated serum samples has been demonstrated. After an immunoreaction cycle, active sensor surface was regenerated simply by a brief flow of an acidic buffer (glycine.HCl; pH 2.0) for less than 1 min. A same sensor chip was found reusable for more than 25 cycles without an appreciable change in the original sensor activity.

Immunoaffinity CE in clinical analysis of body fluids and tissues

This paper reviews immunoaffinity CE procedures developed since 1998 for drug, hormone, and disease marker analyses of body fluids and tissues. Immunoaffinity CE and related techniques are described. Examples of clinical applications are included.

On-line sample preconcentration by sweeping with dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide in capillary zone electrophoresis

On-line sample preconcentration of oligonucleotides with a new sweeping carrier was developed by using dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide (DTAB) below the critical micelle concentration (CMC). The sweeping results with DTAB below and above the CMC were compared. The use of DTAB below the CMC benefits the preconcentration of the oligonucleotides, while the use of DTAB above the CMC is good for hydrophobic small molecules. The factors affecting the sweeping results were optimized and this method was evaluated by constructing calibration curves for thrombin aptamers. The sweeping scheme produced a 112-fold sensitivity enhancement for the oligonucleotides relative to that run in a running buffer without DTAB. The sweeping method developed here can be a good reinforcement of the preconcentration scheme by sweeping when less-hydrophobic analytes or large negatively-charged molecules need to be preconcentrated.

Evaluation of fusion between liposomes and erythrocytes for intracellular derivatization of amino acids in cells

Erythrocytes were fused with liposome for intracellular derivatization of amino acids in cells. The fusion efficiency was evaluated with capillary electrophoresis (CE) and laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) detection. Reagent fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC) was enveloped in liposomes and introduced into erythrocytes by fusion between liposomes and erythrocytes. The amino acids in the fused cells were derivated by the introduced FITC and the derivated amino acids were extracted for detection by capillary electrophoresis equipped with laser-induced fluorescence detector. The fusion conditions were investigated. It was found that incubation of liposome and erythrocytes in the presence of 13% polyethylene glycol 6000 (PEG 6000) for 15min produced the highest fusion efficiency and kept the erythrocytes stability.

Capillary electrophoresis immunoassay based on an on-column immunological reaction

An on-column immunological reaction was employed to achieve simple and rapid analysis in an immunoassay based on capillary electrophoresis using semiconductor laser-induced fluorescence detection. Human serum albumin (HSA) labeled with sulfoindocyanine succinimidyl ester (Cy5), a fluorescent compound with an absorption maximum at 649 nm, was used as a fluorescent probe for the immunoassay. In a binding assay, with anti-HSA as the analyte molecule, Cy5-HSA was injected in a capillary column followed by the injection of anti-HSA so as to form individual zones. By applying a potential, the anti-HSA reacted with Cy5-HSA at the boundary between Cy5-HSA and anti-HSA zones, since anti-HSA has a higher electrophoretic mobility than Cy5-HSA. Furthermore, the on-column method enhances the sensitivity by injecting a large volume of the sample. Free Cy5-HSA and its immunocomplex with anti-HSA were separated with less degradation in resolution than that predicted from the injection time of anti-HSA, even when the injection time for anti-HSA was increased. The ratio of the peak area of the complex to that of the total Cy5-HSA (free Cy5-HSA and the complex) increased in proportion to the injection time of anti-HSA. As a result, the detection limit was improved up to eight-fold (the concentration detection limit, 0.007 mg mL(-1), for an injection time of 240 s, compared to that obtained using an off-column sample preparation. Furthermore, the on-column reaction method was applicable to an immunoassay to determine native HSA, in which native HSA and Cy5-HSA react with anti-HSA stepwise. The detection limit in the stepwise reaction immunoassay was 0.005 mg mL(-1), which is 14 times lower than that in an off-column method, with the analysis time less than 10 min as the result of increasing the injection time of native HSA. In addition, the present on-column immunoassay was applied to the sample containing a high concentration of salts for investigating the effect of salts in the sample solution.

Real-time detection of basal and stimulated G protein GTPase activity using fluorescent GTP analogues

