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Aleksic M, Meng X. Protein Haptenation and Its Role in Allergy. Chem Res Toxicol 2024; 37:850-872. [PMID: 38834188 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.4c00062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Humans are exposed to numerous electrophilic chemicals either as medicines, in the workplace, in nature, or through use of many common cosmetic and household products. Covalent modification of human proteins by such chemicals, or protein haptenation, is a common occurrence in cells and may result in generation of antigenic species, leading to development of hypersensitivity reactions. Ranging in severity of symptoms from local cutaneous reactions and rhinitis to potentially life-threatening anaphylaxis and severe hypersensitivity reactions such as Stephen-Johnson syndrome (SJS) and toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN), all these reactions have the same Molecular Initiating Event (MIE), i.e. haptenation. However, not all individuals who are exposed to electrophilic chemicals develop symptoms of hypersensitivity. In the present review, we examine common chemistry behind the haptenation reactions leading to formation of neoantigens. We explore simple reactions involving single molecule additions to a nucleophilic side chain of proteins and complex reactions involving multiple electrophilic centers on a single molecule or involving more than one electrophilic molecule as well as the generation of reactive molecules from the interaction with cellular detoxification mechanisms. Besides generation of antigenic species and enabling activation of the immune system, we explore additional events which result directly from the presence of electrophilic chemicals in cells, including activation of key defense mechanisms and immediate consequences of those reactions, and explore their potential effects. We discuss the factors that work in concert with haptenation leading to the development of hypersensitivity reactions and those that may act to prevent it from developing. We also review the potential harnessing of the specificity of haptenation in the design of potent covalent therapeutic inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Aleksic
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedford MK44 1LQ, U.K
| | - Xiaoli Meng
- MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, The University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GE, U.K
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2
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Aleksic M, Rajagopal R, de-Ávila R, Spriggs S, Gilmour N. The skin sensitization adverse outcome pathway: exploring the role of mechanistic understanding for higher tier risk assessment. Crit Rev Toxicol 2024; 54:69-91. [PMID: 38385441 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2024.2308816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2024]
Abstract
For over a decade, the skin sensitization Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) has served as a useful framework for development of novel in chemico and in vitro assays for use in skin sensitization hazard and risk assessment. Since its establishment, the AOP framework further fueled the existing efforts in new assay development and stimulated a plethora of activities with particular focus on validation, reproducibility and interpretation of individual assays and combination of assay outputs for use in hazard/risk assessment. In parallel, research efforts have also accelerated in pace, providing new molecular and dynamic insight into key events leading to sensitization. In light of novel hypotheses emerging from over a decade of focused research effort, mechanistic evidence relating to the key events in the skin sensitization AOP may complement the tools currently used in risk assessment. We reviewed the recent advances unraveling the complexity of molecular events in sensitization and signpost the most promising avenues for further exploration and development of useful assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Aleksic
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, UK
| | - Ramya Rajagopal
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, UK
| | - Renato de-Ávila
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, UK
| | - Sandrine Spriggs
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, UK
| | - Nicola Gilmour
- Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Unilever, Sharnbrook, UK
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3
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Punzalan C, Wang L, Bajrami B, Yao X. Measurement and utilization of the proteomic reactivity by mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2024; 43:166-192. [PMID: 36924435 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2022] [Revised: 02/17/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Chemical proteomics, which involves studying the covalent modifications of proteins by small molecules, has significantly contributed to our understanding of protein function and has become an essential tool in drug discovery. Mass spectrometry (MS) is the primary method for identifying and quantifying protein-small molecule adducts. In this review, we discuss various methods for measuring proteomic reactivity using MS and covalent proteomics probes that engage through reactivity-driven and proximity-driven mechanisms. We highlight the applications of these methods and probes in live-cell measurements, drug target identification and validation, and characterizing protein-small molecule interactions. We conclude the review with current developments and future opportunities in the field, providing our perspectives on analytical considerations for MS-based analysis of the proteomic reactivity landscape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clodette Punzalan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
