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Khodayari A, Hirn U, Spirk S, Ogawa Y, Seveno D, Thielemans W. Advancing plant cell wall modelling: Atomistic insights into cellulose, disordered cellulose, and hemicelluloses - A review. Carbohydr Polym 2024; 343:122415. [PMID: 39174111 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2024.122415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
The complexity of plant cell walls on different hierarchical levels still impedes the detailed understanding of biosynthetic pathways, interferes with processing in industry and finally limits applicability of cellulose materials. While there exist many challenges to readily accessing these hierarchies at (sub-) angström resolution, the development of advanced computational methods has the potential to unravel important questions in this field. Here, we summarize the contributions of molecular dynamics simulations in advancing the understanding of the physico-chemical properties of natural fibres. We aim to present a comprehensive view of the advancements and insights gained from molecular dynamics simulations in the field of carbohydrate polymers research. The review holds immense value as a vital reference for researchers seeking to undertake atomistic simulations of plant cell wall constituents. Its significance extends beyond the realm of molecular modeling and chemistry, as it offers a pathway to develop a more profound comprehension of plant cell wall chemistry, interactions, and behavior. By delving into these fundamental aspects, the review provides invaluable insights into future perspectives for exploration. Researchers within the molecular modeling and carbohydrates community can greatly benefit from this resource, enabling them to make significant strides in unraveling the intricacies of plant cell wall dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Khodayari
- Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44, Leuven 3001, Belgium.
| | - Ulrich Hirn
- Institute of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, TU Graz, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Stefan Spirk
- Institute of Bioproducts and Paper Technology, TU Graz, Inffeldgasse 23, Graz 8010, Austria
| | - Yu Ogawa
- Centre de recherches sur les macromolécules végétales, CERMAV-CNRS, CS40700, 38041 Grenoble cedex 9, France
| | - David Seveno
- Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 44, Leuven 3001, Belgium
| | - Wim Thielemans
- Sustainable Materials Lab, Department of Chemical Engineering, KU Leuven, Campus Kulak Kortrijk, Etienne Sabbelaan 53, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
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2
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Tryfona T, Pankratova Y, Petrik D, Rebaque Moran D, Wightman R, Yu X, Echevarría-Poza A, Deralia PK, Vilaplana F, Anderson CT, Hong M, Dupree P. Altering the substitution and cross-linking of glucuronoarabinoxylans affects cell wall architecture in Brachypodium distachyon. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2024; 242:524-543. [PMID: 38413240 DOI: 10.1111/nph.19624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
The Poaceae family of plants provides cereal crops that are critical for human and animal nutrition, and also, they are an important source of biomass. Interacting plant cell wall components give rise to recalcitrance to digestion; thus, understanding the wall molecular architecture is important to improve biomass properties. Xylan is the main hemicellulose in grass cell walls. Recently, we reported structural variation in grass xylans, suggesting functional specialisation and distinct interactions with cellulose and lignin. Here, we investigated the functions of these xylans by perturbing the biosynthesis of specific xylan types. We generated CRISPR/Cas9 knockout mutants in Brachypodium distachyon XAX1 and GUX2 genes involved in xylan substitution. Using carbohydrate gel electrophoresis, we identified biochemical changes in different xylan types. Saccharification, cryo-SEM, subcritical water extraction and ssNMR were used to study wall architecture. BdXAX1A and BdGUX2 enzymes modify different types of grass xylan. Brachypodium mutant walls are likely more porous, suggesting the xylan substitutions directed by both BdXAX1A and GUX2 enzymes influence xylan-xylan and/or xylan-lignin interactions. Since xylan substitutions influence wall architecture and digestibility, our findings open new avenues to improve cereals for food and to use grass biomass for feed and the production of bioenergy and biomaterials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Tryfona
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Yanina Pankratova
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, NW14-3212, USA
| | - Deborah Petrik
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Diego Rebaque Moran
- Division of Glycoscience, Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, SE-106, Sweden
- Centro de Biotecnologia y Genomica de Plants (UPM-INIA/CSIC), Universidad Politecnica de Madrid, Pozuelo de Alarcon (Madrid), 28223, Spain
| | | | - Xiaolan Yu
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Alberto Echevarría-Poza
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Parveen Kumar Deralia
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Francisco Vilaplana
- Division of Glycoscience, Department of Chemistry, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, SE-106, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Centre, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, SE-11, Sweden
| | - Charles T Anderson
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Mei Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, NW14-3212, USA
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
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3
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Zeng D, Ford B, Doležel J, Karafiátová M, Hayden MJ, Rathjen TM, George TS, Brown LK, Ryan PR, Pettolino FA, Mathesius U, Delhaize E. A conditional mutation in a wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) gene regulating root morphology. TAG. THEORETICAL AND APPLIED GENETICS. THEORETISCHE UND ANGEWANDTE GENETIK 2024; 137:48. [PMID: 38345612 PMCID: PMC10861616 DOI: 10.1007/s00122-024-04555-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE Characterisation and genetic mapping of a key gene defining root morphology in bread wheat. Root morphology is central to plants for the efficient uptake up of soil water and mineral nutrients. Here we describe a conditional mutant of hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) that when grown in soil with high Ca2+ develops a larger rhizosheath accompanied with shorter roots than the wild type. In wheat, rhizosheath size is a reliable surrogate for root hair length and this was verified in the mutant which possessed longer root hairs than the wild type when grown in high Ca2+ soil. We named the mutant Stumpy and showed it to be due to a single semi-dominant mutation. The short root phenotype at high Ca2+ was due to reduced cellular elongation which might also explain the long root hair phenotype. Analysis of root cell walls showed that the polysaccharide composition of Stumpy roots is remodelled when grown at non-permissive (high) Ca2+ concentrations. The mutation mapped to chromosome 7B and sequencing of the 7B chromosomes in both wild type and Stumpy identified a candidate gene underlying the Stumpy mutation. As part of the process to determine whether the candidate gene was causative, we identified wheat lines in a Cadenza TILLING population with large rhizosheaths but accompanied with normal root length. This finding illustrates the potential of manipulating the gene to disconnect root length from root hair length as a means of developing wheat lines with improved efficiency of nutrient and water uptake. The Stumpy mutant will be valuable for understanding the mechanisms that regulate root morphology in wheat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deying Zeng
- Department of Biological Science, College of Life Sciences, Sichuan Normal University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610101, China
| | - Brett Ford
- Grains Research and Development Corporation, Barton, ACT, 2600, Australia
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, PO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Jaroslav Doležel
- Centre of Plant Structural and Functional Genomics, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Miroslava Karafiátová
- Centre of Plant Structural and Functional Genomics, Institute of Experimental Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Mathew J Hayden
- Department of Jobs, Precincts and Regions, Agriculture Victoria Research, AgriBio, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
- School of Applied Systems Biology, La Trobe University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia
| | - Tina M Rathjen
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, PO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | | | - Lawrie K Brown
- James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee, DD2 5DA, UK
| | - Peter R Ryan
- CSIRO Agriculture & Food, PO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | | | - Ulrike Mathesius
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia
| | - Emmanuel Delhaize
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, 2601, Australia.
