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Garmo LC, Herroon MK, Mecca S, Wilson A, Allen DR, Agarwal M, Kim S, Petriello MC, Podgorski I. The long-chain polyfluorinated alkyl substance perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) promotes bone marrow adipogenesis. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2024; 491:117047. [PMID: 39111555 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2024.117047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 07/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/31/2024] [Indexed: 08/11/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) bioaccumulate in different organ systems, including bone. While existing research highlights the adverse impact of PFAS on bone density, a critical gap remains in understanding the specific effects on the bone marrow microenvironment, especially the bone marrow adipose tissue (BMAT). Changes in BMAT have been linked to various health consequences, such as the development of osteoporosis and the progression of metastatic tumors in bone. Studies presented herein demonstrate that exposure to a mixture of five environmentally relevant PFAS compounds promotes marrow adipogenesis in vitro and in vivo. We show that among the components of the mixture, PFHxS, an alternative to PFOS, has the highest propensity to accumulate in bone and effectively promote marrow adipogenesis. Utilizing RNAseq approaches, we identified the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) signaling as a top pathway modulated by PFHxS exposure. Furthermore, we provide results suggesting the activation and involvement of PPAR-gamma (PPARγ) in PFHxS-mediated bone marrow adipogenesis, especially in combination with high-fat diet. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate the potential impact of elevated PFHxS levels, particularly in occupational settings, on bone health, and specifically bone marrow adiposity. This study contributes new insights into the health risks of PFHxS exposure, urging further research on the relationship between environmental factors, diet, and adipose tissue dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laimar C Garmo
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Mackenzie K Herroon
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Shane Mecca
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Alexis Wilson
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - David R Allen
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Manisha Agarwal
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Seongho Kim
- Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Michael C Petriello
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America; Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI, United States of America
| | - Izabela Podgorski
- Department of Pharmacology, Wayne State University School of Medicine, Detroit, MI, United States of America; Department of Oncology, Wayne State University School of Medicine and Karmanos Cancer Institute, Detroit, MI, United States of America.
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2
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Zhao X, Meng X, Yang D, Dong S, Xu J, Chen D, Shi Y, Sun Y, Ding G. Thyroid disrupting effects and the developmental toxicity of hexafluoropropylene oxide oligomer acids in zebrafish during early development. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 361:142462. [PMID: 38815816 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/25/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
As perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) alternatives, hexafluoropropylene oxide dimeric acid (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimeric acid (HFPO-TA) have been increasingly used and caused considerable water pollution. However, their toxicities to aquatic organisms are still not well known. Therefore, in this study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to PFOA (0, 1.5, 3 and 6 mg/L), HFPO-DA (0, 3, 6 and 12 mg/L) and HFPO-TA (0, 1, 2 and 4 mg/L) to comparatively investigate their thyroid disrupting effects and the developmental toxicity. Results demonstrated that waterborne exposure to PFOA and its two alternatives decreased T4 contents, the heart rate and swirl-escape rate of zebrafish embryos/larvae. The transcription levels of genes related to thyroid hormone regulation (crh), biosynthesis (tpo and tg), function (trα and trβ), transport (transthyretin, ttr), and metabolism (dio1, dio2 and ugt1ab), were differently altered after the exposures, which induced the thyroid disrupting effects and decreased the heart rate. In addition, the transcription levels of some genes related to the nervous system development were also significantly affected, which was associated with the thyroid disrupting effects and consequently affected the locomotor activity of zebrafish. Therefore, HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA could not be safe alternatives to PFOA. Further studies to uncover the underlying mechanisms of these adverse effects are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Xianghan Meng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Dan Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Shasha Dong
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Jianhui Xu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Dezhi Chen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Yawei Shi
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Ya Sun
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China
| | - Guanghui Ding
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian 116026, China.
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3
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Zhai Z, Zhang C, Chu L, Zhao Y, Zhou X, Zhang Y. Effective defluorination of novel hexafluoropropylene oxide oligomer acids under mild conditions by UV/sulfite/iodide: mechanisms and ecotoxicity. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 258:121804. [PMID: 38781621 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
It has recently been discovered that HFPO-TA (a processing aid in the production of fluoropolymers) has high levels of bioaccumulation and biotoxicity. Hydrated electrons (eaq-) have been proposed to be potent nucleophiles that may decompose PFAS. Unlike previous studies in which the generation of eaq- was often restricted to anaerobic or highly alkaline environments, in this study, we applied the UV/SO32-/I- process under mild conditions of neutrality, low source chemical demand, and open-air, which achieved effective degradation (81.92 %, 0.834 h-1) and defluorination (48.99 %, 0.312 h-1) of HFPO-TA. With I- as the primary source of eaq-, SO32- acting as an I- regenerator and oxidizing substances scavenger, UV/SO32-/I- outperformed others under mild circumstances. The eaq- were identified as the main active species by quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR). During degradation, the first site attacked by eaq- was the ether bond (C6-O7), followed by the generation of HFPO-DA, TFA, acetic and formic acid. Degradation studies of other HFPOs have shown that the defluorination of HFPOs was accompanied by a clear chain-length correlation. At last, toxicological experiments confirmed the safety of the process. This study updated our understanding of the degradation of newly PFASs and the application of eaq- mediated photoreductive approaches under mild conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyu Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Chaojie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
| | - Liquan Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yunmeng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Xuefei Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yalei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
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4
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Li F, Yang R, Lu L, Hua W, Sun Y, Tian M, Lu Y, Huang Q. Comparative steroidogenic effects of hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA): Regulation of histone modifications. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 350:124030. [PMID: 38663511 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 04/21/2024] [Indexed: 04/30/2024]
Abstract
As a widely used alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been detected in the environment and humans; however, little is known regarding its male reproductive toxicity. To compare the effects of HFPO-TA on steroid hormone synthesis with PFOA, we exposed Leydig cells (MLTC-1) to non-lethal doses (0.1, 1, and 10 μM) of PFOA and HFPO-TA for 48 h. It was found that the levels of steroid hormones, 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (OHP), androstenedione (ASD), and testosterone (T) were significantly increased in 1 and 10 μM of PFOA and HFPO-TA groups, with greater elevation being observed in the HFPO-TA groups than in the PFOA groups at 10 μM. We further showed that the two rate-limiting steroidogenic genes (Star and Cyp11a1) were up-regulated, while Hsd3b, Cyp17a1, and Hsd17b were down-regulated or unchanged after PFOA/HFPO-TA exposure. Moreover, PFOA exposure significantly up-regulated histone H3K4me1/3 and H3K9me1, while down-regulated H3K4me2 and H3K9me2/3 levels. By contrast, H3K4me2/3 and H3K9me2/3 were enhanced, while H3K4me1 and H3K9me1 were repressed after HFPO-TA treatment. It was further confirmed that H3K4me1/3 were increased and H3K9me2 was decreased in Star and Cyp11a1 promoters by PFOA, while HFPO-TA increased H3K4me2/3 and decreased H3K9me1 in the two gene promoters. Therefore, we propose that low levels of PFOA/HFPO-TA enhance the expression of Star and Cyp11a1 by regulating H3K4 and H3K9 methylation, thus stimulating the production of steroid hormones in MLTC-1 cells. Collectively, HFPO-TA exhibits stronger effects on steroidogenesis compared to PFOA, which may be ascribed to the distinct regulation of histone modifications. These data suggest that HFPO-TA does not appear to be a safer alternative to PFOA on the aspect of male reproductive toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fuping Li
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Rui Yang
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Defect, Fuzhou, China
| | - Lu Lu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Weizhen Hua
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Yan Sun
- Center of Reproductive Medicine, Fujian Maternity and Child Health Hospital, College of Clinical Medicine for Obstetrics & Gynecology and Pediatrics, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China; Fujian Key Laboratory of Prenatal Diagnosis and Birth Defect, Fuzhou, China
| | - Meiping Tian
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Yanyang Lu
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China
| | - Qingyu Huang
- Key Laboratory of Urban Environment and Health, Institute of Urban Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiamen, 361021, China.
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5
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Zhang X, Li Z, Qian M, Zhang B, Zhang H, Wang L, Liu H. Transcriptome and Metabolome analysis reveal HFPO-TA induced disorders of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism in rat by interfering with PPAR signaling pathway. Food Chem Toxicol 2024; 188:114632. [PMID: 38583503 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2024.114632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
PFOA is one of the most representative compounds in the family of perfluorinated organic compounds. Due to its varying toxicity, alternatives to PFOA are beginning to emerge. HFPO-TA is an alternative for PFOA. It is currently unclear whether HFPO-TA affects glucose and lipid metabolism. In this study, rats were used as an animal model to investigate the effects of HFPO-TA on liver glucose and lipid metabolism. We found that HFPO-TA can affect glucose tolerance. Through omics analysis and molecular detection, it was found that HFPO-TA mainly affects the PPAR signaling pathway in the liver of rats, inhibiting liver glycolysis while promoting glucose production. HFPO-TA not only promotes the synthesis of fatty acids in the liver, but also promotes the breakdown of fatty acids, which ultimately leads to the disruption of hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism. The effects of HFPO-TA on metabolism are discussed in this paper to provide a reference for the risk assessment of this PFOA substitute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuemin Zhang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical University Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China
| | - Zhi Li
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China
| | - Mingqing Qian
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China
| | - Bingya Zhang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical University Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China
| | - Hongxia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, PR China
| | - Li Wang
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China.
| | - Hui Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical University Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical University, Bengbu, 233030, PR China.
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6
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Sun S, Zhang L, Li X, Zang L, Huang L, Zeng J, Cao Z, Liao X, Zhong Z, Lu H, Chen J. Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid, a perfluorooctanoic acid alternative, induces cardiovascular toxicity in zebrafish embryos. J Environ Sci (China) 2024; 139:460-472. [PMID: 38105069 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2023.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
As an increasingly used alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been widely detected in global water environments. However, little is known regarding its toxic effects on cardiovascular development. Here, zebrafish embryos were treated with egg water containing 0, 60, 120, or 240 mg/L HFPO-TA. Results showed that HFPO-TA treatment led to a significant reduction in both larval survival percentage and heart rate. Furthermore, HFPO-TA exposure caused severe pericardial edema and elongation of the sinus venous to bulbus arteriosus distance (SV-BA) in Tg (myl7: GFP) transgenic larvae, disrupting the expression of genes involved in heart development and thus causing abnormal heart looping. Obvious sprouting angiogenesis was observed in the 120 and 240 mg/L exposed Tg (fli: GFP) transgenic larvae. HFPO-TA treatment also impacted the mRNA levels of genes involved in the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) pathway and embryonic vascular development. HFPO-TA exposure significantly decreased erythrocyte number in Tg (gata1: DsRed) transgenic embryos and influenced gene expression associated with the heme metabolism pathway. HFPO-TA also induced oxidative stress and altered the transcriptional levels of genes related to cell cycle and apoptosis, inhibiting cell proliferation while promoting apoptosis. Therefore, HFPO-TA exposure may induce abnormal development of the cardiovascular and hematopoietic systems in zebrafish embryos, suggesting it may not be a suitable or safe alternative for PFOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujie Sun
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, Center for Clinical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China; Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Xue Li
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, Center for Clinical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China; Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Lu Zang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Ling Huang
- Department of Interventional and Vascular Surgery, Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Junquan Zeng
- Department of Internal Medicine and Hematology, Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Zigang Cao
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, Center for Clinical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Xinjun Liao
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, Center for Clinical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China
| | - Zilin Zhong
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Huiqiang Lu
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, Center for Clinical Research Center of the Affiliated Hospital of Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, China.