- AD Bio US, Takeda, Lexington, Massachusetts, 02421, USA
| | - Bekim Bajrami
- Chemical Biology & Proteomics, Biogen, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Xudong Yao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
- Institute for Systems Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
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4
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Rajczewski A, Ndreu L, Vryonidis E, Hurben AK, Jamshidi S, Griffin TJ, Törnqvist MÅ, Tretyakova NY, Karlsson I. Mass Spectrometry-Based Strategies for Assessing Human Exposure Using Hemoglobin Adductomics. Chem Res Toxicol 2023; 36:2019-2030. [PMID: 37963067 PMCID: PMC10731639 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
Hemoglobin (Hb) adducts are widely used in human biomonitoring due to the high abundance of hemoglobin in human blood, its reactivity toward electrophiles, and adducted protein stability for up to 120 days. In the present paper, we compared three methods of analysis of hemoglobin adducts: mass spectrometry of derivatized N-terminal Val adducts, mass spectrometry of N-terminal adducted hemoglobin peptides, and limited proteolysis mass spectrometry . Blood from human donors was incubated with a selection of contact allergens and other electrophiles, after which hemoglobin was isolated and subjected to three analysis methods. We found that the FIRE method was able to detect and reliably quantify N-terminal adducts of acrylamide, acrylic acid, glycidic acid, and 2,3-epoxypropyl phenyl ether (PGE), but it was less efficient for 2-methyleneglutaronitrile (2-MGN) and failed to detect 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (DNCB). By contrast, bottom-up proteomics was able to determine the presence of adducts from all six electrophiles at both the N-terminus and reactive hemoglobin side chains. Limited proteolysis mass spectrometry, studied for four contact allergens (three electrophiles and a metal salt), was able to determine the presence of covalent hemoglobin adducts with one of the three electrophiles (DNCB) and coordination complexation with the nickel salt. Together, these approaches represent complementary tools in the study of the hemoglobin adductome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew
T. Rajczewski
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota55455, United States
| | - Lorena Ndreu
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Efstathios Vryonidis
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Alexander K. Hurben
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and the Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota55455, United States
| | - Sara Jamshidi
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Timothy J. Griffin
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota55455, United States
| | | | - Natalia Y. Tretyakova
- Department
of Medicinal Chemistry and the Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota55455, United States
| | - Isabella Karlsson
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691Stockholm, Sweden
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5
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Wang W, Sun G, Nan X, Huang Y, Li Z, He T, Luo Y, Chen S. On-line screening and verification of haptens in Xiangdan injection combining chemical analysis with activity detection. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 231:115413. [PMID: 37119721 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Abstract
Xiangdan injection (XDI), as a well-known traditional Chinese medicine injection, is of great significance to treat cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases. The haptens causing allergic reactions are urged to be detected due to the adverse reaction. In this study, an efficient approach was established to rapidly identify and screen potential haptens in XDI for the first time by combining high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector-electrospray ionization-ion trap-time of flight-mass spectrometry with human serum albumin-fluorescence detector (HPLC-DAD-ESI-IT-TOF-MS-HSA-FLD). 21 compounds were identified according to their mass spectrum or comparison with reference substances and 8 salvianolic acids in XDI showed interactions with HSA in varying degrees. After that, surface plasmon resonance (SPR) was applied to screen the compounds showing specific affinity with human serum albumin (HSA). Subsequently, active systemic anaphylaxis (ASA) in guinea pigs was carried out to verify the sensitization of active compounds, In the meantime the serum IgE level before and after challenge was measured by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Ultimately, it was tested that salvianolic acid C had a strong sensitization, in addition, lithospermic acid, rosmarinic acid and salvianolic acid B had potential sensitization. This study suggest that the on-line method provides rapid preliminary searching for haptens in XDI, combined with SPR and ASA, offering an efficient, rapid and comprehensive approach to screen haptens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanwan Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Ge Sun
- China Institute of Radiation Protection, Taiyuan 030006, PR China
| | - Xiaoke Nan
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Yazhuo Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Zhehao Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Tian He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Yukun Luo
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China
| | - Shizhong Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, PR China.