Hydrolysis of fluorescent GTP analogues BODIPY FL guanosine 5 '-O-(thiotriphosphate) (BGTPgammaS) and BODIPY FL GTP (BGTP) by Galpha(i1) and Galpha was characterized using on-line capillary electrophoresis (o) laser-induced fluorescence assays in order that changes in sub-strate, substrate-enzyme complex, and product could be monitored separately. Apparent k values (V /[E]) (max cat) steady-state and K(m) values were determined from assays for each substrate-protein pair. When BGTP was the substrate, maximum turnover numbers for Galpha and Galpha(i1) were 8.3 +/- 1 x 10(-3) and 3.0 +/- 0.2 x 10(-2) s(-1), respectively, and K(m) values were 120 +/- 60 and 940 +/- 160 nm. Assays with BGTPgammaS yielded maximum turnover numbers of 1.6 +/- 0.1 x 10(-4) and 5.5 +/- 0.3 x 10(-4) s(-1) for Galpha and Galpha(i1); K(m) values were 14 (o)(+/-)8 and 87 +/- 22 nm. Acceleration of Galpha GTPase activity by regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) was demonstrated in both steady-state and pseudo-single-turnover assay formats with BGTP. Nanomolar RGS increased the rate of enzyme product formation (BODIPY(R) FL GDP (BGDP)) by 117-213% under steady-state conditions and accelerated the rate of G protein-BGTP complex decay by 199 -778% in pseudo-single-turnover assays. Stimulation of GTPase activity by RGS proteins was inhibited 38-81% by 40 mum YJ34, a previously reported peptide RGS inhibitor. Taken together, these results illustrate that Galpha subunits utilize BGTP as a substrate similarly to GTP, making BGTP a useful fluorescent indicator of G protein activity. The unexpected levels of BGTPgammaS hydrolysis detected suggest that caution should be used when interpreting data from fluorescence assays with this probe.

Capillary electrophoresis-based immunoassay

Capillary electrophoresis-based immunoassay (CEIA) is a developing analytical technique with a number of advantages over conventional immunoassay, such as reduced sample consumption, simpler procedure, easy simultaneous determination of multiple analytes, and short analysis time. However, there are still a number of technical issues that researchers on CEIA have to solve before the assay can be more widely used. These issues include method to improve the concentration sensitivity of the assay, requirement for robust separation strategy for different analytes, and method to increase the throughput of the assay. The approaches to solve these issues are reviewed. Several studies have been devoted to develop general separation strategies for CEIA, and to enhance the sensitivity of detection. The recent development of microchip-based CEIA is encouraging and is likely to address more drawbacks of CEIA, particularly on the throughput issue.

Analysis of secretory immunoglobulin A in human saliva by laser-induced fluorescence capillary electrophoresis

The utility of capillary electrophoresis (CE) has been demonstrated for the analysis of secretory immunoglobulin A (sIgA) in human saliva. The amount of sIgA in saliva correlates with immune status. For detecting salivary sIgA, laser-induced fluorescence was conducted in this report for signal amplification. sIgA and anti-sIgA antibody were labeled with cyanine fluorescence (Cy5) for competitive immunoassay and non-competitive analysis, respectively. Cy5 was excited by He-Ne laser with a wavelength of 635 nm, with maximum emission at 670 nm. Migration time during electrophoresis depended on whether sIgA-Cy5 was mixed with antibody or anti-sIgA-Cy5 mixed with sIgA to form Ag-Ab complex. The results indicated that CE competitive immunoassay was effective for analyzing serum sIgA, but not for salivary sIgA. However, salivary sIgA can be analyzed by complex formation assay. The peak area of the complex was proportional to the amount of sIgA added. A standard linear regression curve was generated using purified sIgA. From this standard curve, the amount of sIgA from saliva of either normal or immunocompromised patients can be calculated from the Ag-Ab complex peak area.

Flow injection fluorescence immunoassay for gentamicin using sol-gel-derived mesoporous biomaterial

Sol-gel-derived mesoporous biomaterials were used for the first time in the flow-injection fluorescence immunoassay system. Anti-gentamicin antibody was immobilized in a mesoporous sol-gel material using tetramethoxysilane as a precursor and poly(ethylene glycol) as a template. The sol-gel glass was used to develop an immunoaffinity column for the flow-injection immunoassay of gentamicin. Little unspecific adsorption of gentamicin on the sol-gel and no antibody leaching under harsh elution conditions were found. The immunoassay is based on the competition between gentamicin and fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled gentamicin for a limited number of encapsulated antibody binding sites. NaOH solution of 5 x 10(-3)mol/L is used for the regeneration of encapsulated antibody binding sites after each measurement, which allows the immunoreactor to be used for up to 20 times without any loss of reactivity. Sample preconcentration is not needed and a single assay can be performed within 10 min. The calibration for gentamicin has a working range of 250-5000 ng/mL with a detection limit of 200 ng/mL, which is close to that of the fluorescence immunoassay and fluorescence polarization immunoassay using the same reactants. Comparison of the results from this method with that obtained from HPLC showed an excellent correlation.

Antigen-antibody interactions in capillary electrophoresis

Immunoreactions in combination with separations by capillary electrophoresis (CE) are increasingly being used to quantitate specific analytes in biological fluids. Both competitive and non-competitive approaches have been used for the purpose and, in selected cases, now compare favorably with conventional quantitative immunoassays with respect to concentration limits of detection. CE is also a useful method to evaluate antigen-antibody binding on-line and offers unique possibilities for binding constant estimates, also for weakly binding antibodies and antibody fragments. In this review we cover recent developments in the use of antigen-antibody interactions in conjunction with CE and conclude that continued development of miniaturization, on-line preconcentration and more sensitive detection schemes will contribute to the further dissemination of CE-based immunoassays building on already established affinity CE approaches.