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4
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Addison B, Bu L, Bharadwaj V, Crowley MF, Harman-Ware AE, Crowley MF, Bomble YJ, Ciesielski PN. Atomistic, macromolecular model of the Populus secondary cell wall informed by solid-state NMR. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadi7965. [PMID: 38170770 PMCID: PMC10776008 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adi7965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 12/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Plant secondary cell walls (SCWs) are composed of a heterogeneous interplay of three major biopolymers: cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin. Details regarding specific intermolecular interactions and higher-order architecture of the SCW superstructure remain ambiguous. Here, we use solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) measurements to infer refined details about the structural configuration, intermolecular interactions, and relative proximity of all three major biopolymers within air-dried Populus wood. To enhance the utility of these findings and enable evaluation of hypotheses in a physics-based environment in silico, the NMR observables are articulated into an atomistic, macromolecular model for biopolymer assemblies within the plant SCW. Through molecular dynamics simulation, we quantitatively evaluate several variations of atomistic models to determine structural details that are corroborated by ssNMR measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett Addison
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Lintao Bu
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Vivek Bharadwaj
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Meagan F. Crowley
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
- Chemistry Department, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Anne E. Harman-Ware
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Michael F. Crowley
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Yannick J. Bomble
- Biosciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
| | - Peter N. Ciesielski
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, CO, USA
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5
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Liszka A, Wightman R, Latowski D, Bourdon M, Krogh KBRM, Pietrzykowski M, Lyczakowski JJ. Structural differences of cell walls in earlywood and latewood of Pinus sylvestris and their contribution to biomass recalcitrance. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1283093. [PMID: 38148867 PMCID: PMC10749964 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1283093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) is an evergreen coniferous tree with wide distribution and good growth performance in a range of habitats. Therefore, wood from P. sylvestris is produced in many managed forests and is frequently used in industry. Despite the importance of pine wood, we still do not fully understand its molecular structure what limits improvements in its processing. One of the basic features leading to variation in wood properties is the presence of earlywood and latewood which form annual growth rings. Here, we characterise biochemical traits that differentiate cell walls of earlywood and latewood in Scots pine. We discover that latewood is less recalcitrant to enzymatic digestion, with galactoglucomannan showing particularly pronounced difference in accessibility. Interestingly, characterisation of lignin reveals a higher proportion of coniferaldehydes in pine latewood and suggests the presence of a different linkage landscape in this wood type. With complementary analysis of wood polysaccharides this enabled us to propose the first detailed molecular model of earlywood and latewood and to conclude that the variation in lignin structure is likely the main determinant of differences in recalcitrance observed between the two wood types in pine. Our discoveries lay the foundation for improvements in industrial processes that use pine wood since we show clear pathways for increasing the efficiency of enzymatic processing of this renewable material. Our work will help guide future breeding of pine trees with desired timber properties and can help link molecular structure of softwood cell walls to function of the different types of xylem in conifers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aleksandra Liszka
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
- Jagiellonian University, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Raymond Wightman
- Microscopy Core Facility, Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Dariusz Latowski
- Department of Plant Physiology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Matthieu Bourdon
- Sainsbury Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | | | - Marcin Pietrzykowski
- Department of Ecological Engineering and Forest Hydrology, Faculty of Forestry, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Jan J. Lyczakowski
- Department of Plant Biotechnology, Faculty of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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6
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Derba-Maceluch M, Mitra M, Hedenström M, Liu X, Gandla ML, Barbut FR, Abreu IN, Donev EN, Urbancsok J, Moritz T, Jönsson LJ, Tsang A, Powlowski J, Master ER, Mellerowicz EJ. Xylan glucuronic acid side chains fix suberin-like aliphatic compounds to wood cell walls. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2023; 238:297-312. [PMID: 36600379 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Wood is the most important repository of assimilated carbon in the biosphere, in the form of large polymers (cellulose, hemicelluloses including glucuronoxylan, and lignin) that interactively form a composite, together with soluble extractives including phenolic and aliphatic compounds. Molecular interactions among these compounds are not fully understood. We have targeted the expression of a fungal α-glucuronidase to the wood cell wall of aspen (Populus tremula L. × tremuloides Michx.) and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh), to decrease contents of the 4-O-methyl glucuronopyranose acid (mGlcA) substituent of xylan, to elucidate mGlcA's functions. The enzyme affected the content of aliphatic insoluble cell wall components having composition similar to suberin, which required mGlcA for binding to cell walls. Such suberin-like compounds have been previously identified in decayed wood, but here, we show their presence in healthy wood of both hardwood and softwood species. By contrast, γ-ester bonds between mGlcA and lignin were insensitive to cell wall-localized α-glucuronidase, supporting the intracellular formation of these bonds. These findings challenge the current view of the wood cell wall composition and reveal a novel function of mGlcA substituent of xylan in fastening of suberin-like compounds to cell wall. They also suggest an intracellular initiation of lignin-carbohydrate complex assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Derba-Maceluch
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Madhusree Mitra
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Xiaokun Liu
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Félix R Barbut
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ilka N Abreu
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Evgeniy N Donev
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - János Urbancsok
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Thomas Moritz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Leif J Jönsson
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Adrian Tsang
- Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Justin Powlowski
- Centre for Structural and Functional Genomics, Concordia University, Montreal, QC, H4B 1R6, Canada
| | - Emma R Master
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, ON, M5S 3E5, Canada
| | - Ewa J Mellerowicz
- Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå Plant Science Centre, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 901 83, Umeå, Sweden
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7
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Wang S, Robertz S, Seven M, Kraemer F, Kuhn BM, Liu L, Lunde C, Pauly M, Ramírez V. A large-scale forward genetic screen for maize mutants with altered lignocellulosic properties. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1099009. [PMID: 36959947 PMCID: PMC10028098 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1099009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The development of efficient pipelines for the bioconversion of grass lignocellulosic feedstocks is challenging due to the limited understanding of the molecular mechanisms controlling the synthesis, deposition, and degradation of the varying polymers unique to grass cell walls. Here, we describe a large-scale forward genetic approach resulting in the identification of a collection of chemically mutagenized maize mutants with diverse alterations in their cell wall attributes such as crystalline cellulose content or hemicellulose composition. Saccharification yield, i.e. the amount of lignocellulosic glucose (Glc) released by means of enzymatic hydrolysis, is increased in two of the mutants and decreased in the remaining six. These mutants, termed candy-leaf (cal), show no obvious plant growth or developmental defects despite associated differences in their lignocellulosic composition. The identified cal mutants are a valuable tool not only to understand recalcitrance of grass lignocellulosics to enzymatic deconstruction but also to decipher grass-specific aspects of cell wall biology once the genetic basis, i.e. the location of the mutation, has been identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaogan Wang
- Institute for Plant Cell Biology and Biotechnology-Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Stefan Robertz
- Institute for Plant Cell Biology and Biotechnology-Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Merve Seven