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6
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Vryonidis E, Karlsson I, Aasa J, Carlsson H, Motwani HV, Pedersen M, Eriksson J, Törnqvist MÅ. Pathways to Identify Electrophiles In Vivo Using Hemoglobin Adducts: Hydroxypropanoic Acid Valine Adduct and Its Possible Precursors. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:2227-2240. [PMID: 36395356 PMCID: PMC9768813 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Analytical methods and tools for the characterization of the human exposome by untargeted mass spectrometry approaches are advancing rapidly. Adductomics methods have been developed for untargeted screening of short-lived electrophiles, in the form of adducts to proteins or DNA, in vivo. The identification of an adduct and its precursor electrophile in the blood is more complex than that of stable chemicals. The present work aims to illustrate procedures for the identification of an adduct to N-terminal valine in hemoglobin detected with adductomics, and pathways for the tracing of its precursor and possible exposure sources. Identification of the adduct proceeded via preparation and characterization of standards of adduct analytes. Possible precursor(s) and exposure sources were investigated by measurements in blood of adduct formation by precursors in vitro and adduct levels in vivo. The adduct was identified as hydroxypropanoic acid valine (HPA-Val) by verification with a synthesized reference. The HPA-Val was measured together with other adducts (from acrylamide, glycidamide, glycidol, and acrylic acid) in human blood (n = 51, schoolchildren). The HPA-Val levels ranged between 6 and 76 pmol/g hemoglobin. The analysis of reference samples from humans and rodents showed that the HPA-Val adduct was observed in all studied samples. No correlation of the HPA-Val level with the other studied adducts was observed in humans, nor was an increase in tobacco smokers observed. A small increase was observed in rodents exposed to glycidol. The formation of the HPA-Val adduct upon incubation of blood with glycidic acid (an epoxide) was shown. The relatively high adduct levels observed in vivo in relation to the measured reactivity of the epoxide, and the fact that the epoxide is not described as naturally occurring, suggest that glycidic acid is not the only precursor of the HPA-Val adduct identified in vivo. Another endogenous electrophile is suspected to contribute to the in vivo HPA-Val adduct level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efstathios Vryonidis
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Isabella Karlsson
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jenny Aasa
- Department
of Risk and Benefit Assessment, Swedish
Food Agency, SE-751 26 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Henrik Carlsson
- Department
of Medical Sciences, Clinical Chemistry, Uppsala University, SE-751
85 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hitesh V. Motwani
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marie Pedersen
- Department
of Public Health, University of Copenhagen, DK-1353 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Johan Eriksson
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Margareta Å. Törnqvist
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden,
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7
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Study of reactive dye/serum albumin interactions: thermodynamic parameters, protein alterations and computational analysis. CHEMICAL PAPERS 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s11696-022-02561-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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8
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Ndreu L, Sasse S, Karlberg AT, Karlsson I. Haptenation of Macrophage Migration Inhibitory Factor: A Potential Biomarker for Contact Hypersensitivity. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:856614. [PMID: 35465102 PMCID: PMC9019732 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.856614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The immunological response in contact hypersensitivity is incited by small electrophilic compounds, known as haptens, that react with endogenous proteins after skin absorption. However, the identity of hapten-modified proteins seen as immunogenic remains as yet largely unknown. In a recent study, we have for the first time identified a hapten-modified protein in the local lymph nodes of mice treated topically with the model hapten tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate (TRITC). The TRITC modification was located on the N-terminal proline of the protein macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF). The focus of the current study was to investigate the presence of the same hapten-protein conjugate in blood samples from mice treated topically with TRITC. Furthermore, TRITC modifications of the two major blood proteins, namely hemoglobin (Hb) and albumin (Alb), as well as TRITC modifications of MIF other than the N-terminal proline, were examined. Following incubation with different molar ratios of TRITC, a proteomic approach was applied to characterize conjugate formation of the three aforementioned proteins, using high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The targeted screening of the TRITC-treated mice blood and lymph node samples for these sites led to the identification of only the same TRITC-MIF conjugate previously detected in the lymph nodes. No Hb and Alb conjugates were detected. Quantification of