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China.
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Chen X, Wang C, Gui W, Guo Y, Zhou X, Zhao Y, Dai J. Time-course transcriptome analysis discloses PFDMO2OA (C8 HFPO-TA)-induced developmental malformations and cardiovascular toxicities in zebrafish. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 347:123729. [PMID: 38462201 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.123729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
PFDMO2OA (C8 HFPO-TA), a novel substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has been frequently detected in surface waters. However, information on its toxicity remains scarce. In the present study, zebrafish embryos were exposed to varying concentrations of PFDMO2OA, ranging from 80 to 800 mg/L, until 120 h post-fertilization (hpf) to explore its potential developmental toxicities. The LC50 value for mortality was 505.9 mg/L, comparable to that of PFOA (over 500 mg/L), suggesting a lack of safety of PFDMO2OA compared to PFOA. At 120 hpf, PFDMO2OA exposure led to various malformations in embryos, including uninflated swim bladder, yolk sac oedema, spinal deformation, and pigmentation changes, with pericardial oedema being prominent. Analysis using O-dianisidine stain indicated a decline in erythrocytes over time. Transcriptome analysis further revealed the cardiovascular toxicity caused by PFDMO2OA at the molecular level. Time-course differential analysis pointed to the apoptosis dependent on disrupted mitochondrial function as a significant contributor to erythrocyte disappearance, as confirmed by the TUNEL stain. Therefore, the present findings suggest that PFDMO2OA induces developmental malformations and cardiovascular toxicities in zebrafish embryos, demonstrating a toxic potency comparable to that of PFOA. The results further highlight the significance of evaluating the health risks associated with PFDMO2OA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Chen
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Congcong Wang
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Wanying Gui
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Yong Guo
- Key Laboratory of Organofluorine Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xuming Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yanbin Zhao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China.
| | - Jiayin Dai
- Key Laboratory of Animal Ecology and Conservation Biology, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Shanghai, 200240, China
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8
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Pederick JL, Frkic RL, McDougal DP, Bruning JB. A structural basis for the activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) by perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 354:141723. [PMID: 38494006 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.141723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) is a widespread environmental pollutant of the perfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) class that is extremely resistant to environmental and metabolic degradation, leading to bioaccumulation. PFOA exposure has been linked to many health effects including endocrine disruption and metabolic dysregulation, but our understanding of the molecular mechanisms resulting in these outcomes remains incomplete. One target affected by PFOA is the ligand regulated nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) which plays a critical role in controlling metabolic homeostasis through regulating processes such as adipogenesis, glucose homeostasis, inflammation and osteogenesis. It has been previously established that PFOA activates PPARγ through binding to the PPARγ ligand binding domain (PPARγ LBD) leading to increased expression of PPARγ controlled target genes. However, the mechanism by which PFOA achieves this has remained elusive. Here, we employed a combination of X-ray crystallography and fluorescence polarization assays to provide a structural basis for PFOA mediated activation of PPARγ via binding to the PPARγ LBD. Using X-ray crystallography, the cocrystal structure of the PPARγ LBD:PFOA complex was solved. This revealed that PFOA occupies three distinct sites, two within the PPARγ LBD and one within the activation function 2 (AF2) on the protein surface. Structural comparison of PFOA binding with previously reported PPARγ:ligand complexes supports that PFOA activates PPARγ by a partial agonist mechanism at micromolar concentrations. Fluorescence polarization assays also revealed that PFOA binding to the AF2 is unlikely to occur in a cellular context and confirmed that PFOA behaves as a partial agonist in vitro, weakly recruiting a coactivator peptide to the AF2 of the PPARγ LBD. This discovery provides an advancement in understanding PFOA mediated regulation of PPARγ, giving new insight regarding regulation of PPARγ by PFAS and PFAS substitutes in general and can be applied to the design and assessment of safer PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Pederick
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - R L Frkic
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - D P McDougal
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - J B Bruning
- Institute for Photonics and Advanced Sensing (IPAS), School of Biological Sciences, The University of Adelaide, SA, Australia.
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9
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Shi G, Zhu B, Wu Q, Dai J, Sheng N. Prenatal exposure to hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) disrupts the maternal gut microbiome and fecal metabolome homeostasis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:169330. [PMID: 38135079 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2023] [Revised: 12/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
Initially considered a "safe" substitute for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been extensively used in the production of fluoropolymers for several years, leading to its environmental ubiquity and subsequent discovery of its significant bio-accumulative properties and toxicological effects. However, the specific impact of HFPO-TA on females, particularly those who are pregnant, remains unclear. In the present study, pregnant mice were exposed to 0.63 mg/kg/day HFPO-TA from gestational day (GD) 2 to GD 18. We then determined the potential effects of exposure on gut microbiota and fecal metabolites at GD 12 (mid-pregnancy) and GD 18 (late pregnancy). Our results revealed that, in addition to liver damage, HFPO-TA exposure during the specified window altered the structure and function of cecal gut microbiota. Notably, these changes showed the opposite trends at GD 12 and GD 18. Specifically, at GD 12, HFPO-TA exposure primarily resulted in the down-regulation of relative abundances within genera from the Bacteroidetes and Proteobacteria phyla, as well as associated Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways. With extended exposure time, the down-regulated genera within Proteobacteria became significantly up-regulated, accompanied by corresponding up-regulation of human disease- and inflammation-associated pathways, suggesting that HFPO-TA exposure can induce intestinal inflammation and elevate the risk of infection during late pregnancy. Pearson correlation analysis revealed that disturbances in the gut microbiota were accompanied by abnormal fecal metabolite. Additionally, alterations in hormones related to the steroid hormone biosynthesis pathway at both sacrifice time indicated that HFPO-TA exposure might change the steroid hormone level of pregnant mice, but need further study. In conclusion, this study provides new insights into the mechanisms underlying HFPO-TA-induced adverse effects and increases awareness of potential persistent health risks to pregnant females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guohui Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Bao Zhu
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Qi Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Jiayin Dai
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Nan Sheng
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China.
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10
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Yuan W, Song S, Lu Y, Shi Y, Yang S, Wu Q, Wu Y, Jia D, Sun J. Legacy and alternative per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the Bohai Bay Rim: Occurrence, partitioning behavior, risk assessment, and emission scenario analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:168837. [PMID: 38040376 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of alternative per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) has been practiced because of the restrictions on legacy PFASs. However, knowledge gaps exist on the ecological risks of alternatives and relationships between restrictions and emissions. This study systematically analyzed the occurrence characteristics, water-sediment partitioning behaviors, ecological risks, and emissions of legacy and alternative PFASs in the Bohai Bay Rim (BBR). The mean concentration of total PFASs was 46.105 ng/L in surface water and 6.125 ng/g dry weight (dw) in sediments. As an alternative for perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (GenX) had a concentration second only to PFOA in surface water. In sediments, perfluorobutyric acid (PFBA) and GenX were the two predominant contaminants. In the water-sediment partitioning system, GenX, 9-chlorohexadecafluoro-3-oxanone-1-sulfonic acid (F-53B), and 11-chloroeicosafluoro-3-oxaundecane-1-sulfonic acid (8:2 Cl-PFESA) tended to be enriched towards sediments. The species sensitivity distribution (SSD) models revealed the low ecological risks of PFASs and their alternatives in the BBR. Moreover, predicted no-effected concentrations (PNECs) indicated that short-chain alternatives like PFBA and perfluorobutane sulfonate (PFBS) were safer for aquatic ecosystems, while caution should be exercised when using GenX and F-53B. Due to the incremental replacement of PFOA by GenX, cumulative emissions of 1317.96 kg PFOA and 667.22 kg GenX were estimated during 2004-2022, in which PFOA emissions were reduced by 59.2 % due to restrictions implemented since 2016. If more stringent restrictions are implemented from 2023 to 2030, PFOA emissions will further decrease by 85.0 %, but GenX emissions will increase by an additional 21.3 %. Simultaneously, GenX concentrations in surface water are forecasted to surge by 2.02 to 2.45 times in 2023. This study deepens the understanding of PFAS alternatives and assists authorities in developing policies to administer PFAS alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shuai Song
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Yonglong Lu
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China; State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Key Laboratory of the Ministry of Education for Coastal Wetland Ecosystems, College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Fujian 361102, China
| | - Yajuan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Shengjie Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Qiang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yanqi Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban and Regional Ecology, Research Centre for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Dai Jia
- Research Centre for Indian Ocean Ecosystem, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Jun Sun
- Research Centre for Indian Ocean Ecosystem, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China; College of Marine Science and Technology, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China; State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology, China University of Geosciences (Wuhan), Wuhan, Hubei 430074, China
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11
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Kim S, Kang K, Kim H, Seo M. In Vitro Toxicity Screening of Fifty Complex Mixtures in HepG2 Cells. TOXICS 2024; 12:126. [PMID: 38393221 PMCID: PMC10892977 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12020126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
To develop the risk prediction technology for mixture toxicity, a reliable and extensive dataset of experimental results is required. However, most published literature only provides data on combinations containing two or three substances, resulting in a limited dataset for predicting the toxicity of complex mixtures. Complex mixtures may have different mode of actions (MoAs) due to their varied composition, posing difficulty in the prediction using conventional toxicity prediction models, such as the concentration addition (CA) and independent action (IA) models. The aim of this study was to generate an experimental dataset comprising complex mixtures. To identify the target complex mixtures, we referred to the findings of the HBM4EU project. We identified three groups of seven to ten components that were commonly detected together in human bodies, namely environmental phenols, perfluorinated compounds, and heavy metal compounds, assuming these chemicals to have different MoAs. In addition, a separate mixture was added consisting of seven organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), which may have similar chemical structures. All target substances were tested for cytotoxicity using HepG2 cell lines, and subsequently 50 different complex mixtures were randomly generated with equitoxic mixtures of EC10 levels. To determine the interaction effect, we calculated the model deviation ratio (MDR) by comparing the observed EC10 with the predicted EC10 from the CA model, then categorized three types of interactions: antagonism, additivity, and synergism. Dose-response curves and EC values were calculated for all complex mixtures. Out of 50 mixtures, none demonstrated synergism, while six mixtures exhibited an antagonistic effect. The remaining mixtures exhibited additivity with MDRs ranging from 0.50 to 1.34. Our experimental data have been formatted to and constructed for the database. They will be utilized for further research aimed at developing the combined CA/IA approaches to support mixture risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunmi Kim
- Chemical Analysis Center, Korea Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea; (K.K.); (H.K.); (M.S.)
| | - Kyounghee Kang
- Chemical Analysis Center, Korea Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea; (K.K.); (H.K.); (M.S.)
| | - Haena Kim
- Chemical Analysis Center, Korea Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea; (K.K.); (H.K.); (M.S.)