- Institute for Plant Cell Biology and Biotechnology-Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
| | - Florian Kraemer
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Benjamin M. Kuhn
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Lifeng Liu
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - China Lunde
- Plant Gene Expression Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Albany, CA, United States
| | - Markus Pauly
- Institute for Plant Cell Biology and Biotechnology-Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Vicente Ramírez
- Institute for Plant Cell Biology and Biotechnology-Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany
- Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, Energy Biosciences Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, United States
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8
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Tryfona T, Bourdon M, Delgado Marques R, Busse‐Wicher M, Vilaplana F, Stott K, Dupree P. Grass xylan structural variation suggests functional specialization and distinctive interaction with cellulose and lignin. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2023; 113:1004-1020. [PMID: 36602010 PMCID: PMC10952629 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.16096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Xylan is the most abundant non-cellulosic polysaccharide in grass cell walls, and it has important structural roles. The name glucuronoarabinoxylan (GAX) is used to describe this variable hemicellulose. It has a linear backbone of β-1,4-xylose (Xyl) residues that may be substituted with α-1,2-linked (4-O-methyl)-glucuronic acid (GlcA), α-1,3-linked arabinofuranose (Araf), and sometimes acetylation at the O-2 and/or O-3 positions. The role of these substitutions remains unclear, although there is increasing evidence that they affect the way xylan interacts with other cell wall components, particularly cellulose and lignin. Here, we used substitution-dependent endo-xylanase enzymes to investigate the variability of xylan substitution in grass culm cell walls. We show that there are at least three different types of xylan: (i) an arabinoxylan with evenly distributed Araf substitutions without GlcA (AXe); (ii) a glucuronoarabinoxylan with clustered GlcA modifications (GAXc); and (iii) a highly substituted glucuronoarabinoxylan (hsGAX). Immunolocalization of AXe and GAXc in Brachypodium distachyon culms revealed that these xylan types are not restricted to a few cell types but are instead widely detected in Brachypodium cell walls. We hypothesize that there are functionally specialized xylan types within the grass cell wall. The even substitutions of AXe may permit folding and binding on the surface of cellulose fibrils, whereas the more complex substitutions of the other xylans may support a role in the matrix and interaction with other cell wall components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theodora Tryfona
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 1QWUK
| | | | - Rita Delgado Marques
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 1QWUK
| | - Marta Busse‐Wicher
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 1QWUK
| | - Francisco Vilaplana
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering Sciences in Chemistry, Biotechnology and HealthKTH Royal Institute of TechnologyStockholmSE‐10691Sweden
| | - Katherine Stott
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 1QWUK
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biological SciencesUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeCB2 1QWUK
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9
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Capetti CCDM, Pellegrini VOA, Espirito Santo MC, Cortez AA, Falvo M, Curvelo AADS, Campos E, Filgueiras JG, Guimaraes FEG, de Azevedo ER, Polikarpov I. Enzymatic production of xylooligosaccharides from corn cobs: Assessment of two different pretreatment strategies. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 299:120174. [PMID: 36876789 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.120174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Corn cobs (CCs) are abundant xylan-rich agricultural wastes. Here, we compared CCs XOS yields obtained via two different pretreatment routs, alkali and hydrothermal, using a set of recombinant endo- and exo-acting enzymes from GH10 and GH11 families, which have different restrictions for xylan substitutions. Furthermore, impacts of the pretreatments on chemical composition and physical structure of the CCs samples were evaluated. We demonstrated that alkali pretreatment route rendered 59 mg of XOS per gram of initial biomass, while an overall XOS yield of 115 mg/g was achieved via hydrothermal pretreatment using a combination of GH10 and GH11 enzymes. These results hold a promise of ecologically sustainable enzymatic valorization of CCs via "green" and sustainable XOS production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caio Cesar de Mello Capetti
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Melissa Cristina Espirito Santo
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Anelyse Abreu Cortez
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Maurício Falvo
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Antonio Aprigio da Silva Curvelo
- Instituto de Química de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Eleonora Campos
- Instituto de Biotecnología, CICVyA, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Los Reseros y N. Repetto, Hurlingham B1686, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Jefferson Gonçalves Filgueiras
- Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Outeiro de São João Batista, 24020-007, Niterói, RJ, Brazil; Instituto de Física, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, CP68528, 21941-972, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Eduardo Ribeiro de Azevedo
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Igor Polikarpov
- Instituto de Física de São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São-carlense 400, 13566-590 São Carlos, SP, Brazil.
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10
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Zhang Q, Su C, Lu Z, Wang H, Feng Z, Dushkin AV, Su W. Preparation, physicochemical and pharmacological study of 10-hydroxycamptothecin solid dispersion with complexation agent - xylan-nonanoic acid amphiphilic conjugates. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 204:224-233. [PMID: 35092738 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.01.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Revised: 01/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
An amphiphilic conjugate of carboxymethyl xylan-nonanoic acid (CX-NA) was synthesized with molecular weight of 38.35 kDa, HLB value of 13.59, and critical micelle concentration of 23.17 μg/ml. CX-NA could efficiently encapsulate the model drug of 10-hydroxycamptothecin (HCPT). The drug loaded amphiphilic conjugate could self-assembled to micelles with an average diameter of 110 nm, zeta potential of -42.88 mV, and drug encapsulation efficiency of 79.8%. In vitro experiments confirmed that the drug-loaded micelles exhibited excellent stability and permeability in the intestinal environment. Transport pathway demonstrated that HCPT was uptake by cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Intestinal in situ absorption study further confirmed CX-NA vehicle could enhance HPCT to transport across intestinal epithelial cells in colonic tissues. Furthermore, the formulation showed excellent anti-tumor activity in vitro and improved bioavailability of 3.4 times in vivo as comparing with free HCPT. These findings imply that this amphiphilic conjugate is a potential and promising vehicle for delivery anticancer drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qihong Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Chen Su
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Zhaohui Lu
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Hui Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Zongmiao Feng
- Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China
| | - Alexandr V Dushkin
- Institute of Solid State Chemistry and Mechanochemistry, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Weike Su
- National Engineering Research Center for Process Development of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients, Collaborative Innovation Center of Yangtze River Delta Region Green Pharmaceuticals, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China; Key Laboratory for Green Pharmaceutical Technologies and Related Equipment of Ministry of Education, College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, PR China.
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11
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Abstract
Despite providing interesting solutions to reduce the number of synthetic steps, to decrease energy consumption or to generate less waste, therefore contributing to a more sustainable way of producing important chemicals, the expansion of the use of homogeneous catalysis in industrial processes is hampered by several drawbacks. One of the most important is the difficulty to recycle the noble metals generating potential high costs and pollution of the synthesized products by metal traces detrimental to their applications. Supporting the metals on abundant and cheap biosourced polymers has recently appeared as an almost ideal solution: They are much easier to recover from the reaction medium and usually maintain high catalytic activity. The present bibliographical review focuses on the development of catalysts based on group 10 transition metals (nickel, palladium, platinum) supported on biopolymers obtained from wood, such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and their derivatives. The applications of these catalysts in organic synthesis or depollution are also addressed in this review with examples of C-C couplings, oxidation, or hydrogenation reactions.