both the TRITC-modified and unmodified N-terminal peptide of MIF in blood and lymph node samples gave interesting insights of MIF’s role in murine contact hypersensitivity. Incubation of MIF with four different haptens encompassing different reactivity mechanisms and potencies, showed adduct formation at different amino acid residues, suggesting that MIF can be the preferred target for a wide variety of haptens. The present study provides essential progress toward understanding of hapten-protein conjugate formation in contact hypersensitivity and identifies hapten-modified MIF as a potential biomarker for this condition. Further investigation of MIF as a target protein can be a next step to determine if MIF is a biomarker that can be used to develop better diagnostic tools and targeted therapeutics for individuals with allergic contact dermatitis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorena Ndreu
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Samantha Sasse
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ann-Therese Karlberg
- Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, Dermatochemistry, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Isabella Karlsson
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Isabella Karlsson,
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Curato C, Aparicio-Soto M, Riedel F, Wehl I, Basaran A, Abbas A, Thierse HJ, Luch A, Siewert K. Frequencies and TCR Repertoires of Human 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzenesulfonic Acid-specific T Cells. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:827109. [PMID: 35295228 PMCID: PMC8915883 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.827109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Allergic contact dermatitis is a widespread T cell-mediated inflammatory skin disease, but in vitro monitoring of chemical-specific T cells remains challenging. We here introduce short-term CD154/CD137 upregulation to monitor human T cell responses to the experimental sensitizer 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from healthy donor buffy coats were TNBS-modified and incubated with unmodified PBMC. After 5 and 16 h, we detected TNBS-specific activated CD154+CD4+ and CD137+CD8+ T cells by multi-parameter flow cytometry, respectively. Activated cells were sorted for restimulation and bulk T cell receptor (TCR) high-throughput sequencing (HTS). Stimulation with TNBS-modified cells (3 mM) induced CD154 expression on 0.04% of CD4+ and CD137 expression on 0.60% of CD8+ memory T cells, respectively (means, n = 11–17 donors). CD69 co-expression argued for TCR-mediated activation, which was further supported by TNBS-specific restimulation of 10/13 CD154+CD4+ and 11/15 CD137+CD8+ T cell clones and lines. Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) blocking antibodies prevented activation, illustrating MHC restriction. The high frequencies of TNBS-specific T cells were associated with distinct common changes in the TCR β-chain repertoire. We observed an overrepresentation of tryptophan and lysine in the complementarity determining regions 3 (CDR3) (n = 3–5 donors), indicating a preferential interaction of these amino acids with the TNBS-induced epitopes. In summary, the detection of TNBS-specific T cells by CD154/CD137 upregulation is a fast, comprehensive and quantitative method. Combined with TCR HTS, the mechanisms of chemical allergen recognition that underlie unusually frequent T cell activation can be assessed. In the future, this approach may be adapted to detect T cells activated by additional chemical sensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Curato
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marina Aparicio-Soto
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Franziska Riedel
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingrun Wehl
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alev Basaran
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amro Abbas
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
- German Rheumatism Research Center (DRFZ), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hermann-Josef Thierse
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Luch
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katherina Siewert
- Dermatotoxicology Study Centre, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
- *Correspondence: Katherina Siewert,
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Aparicio-Soto M, Curato C, Riedel F, Thierse HJ, Luch A, Siewert K. In Vitro Monitoring of Human T Cell Responses to Skin Sensitizing Chemicals-A Systematic Review. Cells 2021; 11:cells11010083. [PMID: 35011644 PMCID: PMC8750770 DOI: 10.3390/cells11010083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Chemical allergies are T cell-mediated diseases that often manifest in the skin as allergic contact dermatitis (ACD). To prevent ACD on a public health scale and avoid elicitation reactions at the individual patient level, predictive and diagnostic tests, respectively, are indispensable. Currently, there is no validated in vitro T cell assay available. The main bottlenecks concern the inefficient generation of T cell epitopes and the detection of rare antigen-specific T cells. Methods: Here, we systematically review original experimental research papers describing T cell activation to chemical skin sensitizers. We focus our search on studies published in the PubMed and Scopus databases on non-metallic allergens in the last 20 years. Results: We identified 37 papers, among them 32 (86%) describing antigen-specific human T cell activation to 31 