- Department of Chemistry, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Republic of Korea
| | - Myungwon Seo
- Chemical Analysis Center, Korea Institute of Chemical Technology (KRICT), Daejeon 34114, Republic of Korea; (K.K.); (H.K.); (M.S.)
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12
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Zhang JD, He S, He TT, Li CH, Yan BH, Yang Y, Yang J, Luo L, Yin YL, Cao LY. Triclocarban exhibits higher adipogenic activity than triclosan through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors pathways. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 342:123030. [PMID: 38030110 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.123030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/21/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Previous epidemiological and animal studies have showed the lipid metabolic disruption of antimicrobial triclocarban (TCC) and triclosan (TCS). However, the present in vivo researches were mainly devoted to the hepatic lipid metabolism, while the evidence about the impacts of TCC/TCS on the adipose tissue is very limited and the potential mechanism is unclear, especially the molecular initiation events. Moreover, little is known about the toxic difference between TCC and TCS. This study aimed to demonstrate the differential adipogenic activity of TCC/TCS as well as the potential molecular mechanism via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARα/β/γ). The in vitro experiment based on 3T3-L1 cells showed that TCC/TCS promoted the differentiation of preadipocytes into mature adipocytes at nanomolar to micromolar concentrations, which was approach to their human exposure levels. We revealed for the first time by reporter gene assay that TCC could activate three PPARs signaling pathways in a concentration-dependent manner, while TCS only activate PPARβ. The molecular docking strategy was applied to simulate the interactions of TCC/TCS with PPARs, which explained well the different PPARs activities between TCC and TCS. TCC up-regulated the mRNA expression of three PPARs, but TCS only up-regulated PPARβ and PPARγ significantly. Meanwhile, TCC/TCS also promoted the expression of adipogenic genes targeted by PPARs to different extent. The cellular and simulating studies demonstrated that TCC exerted higher adipogenic effects and PPARs activities than TCS. Our mice in vivo experiment showed that TCC could lead to adipocyte size increase, adipocyte lipid accumulation growing, fat weight and body weight gain at human-related exposure levels, and high fat diet exacerbated these effects. Moreover, male mice tended to be more susceptible to TCC induced obesogenic effect than female mice. This work highlights the potential obesogenic risks of TCC/TCS via PPARs signaling pathways, and TCC deserves more concerns for its higher activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia-Da Zhang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Sen He
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Ting-Ting He
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Chuan-Hai Li
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao, 266071, China
| | - Bing-Hua Yan
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Yuan Yang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Jian Yang
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Lin Luo
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Yu-Long Yin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China
| | - Lin-Ying Cao
- College of Environment and Ecology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China; College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, 410128, China.
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13
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Zhang X, Li B, Huo S, Du J, Zhang J, Song M, Shao B, Li Y. Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid exposure triggers necroptosis and inflammation through the Wnt/β-catenin/NF-κB axis in the liver. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 905:167033. [PMID: 37709082 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA), an emerging alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has recently been identified as a significant environmental pollutant. Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of studies regarding the hepatotoxic effects of HFPO-TA. Here, we investigated the types and potential mechanisms of liver damage caused by HFPO-TA. Initially, we validated that the introduction of HFPO-TA resulted in the Wnt/β-catenin signaling (W/β signaling) activation, as well as the induction of necroptosis and inflammation, both in the liver of mice and in HepG2 cells. Subsequently, we established that the W/β signaling mediated the necroptosis and inflammation observed in the liver and HepG2 cells exposed to HFPO-TA. Finally, we demonstrated that the phosphorylated form of NF-κB p65 (p-NF-κB p65) played a role in mediating the necroptosis and inflammation, and its activity could be regulated by the W/β signaling pathway in the liver of mice and HepG2 cells exposed to HFPO-TA. In conclusion, our investigation elucidates the role of HFPO-TA in inducing necroptosis and inflammation in the liver, which is facilitated through the activation of the W/β/NF-κB axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuliang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Siming Huo
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jiayu Du
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Miao Song
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Bing Shao
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Yanfei Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
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14
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Cao H, Peng J, Zhou Z, Yang Z, Wang L, Sun Y, Wang Y, Liang Y. Investigation of the Binding Fraction of PFAS in Human Plasma and Underlying Mechanisms Based on Machine Learning and Molecular Dynamics Simulation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:17762-17773. [PMID: 36282672 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c04400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
More than 7000 per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) have been documented in the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's CompTox Chemicals database. These PFAS can be used in a broad range of industrial and consumer applications but may pose potential environmental issues and health risks. However, little is known about emerging PFAS bioaccumulation to assess their chemical safety. This study focuses specifically on the large and high-quality data set of fluorochemicals from the related environmental and pharmaceutical chemicals databases, and machine learning (ML) models were developed for the classification prediction of the unbound fraction of compounds in plasma. A comprehensive evaluation of the ML models shows that the best blending model yields an accuracy of 0.901 for the test set. The predictions suggest that most PFAS (∼92%) have a high binding fraction in plasma. Introduction of alkaline amino groups is likely to reduce the binding affinities of PFAS with plasma proteins. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate a clear distinction between the high and low binding fractions of PFAS. These computational workflows can be used to predict the bioaccumulation of emerging PFAS and are also helpful for the molecular design of PFAS to prevent the release of high-bioaccumulation compounds into the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiming Cao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Jianhua Peng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Zhen Zhou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Zeguo Yang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Ling Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Yuzhen Sun
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Yawei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yong Liang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
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15
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Dong S, Xu J, Yang D, Zhao X, Li X, Chen D, Xing J, Shi Y, Sun Y, Ding G. Different Life-Stage Exposure to Hexafluoropropylene Oxide Trimer Acid Induces Reproductive Toxicity in Adult Zebrafish (Danio rerio). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2023; 42:2490-2500. [PMID: 37589400 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
As a novel alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been widely used and has caused ubiquitous water pollution. However, its adverse effects on aquatic organisms are still not well known. In the present study, zebrafish at different life stages were exposed to 0, 5, 50, and 100 μg/L of HFPO-TA for 21 days to investigate reproductive toxicity in zebrafish. The results showed that HFPO-TA exposure significantly inhibited growth and induced reproductive toxicity in zebrafish, including a decrease of the condition factor, gonadosomatic index, and the average number of eggs. Histological section observation revealed that percentages of mature oocytes and spermatozoa were reduced, while those of primary oocytes and spermatocytes increased. In addition, exposure to HFPO-TA at three stages induced a significant decrease in the hatching rate, while the heart rate and normal growth rate of F1 offspring were only significantly inhibited for the exposure from fertilization to 21 days postfertilization (dpf). Compared with the exposure from 42 to 63 dpf, the reproductive toxicity induced by HFPO-TA was more significant for the exposure from fertilization to 21 dpf and from 21 to 42 dpf. Expression of the genes for cytochrome P450 A1A, vitellogenin 1, estrogen receptor alpha, and estrogen receptor 2b was significantly up-regulated in most cases after exposure to HFPO-TA, suggesting that HFPO-TA exhibited an estrogen effect similar to PFOA. Therefore, HFPO-TA might disturb the balance of sex steroid hormones and consequently induce reproductive toxicity in zebrafish. Taken together, the results demonstrate that exposure to HFPO-TA at different life stages could induce reproductive toxicity in zebrafish. However, the underlying mechanisms deserve further investigation. Environ Toxicol Chem 2023;42:2490-2500. © 2023 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shasha Dong
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Jianhui Xu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Dan Yang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Xiaohui Zhao
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Xiaohui Li
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Dezhi Chen
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Jing Xing
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Yawei Shi
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Ya Sun
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
| | - Guanghui Ding
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Dalian Maritime University, Dalian, China
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16
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Wang Y, Chen X, Wang B, Lu G, Liu J, Wu D, Yan Z. Toxicity comparison of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) in zebrafish gut. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2023; 262:106655. [PMID: 37598522 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2023.106655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) are considered as alternatives to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). In this study, zebrafish were exposed to different concentrations of PFOA, HFPO-DA, and HFPO-TA (5 μg/L and 500 μg/L), and the toxic effects on oxidative damage, inflammation, and cell apoptosis in the gut were compared. Additionally, changes in gut metabolome profiles and microbial community structure were analyzed. The results revealed that exposures to HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA led to lower levels of oxidative damage compared to PFOA exposure. However, all three treatments had comparable effects on inflammation and apoptosis. The main biological pathways affected by all three exposures were lipid metabolism, nucleotide metabolism, amino acid metabolism, and environmental information processing. The effects on metabolome profiles were much higher for HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA compared to PFOA at a concentration of 5 μg/L. At a concentration of 500 μg/L, HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA showed similar effects to PFOA. This study also examined the Pearson correlations between gut microbiota and the toxic effects mentioned above. The abundance of specific apoptosis-related genera differed among the three target chemicals, suggesting they may act differently in inducing apoptosis. The correlations between HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA were mostly similar, which helps explain the similar effects observed in their respective treatment groups on metabolic profiles. Overall, this study indicates that HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA may not be safe alternatives to PFOA and provides valuable insights into their toxic effects and risk assessment in water environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China.
| | - Xi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Beibei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Guanghua Lu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Jianchao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Donghai Wu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Zhenhua Yan
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China.