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12
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Heinonen E, Henriksson G, Lindström ME, Vilaplana F, Wohlert J. Xylan adsorption on cellulose: Preferred alignment and local surface immobilizing effect. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 285:119221. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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13
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Ramamohan P, Furó I, Wohlert J. Timescales for convergence in all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of hydrated amorphous xylan. Carbohydr Polym 2022; 286:119263. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2022.119263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2021] [Revised: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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14
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Beck S, Choi P, Mushrif SH. Physico-chemical interactions within lignocellulosic biomass and their importance in developing solvent based deconstruction methods. REACT CHEM ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2re00374k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Fundamental understanding of physico-chemical interactions among the biopolymers in lignocellulosic biomass is crucial to develop atom-efficient deconstruction methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seth Beck
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Phillip Choi
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
- Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Regina, 3737 Wascana Parkway, Regina, SK, S4S 0A2, Canada
| | - Samir H. Mushrif
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, 9211-116 St NW, Edmonton, AB, T6G 1H9, Canada
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15
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Yao M, Liang C, Yao S, Liu Y, Zhao H, Qin C. Kinetics and Thermodynamics of Hemicellulose Adsorption onto Nanofibril Cellulose Surfaces by QCM-D. ACS OMEGA 2021; 6:30618-30626. [PMID: 34805690 PMCID: PMC8600616 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c04391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The adsorption of hemicellulose derived from bagasse onto nanofibril cellulose has been studied in terms of kinetics and thermodynamics. In situ monitoring of bagasse hemicellulose with different molecular weights onto the nanofibril cellulose surfaces has been investigated using quartz crystal microbalance and dissipation. Then, the adsorption kinetics and thermodynamic properties were analyzed. Also, the sorption behavior and the adsorption layer properties were quantified in aqueous solutions. The maximum adsorption mass was 2.8314 mg/m2 at a concentration of 200 mg/L. Also, compared with that of the low-molecular-weight hemicellulose, the adsorption capacity of the high-molecular-weight hemicellulose was higher, and the adsorption rate changed faster and could reach an equilibrium in a shorter time. The intraparticle diffusion kinetic model represented the experimental data very well. Therefore, the kinetics of hemicellulose on the fiber adsorption was commonly described by a three-stage process: mass to transfer, diffusion, and equilibrium. The Gibbs energy change of the adsorption of hemicellulose was found to range from -20.04 to -49.75 kJ/mol at 25 °C. The entropy change was >0. It was found that the adsorption was spontaneous, and the adsorbed mass increased with the increase in temperature. This strengthened the conclusion that the adsorption process of the bagasse hemicellulose on the NFC was driven by the increase in entropy caused by the release of water molecules due to hydrophobic interaction or solvent reorganization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhu Yao
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
| | - Chen Liang
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
- Guangxi
Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
| | - Shuangquan Yao
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
- Guangxi
Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
| | - Yang Liu
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
- Guangxi
Key Laboratory of Clean Pulp & Papermaking and Pollution Control, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
- Guangxi
Bossco Environmental Protection Technology Co., Ltd., 530000 Nanning, China
| | - Hui Zhao
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
| | - Chenni Qin
- School
of Light Industry and Food Engineering, Guangxi University, 530004 Nanning, China
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16
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Trentin LN, Pereira CS, Silveira RL, Hill S, Sorieul M, Skaf MS. Nanoscale Wetting of Crystalline Cellulose. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:4251-4261. [PMID: 34515474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cellulose possesses considerable potential for a wide range of sustainable applications. Nanocellulose-based material properties are primarily dependent on the structural surface characteristics of its crystalline planes. Experimental measurements of the affinity of crystalline nanocellulose surfaces with water are scarce and challenging to obtain. Therefore, the relative hydrophilicity of different cellulose allomorphs crystalline planes is often inferred from qualitative assessments of their surface and the exposition of polar groups to the solvent. This work investigates the relative hydrophilicity of cellulose surfaces using molecular dynamics simulations. The behavior of a water droplet laid on different crystal planes was used to determine their relative hydrophilicity. The water molecules fully spread onto highly hydrophilic surfaces. However, a water droplet placed on less hydrophilic surfaces equilibrates as an oblate spheroidal cap allowing the measurement of a contact angle. The results indicate that the Iα (010), Iα (11̅0), Iβ (010), and Iβ (110) faces, as well as the faces of human-made celluloses II and III_I (100), (11̅0), (010), and (110) are all highly hydrophilic. They all have a contact angle value inferior to 11°. Not unexpectedly, the Iα (001) and Iβ (100) surfaces are less hydrophilic with contact angles of 48 and 34°, respectively. However, the Iβ (11̅0) plane, often referred to as a hydrophilic surface, forms a contact angle of about 32°. The results are rationalized in terms of structure, exposure of hydroxyl groups to the solvent, and degree of cellulose-cellulose versus cellulose-water hydrogen bonds on each face. The simulations also show that the surface oxidation degree tunes the surface hydrophilicity in a nonlinear manner due to cooperative effects involving water-cellulose interactions. Our study helps us to understand how the degree of hydrophilicity of cellulose emerges from specific structural features of each crystalline surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas N Trentin
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering & Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13084-862, Brazil
| | - Caroline S Pereira
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering & Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13084-862, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo L Silveira
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering & Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13084-862, Brazil.,Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21941-909, Brazil
| | - Stefan Hill
- Scion, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua 3046, New Zealand
| | | | - Munir S Skaf
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering & Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo 13084-862, Brazil
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17
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Multi-efficient thermostable endoxylanase from Bacillus velezensis AG20 and its production of xylooligosaccharides as efficient prebiotics with anticancer activity. Process Biochem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2021.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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18
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de Vries L, Guevara-Rozo S, Cho M, Liu LY, Renneckar S, Mansfield SD. Tailoring renewable materials via plant biotechnology. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2021; 14:167. [PMID: 34353358 PMCID: PMC8344217 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-021-02010-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Plants inherently display a rich diversity in cell wall chemistry, as they synthesize an array of polysaccharides along with lignin, a polyphenolic that can vary dramatically in subunit composition and interunit linkage complexity. These same cell wall chemical constituents play essential roles in our society, having been isolated by a variety of evolving industrial processes and employed in the production of an array of commodity products to which humans are reliant. However, these polymers are inherently synthesized and intricately packaged into complex structures that facilitate plant survival and adaptation to local biogeoclimatic regions and stresses, not for ease of deconstruction and commercial product development. Herein, we describe evolving techniques and strategies for altering the metabolic pathways related to plant cell wall biosynthesis, and highlight the resulting impact on chemistry, architecture, and polymer interactions. Furthermore, this review illustrates how these unique targeted cell wall modifications could significantly extend the number, diversity, and value of products generated in existing and emerging biorefineries. These modifications can further target the ability for processing of engineered wood into advanced high performance materials. In doing so, we attempt to illuminate the complex connection on how polymer chemistry and structure can be tailored to advance renewable material applications, using all the chemical constituents of plant-derived biopolymers, including pectins, hemicelluloses, cellulose, and lignins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisanne de Vries
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- US Department of Energy (DOE) Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI , 53726, USA
| | - Sydne Guevara-Rozo
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - MiJung Cho
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Li-Yang Liu
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Scott Renneckar
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada.
- US Department of Energy (DOE) Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin - Madison, Madison, WI , 53726, USA.
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19
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Molecular modification, structural characterization, and biological activity of xylans. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 269:118248. [PMID: 34294285 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The differences in the source and structure of xylans make them have various biological activities. However, due to their inherent structural limitations, the various biological activities of xylans are far lower than those of commercial drugs. Currently, several types of molecular modification methods have been developed to address these limitations, and many derivatives with specific biological activity have been obtained. Further research on structural characteristics, structure-activity relationship and mechanism of action is of great significance for the development of xylan derivatives. Therefore, the major molecular modification methods of xylans are introduced in this paper, and the primary structure and conformation characteristics of xylans and their derivatives are summarized. In addition, the biological activity and structure-activity relationship of the modified xylans are also discussed.
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20
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Sun SF, Yang HY, Yang J, Wang DW, Shi ZJ. Integrated treatment of perennial ryegrass: Structural characterization of hemicelluloses and improvement of enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 254:117257. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2020] [Revised: 09/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/13/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Schlackl K, Herchl R, Almhofer L, Bischof RH, Fackler K, Samhaber W. Intermolecular Interactions in the Membrane Filtration of Highly Alkaline Steeping Lye. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11020088. [PMID: 33513934 PMCID: PMC7912436 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11020088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
The reuse of steeping lye is crucial for the sustainable production of viscose fibers. Steeping lye contains hemicellulose and many alkaline degradation products, such as organic acids, so that its purification can be evaluated in terms of total organic carbon removal. When considering purification by membrane filtration, intermolecular interactions between hemicellulose and organic acids can strongly affect their retention efficiency. Herein, we give more insights into the ultrafiltration and nanofiltration of steeping lye and corresponding model solutions. Furthermore, we studied the impact of total organic carbon concentration, hemicellulose concentration and sodium hydroxide concentration on the membrane performance. Hydrogen bonds between hemicellulose and certain types of hydroxy acids increased the retention of the latter. In contrast, charge based repulsion forces led to a decreased retention of a certain type of hydroxy acids. It can be clearly shown that taking intermolecular interactions into account is highly important for the description of complex multicomponent mixtures. In addition, the results can be extended to other, highly alkaline process streams with organic content, such as Kraft pulping liquors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Schlackl
- Kompetenzzentrum Holz GmbH, 4040 Linz, Austria;
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +43-7672-701-2088
| | - Richard Herchl
- Lenzing AG, 4860 Lenzing, Austria; (R.H.); (R.H.B.); (K.F.)
| | | | | | - Karin Fackler
- Lenzing AG, 4860 Lenzing, Austria; (R.H.); (R.H.B.); (K.F.)