different chemical allergens. The remaining studies measured the general effects of chemical allergens on T cell function (five studies, 14%). Most antigen-specific studies used peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) as antigen-presenting cells (APC, 75%) and interrogated the blood T cell pool (91%). Depending on the individual chemical properties, T cell epitopes were generated either by direct administration into the culture medium (72%), separate modification of autologous APC (29%) or by use of hapten-modified model proteins (13%). Read-outs were mainly based on proliferation (91%), often combined with cytokine secretion (53%). The analysis of T cell clones offers additional opportunities to elucidate the mechanisms of epitope formation and cross-reactivity (13%). The best researched allergen was p-phenylenediamine (PPD, 12 studies, 38%). For this and some other allergens, stronger immune responses were observed in some allergic patients (15/31 chemicals, 48%), illustrating the in vivo relevance of the identified T cells while detection limits remain challenging in many cases. Interpretation: Our results illustrate current hardships and possible solutions to monitoring T cell responses to individual chemical skin sensitizers. The provided data can guide the further development of T cell assays to unfold their full predictive and diagnostic potential, including cross-reactivity assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Aparicio-Soto
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Caterina Curato
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Franziska Riedel
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Hermann-Josef Thierse
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
| | - Andreas Luch
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
- Institute of Pharmacy, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Katherina Siewert
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, 10589 Berlin, Germany; (M.A.-S.); (C.C.); (F.R.); (H.-J.T.); (A.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +49-(0)30-18412-57001
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11
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Abstract
Chemicals are measured regularly in air, food, the environment, and the workplace. Biomonitoring of chemicals in biological fluids is a tool to determine the individual exposure. Blood protein adducts of xenobiotics are a marker of both exposure and the biologically effective dose. Urinary metabolites and blood metabolites are short term exposure markers. Stable hemoglobin adducts are exposure markers of up to 120 days. Blood protein adducts are formed with many xenobiotics at different sites of the blood proteins. Newer methods apply the techniques developed in the field of proteomics. Larger adducted peptides with 20 amino acids are used for quantitation. Unfortunately, at present the methods do not reach the limits of detection obtained with the methods looking at single amino acid adducts or at chemically cleaved adducts. Therefore, to progress in the field new approaches are needed.
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12
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Prasse C. Reactivity-directed analysis - a novel approach for the identification of toxic organic electrophiles in drinking water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:48-65. [PMID: 33432313 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00471e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water consumption results in exposure to complex mixtures of organic chemicals, including natural and anthropogenic chemicals and compounds formed during drinking water treatment such as disinfection by-products. The complexity of drinking water contaminant mixtures has hindered efforts to assess associated health impacts. Existing approaches focus primarily on individual chemicals and/or the evaluation of mixtures, without providing information about the chemicals causing the toxic effect. Thus, there is a need for the development of novel strategies to evaluate chemical mixtures and provide insights into the species responsible for the observed toxic effects. This critical review introduces the application of a novel approach called Reactivity-Directed Analysis (RDA) to assess and identify organic electrophiles, the largest group of known environmental toxicants. In contrast to existing in vivo and in vitro approaches, RDA utilizes in chemico methodologies that investigate the reaction of organic electrophiles with nucleophilic biomolecules, including proteins and DNA. This review summarizes the existing knowledge about the presence of electrophiles in drinking water, with a particular focus on their formation in oxidative treatment systems with ozone, advanced oxidation processes, and UV light, as well as disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramines and chlorine dioxide. This summary is followed by an overview of existing RDA approaches and their application for the assessment of aqueous environmental matrices, with an emphasis on drinking water. RDA can be applied beyond drinking water, however, to evaluate source waters and wastewater for human and environmental health risks. Finally, future research demands for the detection and identification of electrophiles in drinking water via RDA are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Prasse
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering and Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St, Baltimore, MD-21318, USA.
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