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17
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Alinezhad A, Shao H, Litvanova K, Sun R, Kubatova A, Zhang W, Li Y, Xiao F. Mechanistic Investigations of Thermal Decomposition of Perfluoroalkyl Ether Carboxylic Acids and Short-Chain Perfluoroalkyl Carboxylic Acids. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:8796-8807. [PMID: 37195265 PMCID: PMC10269594 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the thermal decomposition mechanisms of perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids (PFECAs) and short-chain perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs) that have been manufactured as replacements for phased-out per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). C-C, C-F, C-O, O-H, and C═C bond dissociation energies were calculated at the M06-2X/Def2-TZVP level of theory. The α-C and carboxyl-C bond dissociation energy of PFECAs declines with increasing chain length and the attachment of an electron-withdrawing trifluoromethyl (-CF3) group to the α-C. Experimental and computational results show that the thermal transformation of hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid to trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) occurs due to the preferential cleavage of the C-O ether bond close to the carboxyl group. This pathway produces precursors of perfluoropropionic acid (PFPeA) and TFA and is supplemented by a minor pathway (CF3CF2CF2OCFCF3COOH → CF3CF2CF2· + ·OCFCF3COOH) through which perfluorobutanoic acid (PFBA) is formed. The weakest C-C bond in PFPeA and PFBA is the one connecting the α-C and the β-C. The results support (1) the C-C scission in the perfluorinated backbone as an effective PFCA thermal decomposition mechanism and (2) the thermal recombination of radicals through which intermediates are formed. Additionally, we detected a few novel thermal decomposition products of studied PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Alinezhad
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, United States
| | - Heng Shao
- Key
Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education,
State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China
| | - Katerina Litvanova
- Department
of Chemistry, The University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202, United States
| | - Runze Sun
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, United States
| | - Alena Kubatova
- Department
of Chemistry, The University of North Dakota, Grand Forks, North Dakota 58202, United States
| | - Wen Zhang
- John
A. Reif, Jr. Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, New Jersey 07102, United States
| | - Yang Li
- Key
Laboratory of Water and Sediment Sciences of Ministry of Education,
State Key Laboratory of Water Environment Simulation, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng Xiao
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, United States
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18
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Chen L, Xie Y, Li M, Mortimer M, Li F, Guo LH. Toxicological Mechanisms of Emerging Per-/poly-fluoroalkyl Substances: Focusing on Transcriptional Activity and Gene Expression Disruption. Toxicology 2023:153566. [PMID: 37263573 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2023.153566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Environmental and human monitoring studies have witnessed increasing occurrence of emerging per-/poly-fluoroalkyl substances (ePFASs) worldwide. Three classes of ePFASs, namely chlorinated polyfluoroalkylether sulfonic acids, hexafluoropropylene oxide homologues and short-chain perfluoroalkyl acids attracted the most attention. It is, therefore, the goal of this review to systematically and critically analyse the toxicity and toxicological mechanisms of these ePFASs based on the papers published between 2017 and 2022. The review summarized the main findings from both in vivo and in vitro studies, covering the hepatotoxicity of ePFASs and their interference with the endocrine system, including reproductive, developmental and thyroid toxicity. It also summarized the changes in gene expression in the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and hypothalamic-pituitary-gonad axis of the model organisms after ePFASs exposure. The changes in gene expression in vitro and in vivo provide a clearer understanding of the toxicological mechanisms of ePFASs interference on hormonal levels (i.e., estradiol, testosterone, and thyroid hormones), developmental disturbance (e.g., swim bladder dysfunction) and lipid metabolism disruption (e.g., lipid droplet accumulation and hepatomegaly). In the end, future research directions on the toxicological mechanisms of ePFASs are suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Chen
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
| | - Yue Xie
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
| | - Minjie Li
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
| | - Monika Mortimer
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
| | - Fangfang Li
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
| | - Liang-Hong Guo
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, 258 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310018, China.
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19
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Sun W, Zhang X, Qiao Y, Griffin N, Zhang H, Wang L, Liu H. Exposure to PFOA and its novel analogs disrupts lipid metabolism in zebrafish. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 259:115020. [PMID: 37201426 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.115020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), a typical perfluoroalkyl group compound, has received worldwide attention due to its significant environmental toxicity. Following regulatory bans on the production and emission of PFOA, concerns have been raised about the potential health risks and the safety of novel perfluoroalkyl analogues. HFPO-DA (trade name Gen-X) and HFPO-TA are two perfluoroalkyl analogues known to be bioaccumulative, whose level of toxicity and whether they are safe alternatives to PFOA remain unclear. In the following study, the physiological and metabolic effects of exposure to PFOA and its novel analogues were explored in zebrafish using 1/3 LC50 (PFOA 100 μM, Gen-X 200 μM, HFPO-TA 30 μM). At the same LC50 toxicological effect, exposure to PFOA and HFPO-TA resulted in abnormal phenotypes such as spinal curvature, pericardial edema and aberrant body length, while Gen-X was little changed. Metabolically, PFOA, HFPO-TA and Gen-X all significantly increased total cholesterol in exposed zebrafish with PFOA and HFPO-TA also increasing total triglyceride levels. Transcriptome analysis showed that the number of differentially expressed genes in PFOA, Gen-X, and HFPO-TA treated conditions compared to control groups were 527, 572, and 3, 933, respectively. KEGG and GO analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed pathways and functions related to lipid metabolism as well as significant activation of the peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor (PPARs) pathway. Furthermore, RT-qPCR analysis identified significant dysregulation in the downstream target genes of PPARα, which is responsible for lipid oxidative catabolism, and the SREBP pathway, which is responsible for lipid synthesis. In conclusion, both perfluoroalkyl analogues HFPO-TA and Gen-X exhibit significant physiological and metabolic toxicity to aquatic organisms and their environmental accumulation should be closely regulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiqiang Sun
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical College Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China
| | - Xuemin Zhang
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical College Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China
| | - Ying Qiao
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China
| | - Nathan Griffin
- Department of Cell and Tissue Biology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Hongxia Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Pest Insects and Rodents, Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Li Wang
- School of Public Health, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
| | - Hui Liu
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China; Bengbu Medical College Key Laboratory of Cancer Research and Clinical Laboratory Diagnosis, School of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu 233030, PR China.
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20
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Xu X, Zhao L, Terry PD, Chen J. Reciprocal Effect of Environmental Stimuli to Regulate the Adipogenesis and Osteogenesis Fate Decision in Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells (BM-MSCs). Cells 2023; 12:1400. [PMID: 37408234 PMCID: PMC10216952 DOI: 10.3390/cells12101400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 05/02/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mesenchymal stem cells derived from bone marrow (BM-MSCs) can differentiate into adipocytes and osteoblasts. Various external stimuli, including environmental contaminants, heavy metals, dietary, and physical factors, are shown to influence the fate decision of BM-MSCs toward adipogenesis or osteogenesis. The balance of osteogenesis and adipogenesis is critical for the maintenance of bone homeostasis, and the interruption of BM-MSCs lineage commitment is associated with human health issues, such as fracture, osteoporosis, osteopenia, and osteonecrosis. This review focuses on how external stimuli shift the fate of BM-MSCs towards adipogenesis or osteogenesis. Future studies are needed to understand the impact of these external stimuli on bone health and elucidate the underlying mechanisms of BM-MSCs differentiation. This knowledge will inform efforts to prevent bone-related diseases and develop therapeutic approaches to treat bone disorders associated with various pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyun Xu
- Department of Nutrition, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Ling Zhao
- Department of Nutrition, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Paul D. Terry
- Department of Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37920, USA;
| | - Jiangang Chen
- Department of Public Health, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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21
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Lu T, Mortimer M, Li F, Li Z, Chen L, Li M, Guo LH. Putative adverse outcome pathways of the male reproductive toxicity derived from toxicological studies of perfluoroalkyl acids. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 873:162439. [PMID: 36848992 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.162439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Adverse outcome pathway (AOP) as a conceptual framework is a powerful tool in the field of toxicology to connect seemingly discrete events at different levels of biological organizations into an organized pathway from molecular interactions to whole organism toxicity. Based on numerous toxicological studies, eight AOPs for reproductive toxicity have been endorsed by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Task Force on Hazard Assessment. We have conducted a literature survey on the mechanistic studies on male reproductive toxicity of perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a class of global environmental contaminants with high persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity. Using the AOP development strategy, five new AOPs for male reproductive toxicity were proposed here, namely (1) changes in membrane permeability leading to reduced sperm motility, (2) disruption of mitochondrial function leading to sperm apoptosis, (3) decreased gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) expression in hypothalamus leading to reduced testosterone production in male rats, (4) activation of the p38 signaling pathway leading to disruption of BTB in mice, (5) inhibition of p-FAK-Tyr407 activity leading to the destruction of BTB. The molecular initiating events in the proposed AOPs are different from those in the endorsed AOPs, which are either receptor activation or enzyme inhibition. Although some of the AOPs are still incomplete, they can serve as a building block upon which full AOPs can be developed and applied to not only PFAAs but also other chemical toxicants with male reproductive toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tingyu Lu
- College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Monika Mortimer
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Fangfang Li
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Zhi Li
- College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Lu Chen
- College of Life Science, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Minjie Li
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Liang-Hong Guo
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
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22
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Zhan W, Qiu W, Ao Y, Zhou W, Sun Y, Zhao H, Zhang J. Environmental Exposure to Emerging Alternatives of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances and Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome in Women Diagnosed with Infertility: A Mixture Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2023; 131:57001. [PMID: 37134253 PMCID: PMC10156134 DOI: 10.1289/ehp11814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have been previously linked to polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), but only a few legacy PFAS were examined. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to explore this association with a variety of PFAS, including legacy, branched-chain isomers, and emerging alternatives, as well as a PFAS mixture. METHODS From 2014 to 2016, we conducted a multicenter, hospital-based case-control study on environmental endocrine disruptors and infertility in China. Three hundred sixty-six women with PCOS-related infertility and 577 control participants without PCOS were included in the current analysis. Twenty-three PFAS, including 3 emerging PFAS alternatives, 6 linear and branched PFAS isomers, 6 short-chain PFAS, and 8 legacy PFAS, were quantified in the plasma. Logistic regression and two multipollutant models [quantile-based g-computation (QGC) and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) methods] were used to assess the association of individual PFAS and PFAS mixture with PCOS, as well as the potential interactions among the congeners. RESULTS After adjusting for potential confounders, Each 1-standard deviation higher difference in ln-transformed 6:2 chlorinated perfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acid (6:2 Cl-PFESA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) level was significantly associated with a 29% (95% CI: 1.11, 1.52) and 39% (95% CI:1.16, 1.68) higher odds of PCOS, respectively. Meanwhile, branched isomers of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) (i.e., br-PFHxS, n-PFOS, 1m-PFOS, Σ3,4,5m-PFOS), short-chain PFAS (i.e., PFPeS and PFHxA) and other legacy PFAS [i.e., total concentrations of PFOS (T-PFOS), and perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA)] were significantly associated with increased odds of PCOS. The PFAS mixture was positively related to PCOS in the BKMR model. A similar trend was observed in QGC model, a ln-unit increase in the PFAS mixture was associated with a 20% increased risk of PCOS [adjusted odds ratio (aOR)=1.20 (95% CI: 1.06, 1.37)]. After controlling for other PFAS homologs, 6:2 Cl-PFESA, HFPO-DA, Σ3,4,5m-PFOS, and PFDoA were the major contributors based on the QGC and BKMR models. The associations were more pronounced in overweight/obese women. CONCLUSIONS In this group of women, environmental exposure to a PFAS mixture was associated with an elevated odds of PCOS, with 6:2 Cl-PFESA, HFPO-DA, Σ3,4,5m-PFOS, and PFDoA being the major contributors, especially in overweight/obese women. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11814.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqiang Zhan
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Qiu
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Ao
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Wei Zhou
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Endocrinology of Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Yun Sun
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Renji Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Han Zhao
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
- Key Laboratory of Reproductive Endocrinology of Ministry of Education, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
- Ministry of Education-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Children's Environmental Health, Xinhua Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
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23
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Zhao L, Teng M, Zhao X, Li Y, Sun J, Zhao W, Ruan Y, Leung KMY, Wu F. Insight into the binding model of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances to proteins and membranes. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 175:107951. [PMID: 37126916 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Legacy per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) have elicited much concern because of their ubiquitous distribution in the environment and the potential hazards they pose to wildlife and human health. Although an increasing number of effective PFAS alternatives are available in the market, these alternatives bring new challenges. This paper comprehensively reviews how PFASs bind to transport proteins (e.g., serum albumin, liver fatty acid transport proteins and organic acid transporters), nuclear receptors (e.g., peroxisome proliferator activated receptors, thyroid hormone receptors and reproductive hormone receptors) and membranes (e.g., cell membrane and mitochondrial membrane). Briefly, the hydrophobic fluorinated carbon chains of PFASs occupy the binding cavities of the target proteins, and the acid groups of PFASs form hydrogen bonds with amino acid residues. Various structural features of PFAS alternatives such as chlorine atom substitution, oxygen atom insertion and a branched structure, introduce variations in their chain length and hydrophobicity, which potentially change the affinity of PFAS alternatives for endogenous proteins. The toxic effects and mechanisms of action of legacy PFASs can be demonstrated and compared with their alternatives using binding models. In future studies, in vitro experiments and in silico quantitative structure-activity relationship modeling should be better integrated to allow more reliable toxicity predictions for both legacy and alternative PFASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lihui Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Miaomiao Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China.
| | - Xiaoli Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yunxia Li
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Jiaqi Sun
- School of Energy and Environmental Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, China
| | - Wentian Zhao
- Innovation Center of Pesticide Research, Department of Applied Chemistry, College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, China
| | - Yuefei Ruan
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution and Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Kenneth M Y Leung
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution and Department of Chemistry, City University of Hong Kong, 999077, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
| | - Fengchang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing, China.