| | - Wolfgang Samhaber
- Department of Process Engineering, Johannes Kepler University, 4040 Linz, Austria;
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22
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Breeding Targets to Improve Biomass Quality in Miscanthus. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26020254. [PMID: 33419100 PMCID: PMC7825460 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26020254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 01/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulosic crops are attractive bioresources for energy and chemicals production within a sustainable, carbon circular society. Miscanthus is one of the perennial grasses that exhibits great potential as a dedicated feedstock for conversion to biobased products in integrated biorefineries. The current biorefinery strategies are primarily focused on polysaccharide valorization and require severe pretreatments to overcome the lignin barrier. The need for such pretreatments represents an economic burden and impacts the overall sustainability of the biorefinery. Hence, increasing its efficiency has been a topic of great interest. Inversely, though pretreatment will remain an essential step, there is room to reduce its severity by optimizing the biomass composition rendering it more exploitable. Extensive studies have examined the miscanthus cell wall structures in great detail, and pinpointed those components that affect biomass digestibility under various pretreatments. Although lignin content has been identified as the most important factor limiting cell wall deconstruction, the effect of polysaccharides and interaction between the different constituents play an important role as well. The natural variation that is available within different miscanthus species and increased understanding of biosynthetic cell wall pathways have specified the potential to create novel accessions with improved digestibility through breeding or genetic modification. This review discusses the contribution of the main cell wall components on biomass degradation in relation to hydrothermal, dilute acid and alkaline pretreatments. Furthermore, traits worth advancing through breeding will be discussed in light of past, present and future breeding efforts.
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23
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Crowe JD, Hao P, Pattathil S, Pan H, Ding SY, Hodge DB, Jensen JK. Xylan Is Critical for Proper Bundling and Alignment of Cellulose Microfibrils in Plant Secondary Cell Walls. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2021; 12:737690. [PMID: 34630488 PMCID: PMC8495263 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2021.737690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Plant biomass represents an abundant and increasingly important natural resource and it mainly consists of a number of cell types that have undergone extensive secondary cell wall (SCW) formation. These cell types are abundant in the stems of Arabidopsis, a well-studied model system for hardwood, the wood of eudicot plants. The main constituents of hardwood include cellulose, lignin, and xylan, the latter in the form of glucuronoxylan (GX). The binding of GX to cellulose in the eudicot SCW represents one of the best-understood molecular interactions within plant cell walls. The evenly spaced acetylation and 4-O-methyl glucuronic acid (MeGlcA) substitutions of the xylan polymer backbone facilitates binding in a linear two-fold screw conformation to the hydrophilic side of cellulose and signifies a high level of molecular specificity. However, the wider implications of GX-cellulose interactions for cellulose network formation and SCW architecture have remained less explored. In this study, we seek to expand our knowledge on this by characterizing the cellulose microfibril organization in three well-characterized GX mutants. The selected mutants display a range of GX deficiency from mild to severe, with findings indicating even the weakest mutant having significant perturbations of the cellulose network, as visualized by both scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). We show by image analysis that microfibril width is increased by as much as three times in the severe mutants compared to the wild type and that the degree of directional dispersion of the fibrils is approximately doubled in all the three mutants. Further, we find that these changes correlate with both altered nanomechanical properties of the SCW, as observed by AFM, and with increases in enzymatic hydrolysis. Results from this study indicate the critical role that normal GX composition has on cellulose bundle formation and cellulose organization as a whole within the SCWs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob D. Crowe
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Pengchao Hao
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Sivakumar Pattathil
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, The University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Henry Pan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Texas, Austin, TX, United States
| | - Shi-You Ding
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Energy Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - David B. Hodge
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, United States
| | - Jacob Krüger Jensen
- Section for Plant Glycobiology, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- *Correspondence: Jacob Krüger Jensen
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24
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Qaseem MF, Wu AM. Balanced Xylan Acetylation is the Key Regulator of Plant Growth and Development, and Cell Wall Structure and for Industrial Utilization. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21217875. [PMID: 33114198 PMCID: PMC7660596 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21217875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Xylan is the most abundant hemicellulose, constitutes about 25–35% of the dry biomass of woody and lignified tissues, and occurs up to 50% in some cereal grains. The accurate degree and position of xylan acetylation is necessary for xylan function and for plant growth and development. The post synthetic acetylation of cell wall xylan, mainly regulated by Reduced Wall Acetylation (RWA), Trichome Birefringence-Like (TBL), and Altered Xyloglucan 9 (AXY9) genes, is essential for effective bonding of xylan with cellulose. Recent studies have proven that not only xylan acetylation but also its deacetylation is vital for various plant functions. Thus, the present review focuses on the latest advances in understanding xylan acetylation and deacetylation and explores their effects on plant growth and development. Baseline knowledge about precise regulation of xylan acetylation and deacetylation is pivotal to developing plant biomass better suited for second-generation liquid biofuel production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mirza Faisal Qaseem
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China;
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Ai-Min Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Conservation and Utilization of Subtropical Agro-Bioresources, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China;
- Guangdong Key Laboratory for Innovative Development and Utilization of Forest Plant Germplasm, College of Forestry and Landscape Architectures, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory of Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence:
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25
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Gavazzoni C, Skaf MS. Adsorption of CO 2 and CH 4 in MIL-47 investigated by the 3D-RISM molecular theory of solvation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2020; 22:13240-13247. [PMID: 32500908 DOI: 10.1039/d0cp01025a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) comprise a class of highly porous nanomaterials formed by the assembly of organic molecular templates connected by metal ions. These materials exhibit a large diversity of pore size and geometry, topology, surface area, and chemical functionality. MOFs are particularly promising materials for developing new technologies for capture and storage of greenhouse gases such as methane and carbon dioxide. Here we apply the three dimensional reference interaction site model (3D-RISM) molecular theory of solvation to study the interactions of CO2 and CH4 with the metal-organic material MIL-47. The 3D-RISM integral equations were solved to determine the three dimensional density correlation functions of the gas (solvent) relative to the atomic positions of the MIL-47 framework, treated as static solute sites. The computed solvent spatial distributions inside MIL-47 pores were used to identify whether or not there exist preferable binding sites and the binding free energy landscape for the gas of interest at low computational costs compared with other molecular modeling techniques, such as grand canonical Monte Carlo and molecular dynamics simulations. The 3D-RISM formalism was applied to pure CO2, pure CH4, and binary mixtures of these gases of various compositions under different pressure conditions. The results indicate that both gases bind very weakly to MIL-47 and that this material exhibits nearly vanishing CO2/CH4 selectivity. The 3D-RISM computations presented here can be extended to investigate the physical adsorption of gases on other MOFs and nanoporous materials, providing an alternative low-cost computational approach to study gas capture and storage in nanoporous materials in general and, in particular, to determine the binding free-energy landscape in these systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Gavazzoni
- Institute of Chemistry and Center for Computing in Engineering and Sciences, University of Campinas - Unicamp, Campinas, SP 13082-864, Brazil.