Homogeneous preparation of fluorescent-derivatized insulin and its application to competitive chromatographic immunoassays

A homogeneously labeled insulin sample was prepared using 6-aminoquinolyl-N-hydroxysuccinimidyl carbamate (AQC) as the fluorescent-labeling reagent, and this was successfully applied to a chromatographic immunoassay. This labeled insulin was prepared by tagging all the three amino groups with AQC. Both CE and chromatographic immunoassay experiments indicated that the prepared insulin still kept its immunoaffinity to its antibody. It was observed that appropriate concentrations of acetonitrile (ACN) were efficient in lowering the quenching of the fluorescent signal of tagged insulin, in keeping the dilute, tagged insulin in solution, and in improving its peak shape during a chromatographic immunoassay. The tagged insulin was found to be 20-400 times more sensitive than native insulin detected under ultraviolet detection conditions. A competitive chromatographic immunoassay system was set up and calibrated. The system was used for analyses of an insulin-spiked urine sample, with a 96% recovery obtained.

Regulation of electroosmotic flow and electrophoretic mobility of proteins for concentration without desalting

Proteins were concentrated and separated in 0.6% poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) solution using a capillary filled with Tris-borate (TB) buffer prior to analysis and detected by laser-induced native fluorescence using a pulsed Nd:YAG laser. During the concentration and separation, PEO solution entered the capillary by electroosmotic flow. When proteins dissolved in high salts (phosphate-buffered saline) were separated using 0.6% PEO solution prepared in 200 mM TB buffer, pH 9.0, the limits of detection (LODs) at signal-to noise ratios=3 for carbonic anhydrase (CA) and alpha-lactalbumin (alpha-lac) were on the levels of sub microM and microM, respectively. The LOD values compared to those obtained in 38 mM TB buffer were relatively high, which is likely due to salt quenching, Joule heating and poor stacking. To improve sensitivity for analysis of proteins in high-conductivity media, two on-line concentration approaches without desalting were developed. When using a capillary filled with 1.5 M TB buffer, pH 10.0, and PEO solution prepared in 800 mM TB buffer, pH 9.0, the LOD values for CA and alpha-lac were 13.8 nM and 126.0 nM, respectively, which were about 4.7 and 11.2-fold sensitivity enhancements compared to those obtained by a conventional hydrodynamic injection (30 cm height for 10 s), respectively. The sensitivity was further improved by injecting a short plug of low pH buffer after protein injection using a capillary filled with 1.5 M TB buffer, pH 10.0, and PEO solution prepared in 400 mM TB buffer, pH 9.0. A linear relationship between the peak height and the injection volume up to 0.81 microl was obtained and the LOD values for CA and alpha-lac were down to 4.7 and 37.8 nM.

Capillary electrophoresis-based immunoassay for insulin antibodies with near-infrared laser induced fluorescence detection

A noncompetitive capillary electrophoresis (CE)-based immunoassay with near-infrared laser induced fluorescence detection (NIR-LIF) for insulin antibodies has been developed. In the assay, insulin was derivatized with a NIR fluorescent dye (NN382; LI-COR). Insulin antibodies were detected via the formation of an immunocomplex. Parameters affecting the separation such as pH, voltage and ionic strength were investigated. Furthermore, it was found that increasing the ramp time of the applied voltage improved the detection limit of the assay by an order of magnitude. The detection limit of the assay was 1.1 nM.

Measuring DNA damage using capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection

Damage to cellular DNA is implicated in the early stages of carcinogenesis and in the cytotoxicity of many anticancer agents, including ionizing radiation. Sensitive techniques are required for measuring cellular levels of DNA damage. We describe in detail a novel immunoassay that makes use of the resolving power of capillary electrophoresis and the sensitivity of laser-induced fluorescence detection. An example is given of the detection of thymine glycol in DNA produced by irradiation of human cells with a clinical dose of 2 Gy. A detection limit of approximately 10(-21) mol allowed us to monitor the repair of the lesion and to suggest that the cellular repair response may be inducible.

Rapid simultaneous determination of glucagon and insulin by capillary electrophoresis immunoassays

A rapid capillary electrophoresis (CE) with laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) competitive immunoassay has been developed for the determination of glucagon in biological mixtures. In the assay, fluorescein-conjugated glucagon is mixed with the sample followed by addition of anti-glucagon. Free and antibody-bound, tagged glucagon could be separated in 3 s using CE to obtain quantitative determination of glucagon with a concentration detection limit of 760 pM. The assay was combined with a previously developed competitive immunoassay for insulin to produce a simultaneous immunoassay for both peptides. The method was used to determine glucagon content of islets of Langerhans.