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24
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Zhang D, Liu X, Qi Y, Lin Y, Zhao K, Jin Y, Luo J, Xu L, Yu D, Li C. Binding, activity and risk assessment of bisphenols toward farnesoid X receptor pathway: In vitro and in silico study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 869:161701. [PMID: 36709907 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenols have been identified as emerging environmental pollutants of high concern with potential adverse effects through interactions with receptor-mediated pathways. However, their potential mechanism of action and health risks through the farnesoid X receptor (FXR) pathway remain poorly understood. In the present study, we aimed to explore the potential disruption mechanism of bisphenols through the FXR signalling pathway. Receptor binding assays showed that bisphenols bound to FXR directly, with tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA; 34-fold), tetrachlorobisphenol A (TCBPA; 8.7-fold), bisphenol AF (BPAF; 2.0-fold), and bisphenol B (BPB; 1.9-fold) showing a significantly stronger binding potency than bisphenol A (BPA). In receptor transcriptional activity assays, bisphenols showed agonistic activity toward FXR, with BPAF, BPB, and bisphenol F (BPF) exhibiting higher activity than BPA, but TBBPA and TCBPA showing significantly weaker activity than BPA. Molecular docking results indicated that the number of hydrogen bonds dictated their binding strength. Intracellular concentrations of bisphenols were quantified using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) in receptor activity assays, and it was found that the intracellular concentrations of TBBPA and TCBPA were 40-fold lower than those of BPA. Using the bioactivity concentrations in the FXR receptor activity assay, the liver concentrations of bisphenols were estimated using physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models through their serum concentrations, and the hazard quotient (HQ) values were calculated. The results suggest a potentially high concern for the risk of activating the FXR pathway for some populations with high exposure. Overall, these results indicate that bisphenols can bind to and activate FXR receptors, and that the activation mechanism is dependent on cellular uptake and binding strength. This study provides important information regarding the exposure risk of bisphenols, which can promote the development of environmentally friendly bisphenols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donghui Zhang
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xinya Liu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yuan Qi
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yongfeng Lin
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Kunming Zhao
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yuan Jin
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Jiao Luo
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Lin Xu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Dianke Yu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Chuanhai Li
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China.
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25
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Zhang X, Du J, Huo S, Li B, Zhang J, Song M, Shao B, Li Y. Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid causes fibrosis in mice liver via mitochondrial ROS/cGAS-STING/NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 174:113706. [PMID: 36871880 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/07/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) causes hepatotoxicity, however, its underlying mechanisms have not been conclusively determined. We investigated the effects of HFPO-TA on mice liver after 28 days of orally administered 0 or 0.5 mg/kg/d HFPO-TA. Administration of HFPO-TA induced mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) overexpression, cGAS-STING signaling activation, pyroptosis and fibrosis in mice liver. To determine the HFPO-TA-associated hepatotoxic mechanisms, mtROS, cGAS-STING signaling and pyroptosis intervention assays were performed in HFPO-TA-exposed mice liver. First, mtROS was found to be an upstream regulatory target of cGAS-STING signaling, pyroptosis and fibrosis. Second, cGAS-STING signaling was established to be an upstream regulatory mechanism of pyroptosis and fibrosis. Finally, pyroptosis was shown to regulate fibrosis. The above results confirm that HFPO-TA causes mice liver fibrosis via mtROS/cGAS-STING/NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuliang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Jiayu Du
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Siming Huo
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Bo Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Miao Song
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Bing Shao
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China
| | - Yanfei Li
- Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education, Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, 150030, China.
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26
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Sun X, Xie Y, Zhang X, Song J, Wu Y. Estimation of Per- and Polyfluorinated Alkyl Substance Induction Equivalency Factors for Humpback Dolphins by Transactivation Potencies of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:3713-3721. [PMID: 36812292 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The potential risks of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substance (PFAS) accumulation in nearshore dolphins are not well understood. Here, transcriptional activities of 12 PFAS on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR-α, -β/δ, and -γ) in Indo-Pacific humpback dolphins (Sousa chinensis) were evaluated. All PFAS activated scPPAR-α in a dose-dependent manner. PFHpA exhibited the highest induction equivalency factors (IEFs). The order of IEFs for other PFAS was as follows: PFOA > PFNA > PFHxA > PFPeA > PFHxS > PFBA > PFOS > PFBuS ≈ PFDA ≫ PFUnDA and PFDoDA (not activated). The total induction equivalents (∑IEQs, 5537 ng/g wet weight) indicated that more attention should be paid to investigating contamination levels in dolphins, especially in PFOS (82.8% contribution to the ∑IEQs). The scPPAR-β/δ and -γ were not affected by any PFAS, except for PFOS, PFNA, and PFDA. Furthermore, PFNA and PFDA could induce higher PPAR-β/δ and PPAR-γ-mediated transcriptional activities than PFOA. Compared to human beings, PFAS might be more potent PPAR-α activators in humpback dolphins, suggesting that the dolphins may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of PFAS. Our results may be instructive for understanding the impacts of PFAS on marine mammal health due to the identical PPAR ligand-binding domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian Sun
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Yanqing Xie
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Xiyang Zhang
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Jiebing Song
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
| | - Yuping Wu
- School of Marine Sciences, Zhuhai Key Laboratory of Marine Bioresources and Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Marine Resources and Coastal Engineering, Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory (Zhuhai), Sun Yat-Sen University, Zhuhai 519082, China
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Qin W, Henneberger L, Huchthausen J, König M, Escher BI. Role of bioavailability and protein binding of four anionic perfluoroalkyl substances in cell-based bioassays for quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolations. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 173:107857. [PMID: 36881956 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.107857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent and pose a risk to human health. High throughput screening (HTS) cell-based bioassays may inform risk assessment of PFAS provided that quantitative in vitro to in vivo extrapolation (QIVIVE) can be developed. The QIVIVE ratio is the ratio of nominal (Cnom) or freely dissolved concentration (Cfree) in human blood to Cnom or Cfree in the bioassays. Considering that the concentrations of PFAS in human plasma and in vitro bioassays may vary by orders of magnitude, we tested the hypothesis that anionic PFAS bind to proteins concentration-dependently and therefore the binding differs substantially between human plasma and bioassays, which has an impact on QIVIVE. Solid phase microextraction (SPME) with C18-coated fibers served to quantify the Cfree of four anionic PFAS (perfluorobutanoate (PFBA), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)) in the presence of proteins and lipid, medium components, cells and human plasma over five orders of magnitude in concentrations. The C18-SPME method was used to quantify the non-linear binding to proteins, human plasma and medium, and the partition constants to cells. These binding parameters were used to predict Cfree of PFAS in cell bioassays and human plasma by a concentration-dependent mass balance model (MBM). The approach was illustrated with a reporter gene assay indicating activation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ-GeneBLAzer). Blood plasma levels were collected from literature for occupational exposure and the general population. The QIVIVEnom ratios were higher than the QIVIVEfree ratios due to the strong affinity to proteins and large differences in protein contents between human blood and bioassays. For human health risk assessment, the QIVIVEfree ratios of many in vitro assays need to be combined to cover all health relevant endpoints. If Cfree cannot be measured, they can be estimated with the MBM and concentration-dependent distribution ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiping Qin
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Environmental Toxicology, Department of Geosciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstr, 94-96, DE-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Luise Henneberger
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Julia Huchthausen
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Environmental Toxicology, Department of Geosciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstr, 94-96, DE-72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Maria König
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Beate I Escher
- Department of Cell Toxicology, UFZ-Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Environmental Toxicology, Department of Geosciences, Eberhard Karls University Tübingen, Schnarrenbergstr, 94-96, DE-72076 Tübingen, Germany.