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26
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Mnich E, Bjarnholt N, Eudes A, Harholt J, Holland C, Jørgensen B, Larsen FH, Liu M, Manat R, Meyer AS, Mikkelsen JD, Motawia MS, Muschiol J, Møller BL, Møller SR, Perzon A, Petersen BL, Ravn JL, Ulvskov P. Phenolic cross-links: building and de-constructing the plant cell wall. Nat Prod Rep 2020; 37:919-961. [PMID: 31971193 DOI: 10.1039/c9np00028c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Covering: Up to 2019Phenolic cross-links and phenolic inter-unit linkages result from the oxidative coupling of two hydroxycinnamates or two molecules of tyrosine. Free dimers of hydroxycinnamates, lignans, play important roles in plant defence. Cross-linking of bound phenolics in the plant cell wall affects cell expansion, wall strength, digestibility, degradability, and pathogen resistance. Cross-links mediated by phenolic substituents are particularly important as they confer strength to the wall via the formation of new covalent bonds, and by excluding water from it. Four biopolymer classes are known to be involved in the formation of phenolic cross-links: lignins, extensins, glucuronoarabinoxylans, and side-chains of rhamnogalacturonan-I. Lignins and extensins are ubiquitous in streptophytes whereas aromatic substituents on xylan and pectic side-chains are commonly assumed to be particular features of Poales sensu lato and core Caryophyllales, respectively. Cross-linking of phenolic moieties proceeds via radical formation, is catalyzed by peroxidases and laccases, and involves monolignols, tyrosine in extensins, and ferulate esters on xylan and pectin. Ferulate substituents, on xylan in particular, are thought to be nucleation points for lignin polymerization and are, therefore, of paramount importance to wall architecture in grasses and for the development of technology for wall disassembly, e.g. for the use of grass biomass for production of 2nd generation biofuels. This review summarizes current knowledge on the intra- and extracellular acylation of polysaccharides, and inter- and intra-molecular cross-linking of different constituents. Enzyme mediated lignan in vitro synthesis for pharmaceutical uses are covered as are industrial exploitation of mutant and transgenic approaches to control cell wall cross-linking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ewelina Mnich
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Wierzbicki MP, Christie N, Pinard D, Mansfield SD, Mizrachi E, Myburg AA. A systems genetics analysis in Eucalyptus reveals coordination of metabolic pathways associated with xylan modification in wood-forming tissues. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 223:1952-1972. [PMID: 31144333 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2018] [Accepted: 05/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Acetyl- and methylglucuronic acid decorations of xylan, the dominant hemicellulose in secondary cell walls (SCWs) of woody dicots, affect its interaction with cellulose and lignin to determine SCW structure and extractability. Genes and pathways involved in these modifications may be targets for genetic engineering; however, little is known about the regulation of xylan modifications in woody plants. To address this, we assessed genetic and gene expression variation associated with xylan modification in developing xylem of Eucalyptus grandis × Eucalyptus urophylla interspecific hybrids. Expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) mapping identified potential regulatory polymorphisms affecting gene expression modules associated with xylan modification. We identified 14 putative xylan modification genes that are members of five expression modules sharing seven trans-eQTL hotspots. The xylan modification genes are prevalent in two expression modules. The first comprises nucleotide sugar interconversion pathways supplying the essential precursors for cellulose and xylan biosynthesis. The second contains genes responsible for phenylalanine biosynthesis and S-adenosylmethionine biosynthesis required for glucuronic acid and monolignol methylation. Co-expression and co-regulation analyses also identified four metabolic sources of acetyl coenxyme A that appear to be transcriptionally coordinated with xylan modification. Our systems genetics analysis may provide new avenues for metabolic engineering to alter wood SCW biology for enhanced biomass processability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin P Wierzbicki
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Nanette Christie
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Desré Pinard
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Shawn D Mansfield
- Department of Wood Science, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Eshchar Mizrachi
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
| | - Alexander A Myburg
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute, Genomics Research Institute, University of Pretoria, Private bag X20, Pretoria, 0028, South Africa
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Tu T, Li X, Meng K, Bai Y, Wang Y, Wang Z, Yao B, Luo H. A GH51 α-L-arabinofuranosidase from Talaromyces leycettanus strain JCM12802 that selectively drives synergistic lignocellulose hydrolysis. Microb Cell Fact 2019; 18:138. [PMID: 31426823 PMCID: PMC6699109 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-019-1192-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The development of sustainable technologies for plant cell wall degradation greatly depends on enzymes with hydrolytic activities against carbohydrates. The waste by-products of agricultural cereals are important biomass sources because they contain large amounts of saccharides. Achieving efficient debranching and depolymerization are two important objectives for increasing the utilization of such renewable bioresources. GH51 α-l-arabinofuranosidases are important in biomass pretreatment because they act synergistically with other enzymes during hemicellulose hydrolysis. Results A GH51 α-l-arabinofuranosidase from Talaromyces leycettanus JCM12802 was heterologously expressed in Pichia pastoris GS115 and characterized. The recombinant α-l-arabinofuranosidase, TlAbf51, showed an optimum temperature and pH of 55–60 °C and 3.5–4.0, respectively, and remained stable at 50 °C and pH 3.0–9.0. TlAbf51 showed a higher catalytic efficiency (5712 mM−1 s−1) than most fungal α-l-arabinofuranosidases towards the substrate 4-nitrophenyl-α-l-arabinofuranoside. Moreover, TlAbf51 preferentially removed 1,2- or 1,3-linked arabinofuranose residues from arabinoxylan and acted synergistically with the bifunctional xylanase/cellulase TcXyn10A at an activity ratio of 5:1. The highest yields of arabinose and xylooligosaccharides were obtained when TlAbf51 was added after TcXyn10A or when both enzymes were added simultaneously. High-performance anion-exchange chromatography analyses showed that (i) arabinose and xylooligosaccharides with low degrees of polymerization (DP1–DP5) and (ii) arabinose and xylooligosaccharides (DP1–DP3) were the major hydrolysates obtained during the hydrolysis of sodium hydroxide-pretreated cornstalk and corn bran, respectively. Conclusions In contrast to other fungal GH51 α-l-arabinofuranosidases, recombinant TlAbf51 showed excellent stability over a broad pH range and high catalytic efficiency. Moreover, TlAbf51 acted synergistically with another hemicellulase to digest arabino-polysaccharides. These favorable enzymatic properties make TlAbf51 attractive for biomass pretreatment and biofuel production. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12934-019-1192-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tao Tu
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xiaoli Li
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Meng
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingguo Bai
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuan Wang
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenxing Wang
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Bin Yao
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Huiying Luo
- Key Laboratory for Feed Biotechnology of the Ministry of Agriculture, Feed Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing, 100081, People's Republic of China.