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Ehrlich V, Bil W, Vandebriel R, Granum B, Luijten M, Lindeman B, Grandjean P, Kaiser AM, Hauzenberger I, Hartmann C, Gundacker C, Uhl M. Consideration of pathways for immunotoxicity of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Environ Health 2023; 22:19. [PMID: 36814257 PMCID: PMC9944481 DOI: 10.1186/s12940-022-00958-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are of public health concern, because of their ubiquitous and extremely persistent occurrence, and depending on their structure, their bio-accumulative, mobile and toxic properties. Human health effects associated with exposure to PFAS include adverse effects on the immune system. In 2020, EFSA (the European Food Safety Authority) defined adverse effects on the immune system as the most critical effect for human health risk assessment, based on reduced antibody responses to childhood vaccines and similar effects observed in experimental animal studies. Likewise, the U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) considers PFAS-induced immunotoxicity, especially in children, as the critical effect for risk assessment. However, the mechanisms by which antibody concentrations are impacted are not completely understood. Furthermore, other targets of the immune system functions have been reported in the literature. OBJECTIVE The aim of this review is to explore PFAS-associated immune-related effects. This includes, relevant mechanisms that may underlie the observed effects on the immune system, immunosuppression as well as immunoenhancement, such as i) modulation of cell signalling and nuclear receptors, such as NF-κB and PPARs; ii) alteration of calcium signalling and homoeostasis in immune cells; iii) modulation of immune cell populations; iv) oxidative stress and v) impact on fatty acid metabolism & secondary effects on the immune system. METHODS A literature research was conducted using three databases (Web of Science, PubMed, and Scopus), which were searched in July 2021 for relevant studies published in the time frame from 2018 to 2021. In total, 487 publications were identified as potentially eligible and following expert-based judgement, articles relevant for mechanisms of PFAS induced immunotoxicity are discussed. CONCLUSIONS Taken together, we show that there is substantial evidence from both in vitro and in vivo experimental as well as epidemiological studies, supporting that various PFAS, not only PFOA and PFOS, affect multiple aspects of the immune system. Timing of exposure is critical, because the developing immune system is especially vulnerable to toxic insults, resulting in a higher risk of particularly adverse immune effects but also other organs later in life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Ehrlich
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wieneke Bil
- Centre for Safety of Substances and Products, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Rob Vandebriel
- Centre for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Berit Granum
- Division of Climate and Environment Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Mirjam Luijten
- Centre for Health Protection, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Birgitte Lindeman
- Division of Climate and Environment Health, Norwegian Institute of Public Health, Oslo, Norway
| | - Philippe Grandjean
- Department of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
- Department of Biomedical and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA
| | - Andreas-Marius Kaiser
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ingrid Hauzenberger
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Christina Hartmann
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claudia Gundacker
- Center for Pathobiochemistry and Genetics, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Maria Uhl
- Environment Agency Austria (Umweltbundesamt GmbH), Spittelauer Lände 5, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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Sun S, Li X, Zhang L, Zhong Z, Chen C, Zuo Y, Chen Y, Hu H, Liu F, Xiong G, Lu H, Chen J, Dai J. Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) disturbs embryonic liver and biliary system development in zebrafish. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 859:160087. [PMID: 36372181 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA), a novel alternative to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has emerged as a potential environmental pollutant. Here, to investigate the toxic effects of HFPO-TA on liver and biliary system development, zebrafish embryos were exposed to 0, 50, 100, or 200 mg/L HFPO-TA from 6 to 120 h post-fertilization (hpf). Results showed that the 50 % lethal concentration (LC50) of HFPO-TA was 231 mg/L at 120 hpf, lower than that of PFOA. HFPO-TA exposure decreased embryonic hatching, survival, and body length. Furthermore, HFPO-TA exerted higher toxicity at the specification stage than during the differentiation and maturation stages, leading to small-sized livers in Tg(fabp10a: DsRed) transgenic larvae and histopathological changes. Significant decreases in the mRNA expression of genes related to liver formation were observed. Alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), total bilirubin (TBIL), and direct bilirubin (DBIL) levels were significantly increased. HFPO-TA decreased total cholesterol (TCHO) and triglyceride (TG) activities, disturbed lipid metabolism through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) pathway, and induced an inflammatory response. Furthermore, HFPO-TA inhibited intrahepatic biliary development in Tg(Tp1:eGFP) transgenic larvae and interfered with transcription of genes associated with biliary duct development. HFPO-TA reduced bile acid synthesis but increased bile acid transport, resulting in disruption of bile acid metabolism. Therefore, HFPO-TA influenced embryonic liver and biliary system morphogenesis, caused liver injury, and may be an unsafe alternative for PFOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sujie Sun
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Xue Li
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Zilin Zhong
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Yuhua Zuo
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Yu Chen
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Hongmei Hu
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China
| | - Fasheng Liu
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China
| | - Guanghua Xiong
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China
| | - Huiqiang Lu
- Jiangxi Engineering Laboratory of Zebrafish Modeling and Drug Screening for Human Diseases, Jiangxi Key Laboratory of Developmental Biology of Organs, College of Life Sciences, Jinggangshan University, Ji'an 343009, Jiangxi, China.
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Translational Research Institute of Brain and Brain-Like Intelligence, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology and Brain Functional Modulation, Department of Pediatrics, Shanghai Fourth People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Tongji University, Shanghai 200434, China.
| | - Jiayin Dai
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Environmental Health Impact Assessment of Emerging Contaminants, School of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 800 Dongchuan Road, Minhang District, Shanghai 200240, China.
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30
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Wang Y, Jiang S, Wang B, Chen X, Lu G. Comparison of developmental toxicity induced by PFOA, HFPO-DA, and HFPO-TA in zebrafish embryos. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 311:136999. [PMID: 36309054 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acids (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acids (HFPO-TA) are alternatives to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA). However, little information on the comparison of their toxicities is available. Here, zebrafish embryos were exposed to PFOA, HFPO-DA, and HFPO-TA with exposure concentrations of 5 and 500 μg/L. Behavioral abnormal, enzyme activities and gene expression profiles in zebrafish embryos were determined. Results showed that exposure to PFOA and its alternatives increased heart rates and inhibited locomotor activity of zebrafish embryos. Further, their exposures changed the enzyme activities (acetylcholinesterase and oxidative stress-related enzymes), ATP content, and expressions of genes related to hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis, apoptosis, and lipid metabolism. Comparison analyses found that PFOA, HFPO-TA, and HFPO-DA exposures induced different effects on the embryonic development of zebrafish, which indicates the different modes of action. The HFPO-DA exposure induced specific effects on the disorder of lipid metabolism, HPT axis, and neurodevelopment. The HFPO-TA exposure also induced different effects from the PFOA exposure, which focused on lipid metabolism. The current data shows that the HFPO-DA and HFPO-TA might not be safe alternatives to PFOA. This study provides a new understanding of the biological hazards of PFOA alternatives in aquatic organisms, which can guide their usage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonghua Wang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China.
| | - Shengnan Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Beibei Wang
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Xi Chen
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
| | - Guanghua Lu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lake of Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing, 210098, PR China
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Li C, Jiang L, Qi Y, Zhang D, Liu X, Han W, Ma W, Xu L, Jin Y, Luo J, Zhao K, Yu D. Integration of metabolomics and proteomics reveals the underlying hepatotoxic mechanism of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and 6:2 chlorinated polyfluoroalkyl ether sulfonic acid (6:2 Cl-PFESA) in primary human hepatocytes. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 249:114361. [PMID: 36508832 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2022.114361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and its alternative 6:2 chlorinated polyfluorinated ether sulfonate (6:2 Cl-PFESA) are ubiquitous in various environmental and human samples. They have been reported to have hepatotoxicity effects, but the potential mechanisms remain unclear. Herein, we integrated metabolomics and proteomics analysis to investigate the altered profiles in metabolite and protein levels in primary human hepatocytes (PHH) exposed to 6:2 Cl-PFESA and PFOS at human exposure relevant concentrations. Our results showed that 6:2 Cl-PFESA exhibited higher perturbation effects on cell viability, metabolome and proteome than PFOS. Integration of metabolomics and proteomics revealed that the alteration of glycerophospholipid metabolism was the critical pathway of 6:2 Cl-PFESA and PFOS-induced lipid metabolism disorder in primary human hepatocytes. Interestingly, 6:2 Cl-PFESA-induced cellular metabolic process disorder was associated with the cellular membrane-bounded signaling pathway, while PFOS was associated with the intracellular transport process. Moreover, the disruption effects of 6:2 Cl-PFESA were also involved in inositol phosphate metabolism and phosphatidylinositol signaling system. Overall, this study provided comprehensive insights into the hepatic lipid toxicity mechanisms of 6:2 Cl-PFESA and PFOS in human primary hepatocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanhai Li
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Lidan Jiang
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yuan Qi
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Donghui Zhang
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Xinya Liu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Wenchao Han
- Department of Pediatrics, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Affiliated to Qingdao University, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Wanli Ma
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Lin Xu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Yuan Jin
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Jiao Luo
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Kunming Zhao
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China
| | - Dianke Yu
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Road, Qingdao 266071, China.
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Wen Y, Kong Y, Peng Y, Cui X. Uptake, distribution, and depuration of emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances in mice: Role of gut microbiota. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 853:158372. [PMID: 36041619 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 08/21/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The bioaccumulation and fate in mammals of hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), as major alternatives for perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), have rarely been reported. In addition, the role of gut microbiota was greatly understudied. In this study, the uptake, distribution, and depuration of HFPO-TA, HFPO-DA, and PFOA were investigated by exposure to mice for 14 days, followed by a clearance period of 7 days. The patterns of tissue distribution and depuration kinetics of HFPO-TA and PFOA were similar, but different from HFPO-DA. Liver was the main deposition organ for HFPO-TA and PFOA, making contributions of 58.8 % and 59.1 % to the total mass recovered on day 14. Depuration of HFPO-DA was more rapid than HFPO-TA and PFOA. Approximately 95.3 % of HFPO-DA in liver was eliminated on day 21 compared with day 14. While the clearance rates of HPFO-TA and PFOA were only 6.1 % and 13.9 % on day 21. The comparison between normal and pseudo germ-free mice (GM) was also conducted to investigate the effect of gut microbial on in vivo absorption of the three per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). Significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations of all the three PFASs were observed in most organs and tissues of GM compared with NC group. An analysis of gut microbiota showed that the higher absorption of PFASs in GM group may be attributed to the increase of intestinal permeability (as indicated by the decrease of tight junction protein expression), which were induced by the change of lachnospiraceae abundance. The result highlighted the importance of gut microbiota in absorption and health risk evaluation of emerging PFASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yong Wen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Yi Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Ying Peng
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xinyi Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Qin H, Niu Y, Luan H, Li M, Zheng L, Pan Y, Liu W. Effects of legacy and emerging per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances on PPARα/β/γ regulation and osteogenic/adipogenic differentiation. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 170:107584. [PMID: 36265359 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Revised: 09/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
As the primary molecular target, there is still a gap between the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) regulation and the adverse health effects caused by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs). The effects of PFASs on cellular differentiation regulated by PPARs is likely significant given the association of PFASs exposure with obesity and decreased bone density. Human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) were used as an in vitro model to assess the roles of PPAR subtypes in the multipotent differentiation of hMSCs affected by perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and their replacement compounds. PFASs increased the expression of three PPAR subtypes in proliferating and differentiating hMSCs. Meanwhile, PFOS and PFOA decreased osteogenesis, enhanced adipogenesis, and increased bone turnover in hMSCs. Similarly, PFOA alternatives, hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA), exhibited similar or even higher potency in affecting stem cell differentiation compared with PFOA. Perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS) inhibited osteogenesis with comparable potency to PFOS. In contrast, 6:2 chlorinated poly-fluoroalkyl ether sulfonate (6:2Cl-PFESA) enhanced osteogenesis. PPARβ expression is significantly positively correlated with osteogenesis and osteoprotegerin (OPG) secretion in 6:2Cl-PFESA treated cells. shRNA knockdown of PPARβ remarkably reversed the osteogenic effects of 6:2Cl-PFESA and enhanced the adipogenic effects of the six chemicals. The results suggested that the adverse effects and relative potency of PFASs on the multipotent differentiation of hMSCs were dependent on the integrated action of the three PPAR subtypes, which facilitates a better understanding of the molecular initiating events of PFASs. The present study may well explain the mechanism of the decreased bone density and increased obesity incidence among those exposed to legacy PFASs, and indicates the necessity of further health risk assessment for the alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Qin
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Yuxin Niu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Haiyang Luan
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Minghan Li
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Lu Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Yifan Pan
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071002, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
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Peng BX, Li F, Mortimer M, Xiao X, Ni Y, Lei Y, Li M, Guo LH. Perfluorooctanoic acid alternatives hexafluoropropylene oxides exert male reproductive toxicity by disrupting blood-testis barrier. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 846:157313. [PMID: 35842142 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
As alternatives to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide (HFPO) homologues, including hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA), hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA), and hexafluoropropylene oxide tetramer acid (HFPO-TeA), have attracted widespread attention recently due to their environmental ubiquity and high potential for bioaccumulation and toxicity. In the present study, a set of in vivo mouse and in vitro mouse testicular Sertoli TM4 cell experiments were employed to explore the male reproductive toxicity and underlying mechanisms of HFPO homologues on blood-testis barrier. Tissue and permeability analyses of mice testes after 28-day treatment with 5 mg/kg/day HFPO-DA or PFOA, or 0.05 mg/kg/day HFPO-TA or HFPO-TeA indicated that there was an increase in the degradation of TJ protein occludin in mice with a disrupted blood-testis barrier (BTB). Following exposure to 100 μM HFPO-DA, HFPO-TA or 10 μM PFOA, HFPO-TeA, transepithelial electrical resistance measurements of TM4 cells also indicated BTB disruption. Additionally, as a result of the exposure, matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression was enhanced through activation of p38 MAPK, which promoted the degradation of occludin. On the whole, the results indicated HFPO homologues and PFOA induced BTB disruption through upregulation of p-p38/p38 MAPK/MMP-9 pathway, which promoted the degradation of TJ protein occludin and caused the disruption of TJ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bi-Xia Peng
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Fangfang Li
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Monika Mortimer
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Xiang Xiao
- Center for Reproductive Health, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hangzhou Medical College, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310063, China.
| | - Ya Ni
- Center for Reproductive Health, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Hangzhou Medical College, Zhejiang Academy of Medical Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310063, China
| | - Yuyang Lei
- College of Life Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Minjie Li
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
| | - Liang-Hong Guo
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China; College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
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Wang X, Huang M, Su Z, Qian L, Guo Y, Chen Q, Wu C, lv T, Su Q, Shen Q, Ma J. Surface activity of a series of fluoroether betaine amphoteric surfactants: Oxygen Roles. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.107961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Cui X, Gu Q, Juhasz A, Chen Y. In vivo relative bioavailability of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and its alternative hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA): Influence of food and mechanisms exploration. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 168:107450. [PMID: 35961272 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Revised: 07/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The extensive use of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and its substitute hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has resulted in their frequent detection in environmental samples. However, little is known of their bioavailability via oral ingestion and the influence of food co-ingestion on absorption. Here, the relative bioavailability (RBA) of PFOA and HFPO-TA in soil was measured using an in vivo mouse model in the presence of food with different nutritional statuses (n = 11). PFOA and HFPO-TA RBA in soil was variable depending on nutrient co-administration, ranging from 29.8-95.5 % and 43.9-68.0 %, respectively. For both PFOA and HFPO-TA, a significantly negative correlation was observed between RBA and protein content in food (r = 0.57-0.72), while a positive correlation was observed with carbohydrate content (r = 0.51-0.57). Mechanistic studies showed that protein in food decreased PFOA and HFPO-TA RBA by down-regulating the expression of fatty acid binding protein 1 (FABP1) and up-regulating the expression of multidrug resistance associated protein 4 (Mrp4) in the liver, which are responsible for the absorption and efflux of PFOA and HFPO-TA. Dietary carbohydrates promoted albumin synthesis and up-regulated FABP1 expression thereby enhancing absorption and increasing PFOA and HFPO-TA RBA. This study provides an insight into potential dietary strategies for reducing exposure to per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Qian Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Albert Juhasz
- Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, South Australia 5095, Australia
| | - Yi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China.
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Hu L, Sun L, Zhou J, Wu F, Fu Z, Xie X. Impact of a hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) exposure on impairing the gut microbiota in mice. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 303:134951. [PMID: 35577126 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2022] [Revised: 05/09/2022] [Accepted: 05/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) has been used as an alternative of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in the fluoropolymer industry for several years. HFPO-TA is reported to have high capability of bioaccumulation, widespread environmental distribution, and multiple toxicities. However, its potential toxicity on the intestines and gut microbiota remains unknown. In the present study, male mice were orally exposed to 200 μg/L HFPO-TA for 6 weeks, and after total genomic DNA extraction, 16S rRNA amplicon pyrosequencing was performed. Our results demonstrated that HFPO-TA exposure resulted in the imbalance of cecal microbiota and alterations of cecal microbiota diversity. At the phylum level, the relative abundances of Proteobacteria, Deferribacteres, and Tenericutes increased in mice after exposure to HFPO-TA, while the relative abundances of Verrucomicrobia, Cyanobacteria, and TM7 decreased. At the genus level, the relative abundances of Ver Akkermansia, Pre Prevotella, Lac Coprococcus, Por_Parabacteroides, and Lac Dorea decreased in HFPO-TA exposed mice. Meanwhile, the increased relative abundances of Def_Mucispirillum, Des_Desulfovibrio and Odo Odoribacter were observed in HFPO-TA exposed mice. Additionally, KEGG metabolic pathway analysis revealed that HFPO-TA exposure changed the unsaturated fatty acid synthesis, fatty acid metabolism, glyoxylic acid and dicarboxylic acid metabolism, galactose metabolism pathway and other metabolic pathways. Collectively, all these findings indicate the potential gut toxicity of HFPO-TA and is perceived as a risk of health on gut microbiota. Future investigations should be warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luting Hu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Lei Sun
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Jiafeng Zhou
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Fengchun Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510370, China; Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center for Translational Medicine of Mental Disorders, Guangzhou, 510370, China.
| | - Zhengwei Fu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Xiaoxian Xie
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
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Lin K, Han T, Wang R, Tan L, Yang X, Zhao T, Chen Y, Wan M, Wang J. Spatiotemporal distribution, ecological risk assessment and source analysis of legacy and emerging Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Bohai Bay, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 300:134378. [PMID: 35398068 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.134378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The Bohai Sea is one of the most polluted hotspots by per- and Polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in the world and studies on the vertical distribution of PFASs at different water layers and phase partitioning between water and suspended particulate matter (SPM) were still limited. 23 legacy and emerging PFASs were investigated in seawater and SPM throughout the Bay in this study. The average concentrations of ∑PFASs in seawater were 48.21 ng/L and 52.71 ng/L during the periods of wet and normal water, respectively. In general, the concentrations of ∑PFASs in surface water were higher than that in deep water. Legacy PFASs in seawater were dominated by PFOA and short-chain PFASs, while the emerging alternative HFPO-DA was detected in the whole water layer of the Bohai Bay with an average concentration of 1.09 ng/L. The spatial distribution showed that ∑PFASs were higher nearshore than inside the bay and higher in the south than that in the north of the bay. The average concentration of ∑PFASs in SPM was 9.02 ng/g. Long-chain PFASs and the emerging alternative 6:2 Cl-PFESA accounted for the major contaminants. The partition coefficients log Kd and φspm-w showed a linear positive correlation with carbon chain length. Preliminary risk assessments revealed that the ecological risk of common PFASs in the Bohai Bay was low, while PFOA was at moderate risk. The principal component analysis demonstrated that the production process of traditional fluorochemical factories, fire-fighting and emerging electroplating industries were the main sources of PFASs. This was the first comprehensive survey of emerging PFASs in different water depths and in SPM of the Bohai Bay during different seasons, which provided important scientific data for studying the ecological risks and pollution prevention of PFASs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Lin
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Tongzhu Han
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China; Bioresource and Environment Research Center, Key Laboratory of Marine Eco-Environmental Science and Technology, The First Institute of Oceanography, Ministry of Natural Resources, Qingdao, 266061, China
| | - Rui Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Liju Tan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China.
| | - Xue Yang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Ting Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Yanshan Chen
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Mengmeng Wan
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China
| | - Jiangtao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, China.
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Jiao E, Zhu Z, Yin D, Qiu Y, Kärrman A, Yeung LWY. A pilot study on extractable organofluorine and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in water from drinking water treatment plants around Taihu Lake, China: what is missed by target PFAS analysis? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:1060-1070. [PMID: 35687097 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00073c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) have raised concerns due to their worldwide occurrence and adverse effects on both the environment and humans as well as posing challenges for monitoring. Further collection of information is required for a better understanding of their occurrence and the unknown fractions of the extractable organofluorine (EOF) not explained by commonly monitored target PFAS. In this study, eight pairs of raw and treated water were collected from drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) around Taihu Lake in China and analyzed for EOF and 34 target PFAS. Mass balance analysis of organofluorine revealed that at least 68% of EOF could not be explained by target PFAS. Relatively higher total target concentrations were observed in 4 DWTPs (D1 to D4) when compared to other samples with the highest sum concentration up to 189 ng L-1. PFOA, PFOS and PFHxS were the abundant compounds. Suspect screening analysis identified 10 emerging PFAS (e.g., H-PFAAs, H-PFESAs and OBS) in addition to target PFAS in raw or treated water. The ratios PFBA/PFOA and PFBS/PFOS between previous and current studies showed significant replacements of short-chain to long-chain PFAS. The ratios of the measured PFAS concentrations to the guideline values showed that some of the treated drinking water exceeds guideline values, appealing for efforts on drinking water safety guarantee.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enmiao Jiao
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China.
| | - Zhiliang Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China.
| | - Daqiang Yin
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China.
| | - Yanling Qiu
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China.
| | - Anna Kärrman
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Centre (MTM), School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Sweden.
| | - Leo W Y Yeung
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Centre (MTM), School of Science and Technology, Örebro University, Sweden.
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Liang S, Liang G, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Zhong L. Profiling biotoxicities of hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid with human embryonic stem cell-based assays. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 116:34-42. [PMID: 35219423 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2021.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA), an emerging replacement of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), has recently been reported to be a potential environmental contaminant. Due to the similar structure to PFOA, HFPO-TA may cause comparable adverse effects on human health. Therefore, evaluating the toxic profiles of HFPO-TA has become an urgent task. In this study, we investigated the cytotoxicity and hepatoxicity of HFPO-TA using human embryonic stem cell (hESC)-based assays. Results showed that HFPO-TA reduced hESCs' viability in a dose dependent manner, and the calculated IC50 for 24, 48 and 72 hr were 222.8, 167.4, and 80.6 μmol/L, respectively. Significant intracellular ROS accumulation and mitochondrion membrane potential reduction were detected with HFPO-TA exposure, and increased apoptotic/necrotic cells were also observed in high dose of HFPO-TA treated group. Moreover, HFPO-TA at noncytotoxic concentrations also significantly impaired the functions of induced hepatocytes by diminishing cell glycogen storage ability and deregulating specific functional genes. Transcriptome sequencing analysis identified a set of hepatic associated biological processes responding to HFPO-TA exposure. PPAR was the most significantly enriched pathway. Genes including FGA, FGB, FGG, AHSG, HRG, ITIH2, ALB were characterized as hub genes by cytoHubba plug-in. These data indicated that HFPO-TA is a potential hepatotoxicant, and may not be a safe replacement for PFOA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengxian Liang
- Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Guoqiang Liang
- Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Xiufang Zhang
- Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China
| | - Li Zhong
- Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, College of Life Sciences, Hebei University, Baoding 071000, China; Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California 91766, USA.