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Torres AF, Xu X, Nikiforidis CV, Bitter JH, Trindade LM. Exploring the Treasure of Plant Molecules With Integrated Biorefineries. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:478. [PMID: 31040858 PMCID: PMC6476976 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 03/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite significant progress toward the commercialization of biobased products, today's biorefineries are far from achieving their intended goal of total biomass valorization and effective product diversification. The problem is conceptual. Modern biorefineries were built around well-optimized, cost-effective chemical synthesis routes, like those used in petroleum refineries for the synthesis of fuels, plastics, and solvents. However, these were designed for the conversion of fossil resources and are far from optimal for the processing of biomass, which has unique chemical characteristics. Accordingly, existing biomass commodities were never intended for modern biorefineries as they were bred to meet the needs of conventional agriculture. In this perspective paper, we propose a new path toward the design of efficient biorefineries, which capitalizes on a cross-disciplinary synergy between plant, physical, and catalysis science. In our view, the best opportunity to advance profitable and sustainable biorefineries requires the parallel development of novel feedstocks, conversion protocols and synthesis routes specifically tailored for total biomass valorization. Above all, we believe that plant biologists and process technologists can jointly explore the natural diversity of plants to synchronously develop both, biobased crops with designer chemistries and compatible conversion protocols that enable maximal biomass valorization with minimum input utilization. By building biorefineries from the bottom-up (i.e., starting with the crop), the envisioned partnership promises to develop cost-effective, biomass-dedicated routes which can be effectively scaled-up to deliver profitable and resource-use efficient biorefineries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andres F. Torres
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Graduate School Experimental Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Colegio de Ciencias Biológicas y Ambientales, Universidad San Francisco de Quito, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Xuan Xu
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | | | - Johannes H. Bitter
- Biobased Chemistry and Technology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
| | - Luisa M. Trindade
- Plant Breeding, Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Netherlands
- Graduate School Experimental Plant Sciences, Wageningen University, Wageningen, Netherlands
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Wierzbicki MP, Maloney V, Mizrachi E, Myburg AA. Xylan in the Middle: Understanding Xylan Biosynthesis and Its Metabolic Dependencies Toward Improving Wood Fiber for Industrial Processing. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:176. [PMID: 30858858 PMCID: PMC6397879 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biomass, encompassing cellulose, lignin and hemicellulose in plant secondary cell walls (SCWs), is the most abundant source of renewable materials on earth. Currently, fast-growing woody dicots such as Eucalyptus and Populus trees are major lignocellulosic (wood fiber) feedstocks for bioproducts such as pulp, paper, cellulose, textiles, bioplastics and other biomaterials. Processing wood for these products entails separating the biomass into its three main components as efficiently as possible without compromising yield. Glucuronoxylan (xylan), the main hemicellulose present in the SCWs of hardwood trees carries chemical modifications that are associated with SCW composition and ultrastructure, and affect the recalcitrance of woody biomass to industrial processing. In this review we highlight the importance of xylan properties for industrial wood fiber processing and how gaining a greater understanding of xylan biosynthesis, specifically xylan modification, could yield novel biotechnology approaches to reduce recalcitrance or introduce novel processing traits. Altering xylan modification patterns has recently become a focus of plant SCW studies due to early findings that altered modification patterns can yield beneficial biomass processing traits. Additionally, it has been noted that plants with altered xylan composition display metabolic differences linked to changes in precursor usage. We explore the possibility of using systems biology and systems genetics approaches to gain insight into the coordination of SCW formation with other interdependent biological processes. Acetyl-CoA, s-adenosylmethionine and nucleotide sugars are precursors needed for xylan modification, however, the pathways which produce metabolic pools during different stages of fiber cell wall formation still have to be identified and their co-regulation during SCW formation elucidated. The crucial dependence on precursor metabolism provides an opportunity to alter xylan modification patterns through metabolic engineering of one or more of these interdependent pathways. The complexity of xylan biosynthesis and modification is currently a stumbling point, but it may provide new avenues for woody biomass engineering that are not possible for other biopolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Alexander A. Myburg
- Department of Biochemistry, Genetics and Microbiology, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI), University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
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Amos RA, Mohnen D. Critical Review of Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Glycosyltransferase Activities Verified by Heterologous Protein Expression. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2019; 10:915. [PMID: 31379900 PMCID: PMC6646851 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00915] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The life cycle and development of plants requires the biosynthesis, deposition, and degradation of cell wall matrix polysaccharides. The structures of the diverse cell wall matrix polysaccharides influence commercially important properties of plant cells, including growth, biomass recalcitrance, organ abscission, and the shelf life of fruits. This review is a comprehensive summary of the matrix polysaccharide glycosyltransferase (GT) activities that have been verified using in vitro assays following heterologous GT protein expression. Plant cell wall (PCW) biosynthetic GTs are primarily integral transmembrane proteins localized to the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi of the plant secretory system. The low abundance of these enzymes in plant tissues makes them particularly difficult to purify from native plant membranes in quantities sufficient for enzymatic characterization, which is essential to study the functions of the different GTs. Numerous activities in the synthesis of the major cell wall matrix glycans, including pectins, xylans, xyloglucan, mannans, mixed-linkage glucans (MLGs), and arabinogalactan components of AGP proteoglycans have been mapped to specific genes and multi-gene families. Cell wall GTs include those that synthesize the polymer backbones, those that elongate side branches with extended glycosyl chains, and those that add single monosaccharide linkages onto polysaccharide backbones and/or side branches. Three main strategies have been used to identify genes encoding GTs that synthesize cell wall linkages: analysis of membrane fractions enriched for cell wall biosynthetic activities, mutational genetics approaches investigating cell wall compositional phenotypes, and omics-directed identification of putative GTs from sequenced plant genomes. Here we compare the heterologous expression systems used to produce, purify, and study the enzyme activities of PCW GTs, with an emphasis on the eukaryotic systems Nicotiana benthamiana, Pichia pastoris, and human embryonic kidney (HEK293) cells. We discuss the enzymatic properties of GTs including kinetic rates, the chain lengths of polysaccharide products, acceptor oligosaccharide preferences, elongation mechanisms for the synthesis of long-chain polymers, and the formation of GT complexes. Future directions in the study of matrix polysaccharide biosynthesis are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert A. Amos
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Debra Mohnen
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, United States
- *Correspondence: Debra Mohnen
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Van de Wouwer D, Boerjan W, Vanholme B. Plant cell wall sugars: sweeteners for a bio-based economy. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2018; 164:27-44. [PMID: 29430656 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2017] [Revised: 02/07/2018] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Global warming and the consequent climate change is one of the major environmental challenges we are facing today. The driving force behind the rise in temperature is our fossil-based economy, which releases massive amounts of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. In order to reduce greenhouse gas emission, we need to scale down our dependency on fossil resources, implying that we need other sources for energy and chemicals to feed our economy. Here, plants have an important role to play; by means of photosynthesis, plants capture solar energy to split water and fix carbon derived from atmospheric carbon dioxide. A significant fraction of the fixed carbon ends up as polysaccharides in the plant cell wall. Fermentable sugars derived from cell wall polysaccharides form an ideal carbon source for the production of bio-platform molecules. However, a major limiting factor in the use of plant biomass as feedstock for the bio-based economy is the complexity of the plant cell wall and its recalcitrance towards deconstruction. To facilitate the release of fermentable sugars during downstream biomass processing, the composition and structure of the cell wall can be engineered. Different strategies to reduce cell wall recalcitrance will be described in this review. The ultimate goal is to obtain a tailor-made biomass, derived from plants with a cell wall optimized for particular industrial or agricultural applications, without affecting plant growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien Van de Wouwer
- Ghent University, Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wout Boerjan
- Ghent University, Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Bartel Vanholme
- Ghent University, Department of Plant Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
- VIB Center for Plant Systems Biology, (Technologiepark 927), 9052, Ghent, Belgium
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Deming TJ, Klok HA, Armes SP, Becker ML, Champion JA, Chen EYX, Heilshorn SC, van Hest JCM, Irvine DJ, Johnson JA, Kiessling LL, Maynard HD, de la Cruz MO, Sullivan MO, Tirrell MV, Anseth KS, Lecommandoux S, Percec S, Zhong Z, Albertsson AC. Polymers at the Interface with Biology. Biomacromolecules 2018; 19:3151-3162. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.8b01029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Timothy J. Deming
- Departments of Bioengineering, Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1600, United States
| | - Harm-Anton Klok
- École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Institut des Matériaux and Institut des Sciences et Ingénierie Chimiques, Laboratoire des Polymères, Bâtiment MXD, Station 12, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Steven P. Armes
- Dainton Building, Department of Chemistry, University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, S3 7HF, South Yorkshire, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew L. Becker
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325-3909, United States
| | - Julie A. Champion
- School of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332-2000, United States
| | - Eugene Y.-X. Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1872, United States
| | - Sarah C. Heilshorn
- Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Jan C. M. van Hest
- Department of Biomedical Engineering & Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Darrell J. Irvine
- Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Department of Biological Engineering, Department of Materials Science & Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jeremiah A. Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, Program in Polymers and Soft Matter, and Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Laura L. Kiessling
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Heather D. Maynard
- Departments of Bioengineering, Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1600, United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, University of California, Los Angeles, 570 Westwood Plaza, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Monica Olvera de la Cruz
- Departments of Materials Science and Engineering, Chemistry, Chemical and Biological Engineering and Physics and Astronomy, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Millicent O. Sullivan
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Matthew V. Tirrell
- Institute for Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, 5640 South Ellis Avenue, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Kristi S. Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Sebastien Lecommandoux
- Laboratoire de Chimie des Polymères Organiques, LCPO, Université de Bordeaux, CNRS, Bordeaux INP, UMR 5629, 16 Avenue Pey Berland F-33600 Pessac, France
| | - Simona Percec
- Department of Chemistry, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122, United States
| | - Zhiyuan Zhong
- Biomedical Polymers Laboratory, and Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Functional Polymer Design and Application, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P. R. China
| | - Ann-Christine Albertsson
- Fibre and Polymer Technology, Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 56-58, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
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Yu L, Yakubov GE, Martínez-Sanz M, Gilbert EP, Stokes JR. Rheological and structural properties of complex arabinoxylans from Plantago ovata seed mucilage under non-gelled conditions. Carbohydr Polym 2018; 193:179-188. [PMID: 29773370 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Two gel-forming arabinoxylan (AX) fractions with very similar linkage composition and molecular weight distributions have been isolated from Plantago ovata seed mucilage. Both isolated fractions have distinct gel properties attributed to differences in intermolecular hydrogen bonding. This study probes the effect of hydrogen bonding on molecular interactions of P. ovata AX fractions under non-gelled conditions achieved using a mild hydrogen bonding inhibitor, 0.2 M KOH. Chain conformation, relaxation dynamics and interactions between AX molecules are investigated using a combination of rheological techniques and small angle X-ray and neutron scattering. The scattering data confirm similar molecular dimensions and chain rigidity for both fractions, while showing distinct patterns of molecular interactions which result in the formation of a self-associated polymer network. The relationship between molecular associations, chain relaxation time and entanglement behaviour of P. ovata AX solutions are corroborated though the analysis of flow profiles and small amplitude oscillatory shear rheology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Yu
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Gleb E Yakubov
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
| | - Marta Martínez-Sanz
- Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Kirrawee DC, NSW, Australia
| | - Elliot P Gilbert
- Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, Kirrawee DC, NSW, Australia; Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology and Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Jason R Stokes
- School of Chemical Engineering, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Plant Cell Walls, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
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Zheng Y, Wang X, Chen Y, Wagner E, Cosgrove DJ. Xyloglucan in the primary cell wall: assessment by FESEM, selective enzyme digestions and nanogold affinity tags. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2018; 93:211-226. [PMID: 29160933 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 11/06/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Xyloglucan has been hypothesized to bind extensively to cellulose microfibril surfaces and to tether microfibrils into a load-bearing network, thereby playing a central role in wall mechanics and growth, but this view is challenged by newer results. Here we combined high-resolution imaging by field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) with nanogold affinity tags and selective endoglucanase treatments to assess the spatial location and conformation of xyloglucan in onion cell walls. FESEM imaging of xyloglucanase-digested cell walls revealed an altered microfibril organization but did not yield clear evidence of xyloglucan conformations. Backscattered electron detection provided excellent detection of nanogold affinity tags in the context of wall fibrillar organization. Labelling with xyloglucan-specific CBM76 conjugated with nanogold showed that xyloglucans were associated with fibril surfaces in both extended and coiled conformations, but tethered configurations were not observed. Labelling with nanogold-conjugated CBM3, which binds the hydrophobic surface of crystalline cellulose, was infrequent until the wall was predigested with xyloglucanase, whereupon microfibril labelling was extensive. When tamarind xyloglucan was allowed to bind to xyloglucan-depleted onion walls, CBM76 labelling gave positive evidence for xyloglucans in both extended and coiled conformations, yet xyloglucan chains were not directly visible by FESEM. These results indicate that an appreciable, but still small, surface of cellulose microfibrils in the onion wall is tightly bound with extended xyloglucan chains and that some of the xyloglucan has a coiled conformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhen Zheng
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Xuan Wang
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Yuning Chen
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Edward Wagner
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Center for Lignocellulose Structure and Formation, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
- Department of Biology, Penn State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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Acid-base synergistic flame retardant wood pulp paper with high thermal stability. Carbohydr Polym 2017; 178:123-130. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.08.099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2017] [Revised: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/19/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Grantham NJ, Wurman-Rodrich J, Terrett OM, Lyczakowski JJ, Stott K, Iuga D, Simmons TJ, Durand-Tardif M, Brown SP, Dupree R, Busse-Wicher M, Dupree P. An even pattern of xylan substitution is critical for interaction with cellulose in plant cell walls. NATURE PLANTS 2017; 3:859-865. [PMID: 28993612 DOI: 10.1038/s41477-017-0030-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Xylan and cellulose are abundant polysaccharides in vascular plants and essential for secondary cell wall strength. Acetate or glucuronic acid decorations are exclusively found on even-numbered residues in most of the glucuronoxylan polymer. It has been proposed that this even-specific positioning of the decorations might permit docking of xylan onto the hydrophilic face of a cellulose microfibril 1-3 . Consequently, xylan adopts a flattened ribbon-like twofold screw conformation when bound to cellulose in the cell wall 4 . Here we show that ESKIMO1/XOAT1/TBL29, a xylan-specific O-acetyltransferase, is necessary for generation of the even pattern of acetyl esters on xylan in Arabidopsis. The reduced acetylation in the esk1 mutant deregulates the position-specific activity of the xylan glucuronosyltransferase GUX1, and so the even pattern of glucuronic acid on the xylan is lost. Solid-state NMR of intact cell walls shows that, without the even-patterned xylan decorations, xylan does not interact normally with cellulose fibrils. We conclude that the even pattern of xylan substitutions seen across vascular plants enables the interaction of xylan with hydrophilic faces of cellulose fibrils, and is essential for development of normal plant secondary cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas J Grantham
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Joel Wurman-Rodrich
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Oliver M Terrett
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Jan J Lyczakowski
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Katherine Stott
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Dinu Iuga
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Thomas J Simmons
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Mylene Durand-Tardif
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, UMR 1318, INRA AgroParisTech CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, 78026, Versailles Cedex, France
| | - Steven P Brown
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Ray Dupree
- Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Marta Busse-Wicher
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK
| | - Paul Dupree
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge, CB2 1QW, UK.
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Littunen K, Mai-Gisondi G, Seppälä J, Master ER. Enzymatically Debranched Xylans in Graft Copolymerization. Biomacromolecules 2017; 18:1634-1641. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.7b00229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Emma R. Master
- Department
of Chemical Engineering and Applied Chemistry, University of Toronto, 200 College Street, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3E5, Canada
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Smith PJ, Wang HT, York WS, Peña MJ, Urbanowicz BR. Designer biomass for next-generation biorefineries: leveraging recent insights into xylan structure and biosynthesis. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2017; 10:286. [PMID: 29213325 PMCID: PMC5708106 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-017-0973-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Xylans are the most abundant noncellulosic polysaccharides in lignified secondary cell walls of woody dicots and in both primary and secondary cell walls of grasses. These polysaccharides, which comprise 20-35% of terrestrial biomass, present major challenges for the efficient microbial bioconversion of lignocellulosic feedstocks to fuels and other value-added products. Xylans play a significant role in the recalcitrance of biomass to degradation, and their bioconversion requires metabolic pathways that are distinct from those used to metabolize cellulose. In this review, we discuss the key differences in the structural features of xylans across diverse plant species, how these features affect their interactions with cellulose and lignin, and recent developments in understanding their biosynthesis. In particular, we focus on how the combined structural and biosynthetic knowledge can be used as a basis for biomass engineering aimed at developing crops that are better suited as feedstocks for the bioconversion industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J. Smith
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA USA
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Lab Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN USA
| | - Hsin-Tzu Wang
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA USA
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Lab Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN USA
| | - William S. York
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA USA
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Lab Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN USA
| | - Maria J. Peña
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA USA
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Lab Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN USA
| | - Breeanna R. Urbanowicz
- Complex Carbohydrate Research Center, University of Georgia, 315 Riverbend Road, Athens, GA USA
- BioEnergy Science Center, Oak Ridge National Lab Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN USA
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