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Xie X, Zhou J, Hu L, Shu R, Zhang M, Sun L, Wu F, Fu Z, Li Z. Oral exposure to a hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) disrupts mitochondrial function and biogenesis in mice. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 430:128376. [PMID: 35158245 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) is reported to have hepatotoxicity, lipotoxicity, and cytotoxicity. In this study, the toxicological effects of HFPO-TA on mitochondrial function and biogenesis were studied. Mice were exposed to drinking water which contained either 2, 20, or 200 μg/L HFPO-TA. Results showed exposure to HFPO-TA induced disadvantageous physiological changes in mice, including increases in liver weight, altered cell morphology, and inflammatory responses. Specifically, exposure to 200 μg/L HFPO-TA increased mitochondria number, relative mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, and mRNA levels of mitochondrial genes encoded by mtDNA. Significant increases in TFAM mRNA and protein levels were also observed. Liver metabolome analysis also showed exposure to 200 μg/L HFPO-TA further enhanced increases in metabolites and altered metabolic pathways that correlated with mitochondrial function, especially the production of ATP. HFPO-TA exposure increased protein expression of mitochondrial complex I-V, and the activities of key enzymes involved in TCA cycle (α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, citrate synthase, and succinate dehydrogenase). Furthermore, exposure to 200 μg/L HFPO-TA significantly up-regulating mRNA and protein levels of Opa1, Mfn1, Mfn2, Fis1, and Mff, but did not change Drp1. These findings suggest HFPO-TA could have detrimental effects on health of animals, particularly it was associated with disrupted mitochondrial energy metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxian Xie
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Jiafeng Zhou
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Luting Hu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Ruonan Shu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Mengya Zhang
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Lei Sun
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Fengchun Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510370, China; Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center for Translational Medicine of Mental Disorders, Guangzhou 510370, China
| | - Zhengwei Fu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China.
| | - Zezhi Li
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510370, China; Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center for Translational Medicine of Mental Disorders, Guangzhou 510370, China.
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Cao H, Peng J, Zhou Z, Sun Y, Wang Y, Liang Y. Insight into the defluorination ability of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances based on machine learning and quantum chemical computations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 807:151018. [PMID: 34662613 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Revised: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 10/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
UV-generated hydrated electrons play a critical role in the defluorination reaction of poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). However, limited experimental data hinder insight into the effects of the structural characteristics of emerging PFAS on their defluorination abilities. Therefore, in this study, we adopted quantity structure-activity relationship models based on machine learning algorithms to develop the predictive models of the relative defluorination ability of PFAS. Five-fold cross-validations were used to perform the hyperparameter tuning of the models, which suggested that the gradient boosting algorithms with PaDEL descriptors as the best model possessed superior predictive performance (R2test = 0.944 and RMSEtest = 0.114). The importance of the descriptor indicated that the electrostatic properties and topological structure of the compounds significantly affected the defluorination ability of the PFAS. For the emerging PFAS the best model showed that most compounds, such as potential alternatives of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, were recalcitrant to reductive defluorination, whereas perfluoroalkyl ether carboxylic acids had relatively stronger defluorination abilities than perfluorooctanoic acid. The theoretical calculations implied that additional electrons on PFAS could cause molecular deconstruction, such as changes in the dihedral angle involved in the carbon chain, as well as C-F bond and ether C-O bond cleavages. In general, the current computational models could be useful for screening emerging PFAS to assess their defluorination ability for the molecular design of fluorochemical structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiming Cao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Jianhua Peng
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Zhen Zhou
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Yuzhen Sun
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China
| | - Yawei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yong Liang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Environmental and Health Effects of Persistent Toxic Substances, School of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan 430056, China.
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Pan Y, Qin H, Zheng L, Guo Y, Liu W. Disturbance in transcriptomic profile, proliferation and multipotency in human mesenchymal stem cells caused by hexafluoropropylene oxides. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 292:118483. [PMID: 34763017 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 10/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
As alternatives to perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) and hexafluoropropylene oxide trimer acid (HFPO-TA) have raised concerns of their potential health risks. Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell was employed as an in vitro model to investigate the molecular targets and the adverse effects of HFPOs in stem cells in concentrations range starting at human relevant levels. Unsupervised transcriptomic analysis identified 1794 and 1429 DEGs affected by HFPO-TA and HFPO-DA, respectively. Cell cycle-associated biological processes were commonly altered by both chemicals. 18 and 35 KEGG pathways were enriched in HFPO-TA and HFPO-DA treatment group, respectively, among which multiple pathways were related to cancer and pluripotency. Few genes in PPAR signalling pathway were disturbed by HFPOs suggesting the involvement of PPAR-independent toxic mechanism. HFPO-TA promoted cell proliferation with significance at 1 μM mRNA levels of CDK and MYC were down-regulated by HFPOs, suggesting the negative feedback regulation to the abnormal cell proliferation. Decreased expression of CD44 protein, and ENG and THY1 mRNA levels demonstrated HFPOs-caused changes of hBMSCs phenotype. The osteogenic differentiation was also inhibited by HFPOs with reduced formation of calcium deposition. Furthermore, gene and protein expression of core pluripotency regulators NANOG was enhanced by HFPO-TA. The present study provides human relevant mechanistic evidence for health risk assessment of HFPOs, prioritizing comprehensive carcinogenicity assessment of this type of PFOA alternatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yifan Pan
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, Liaoning, China
| | - Hui Qin
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, Liaoning, China
| | - Lu Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, Liaoning, China
| | - Yong Guo
- Key Laboratory of Organofluorine Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 345 Lingling Lu, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Wei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (MOE), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian, 116024, Liaoning, China.
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Li CH, Zhang DH, Jiang LD, Qi Y, Guo LH. Binding and activity of bisphenol analogues to human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β/δ. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2021; 226:112849. [PMID: 34627044 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2021.112849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Several studies have indicated metabolic function disruption effects of bisphenol analogues through peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) alpha and gamma pathways. In the present study, we found for the first time that PPARβ/δ might be a novel cellular target of bisphenol analogues. By using the fluorescence competitive binding assay, we found seven bisphenol analogues could bind to PPARβ/δ directly, among which tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA, 18.38-fold) and tetrachlorobisphenol A (TCBPA, 12.06-fold) exhibited stronger binding affinity than bisphenol A (BPA). In PPARβ/δ-mediated luciferase reporter gene assay, the seven bisphenol analogues showed transcriptional activity toward PPARβ/δ. Bisphenol AF (BPAF), bisphenol F (BPF) and bisphenol B (BPB) even showed higher transcriptional activity than BPA, while TBBPA and TCBPA showed comparable activity with BPA. Moreover, in human liver HL-7702 cells, the bisphenol analogues promoted the expression of two PPARβ/δ target genes PDK4 and ANGPTL4. Molecular docking simulation indicated the binding potency of bisphenol analogues to PPARβ/δ might depend on halogenation and hydrophobicity and the transcriptional activity might depend on their binding affinity and hydrogen bond interactions. Overall, the PPARβ/δ pathway may provide a new mechanism for the metabolic function disruption of bisphenol analogues, and TBBPA and TCBPA might exert higher metabolic disruption effects than BPA via PPARβ/δ pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuan-Hai Li
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
| | - Dong-Hui Zhang
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
| | - Li-Dan Jiang
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
| | - Yuan Qi
- School of Public Health, Qingdao University, 308 Ningxia Street, Qingdao, Shandong 266071, China
| | - Liang-Hong Guo
- Institute of Environmental and Health Sciences, China Jiliang University, 168 Xueyuan Street, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310018, China.
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Kirk AB, Michelsen-Correa S, Rosen C, Martin CF, Blumberg B. PFAS and Potential Adverse Effects on Bone and Adipose Tissue Through Interactions With PPARγ. Endocrinology 2021; 162:6364127. [PMID: 34480479 PMCID: PMC9034324 DOI: 10.1210/endocr/bqab194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a widely dispersed, broad class of synthetic chemicals with diverse biological effects, including effects on adipose and bone differentiation. PFAS most commonly occur as mixtures and only rarely, if ever, as single environmental contaminants. This poses significant regulatory questions and a pronounced need for chemical risk assessments, analytical methods, and technological solutions to reduce the risk to public and environmental health. The effects of PFAS on biological systems may be complex. Each may have several molecular targets initiating multiple biochemical events leading to a number of different adverse outcomes. An exposure to mixtures or coexposures of PFAS complicates the picture further. This review illustrates how PFAS target peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors. Additionally, we describe how such activation leads to changes in cell differentiation and bone development that contributes to metabolic disorder and bone weakness. This discussion sheds light on the importance of seemingly modest outcomes observed in test animals and highlights why the most sensitive end points identified in some chemical risk assessments are significant from a public health perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea B Kirk
- Correspondence: Andrea Kirk, PhD, US EPA Headquarters, William Jefferson Clinton Bldg, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave NW, Mail Code 5201P, Washington, DC 20460, USA.
| | - Stephani Michelsen-Correa
- EPA Office of Chemical Safety and Pollution Prevention, Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention Division, Washington, District of Columbia 20460, USA
| | - Cliff Rosen
- Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts 02111, USA
| | | | - Bruce Blumberg
- University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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Xie X, Zhou J, Hu L, Shu R, Zhang M, Xiong Z, Wu F, Fu Z. Exposure to hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) disturbs the gut barrier function and gut microbiota in mice. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 290:117934. [PMID: 34416495 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2020] [Revised: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) is the substitute for perfluoro octanoic acid (PFOA), and recently it has been detected in environmental water samples worldwide and has multiple toxicities. However, whether it will affect the intestines and gut microbiota remains unclear. In this study, in order to evaluate the gut toxicity of HFPO-DA in mammals, male mice were orally exposed to 0, 2, 20, 200 μg/L HFPO-DA, respectively, for 6 weeks. Our results showed that HFPO-DA exposure caused colonic inflammation which was coupled with increased TNF-α levels in serum and increased mRNA expression levels of TNF-α, p65, TLR4, MCP-1 of the colon in mice after exposure to 200 μg/L HFPO-DA. We also found that HFPO-DA exposure induced the decreased mRNA expression levels and protein levels of MUC2 and ZO-1, which means the dysfunction of gut barrier in the colon. In the ileum, we found that HFPO-DA exposure induced the increased mRNA expression levels of various inflammatory factors, but no obvious changes was found to barrier function. Additionally, HFPO-DA exposure caused the imbalance of cecal gut microbiota and changes of cecal microbiota diversity. Taken together, all these results indicate the potential gut toxicity of HFPO-DA and is perceived as a major problem of health risk that affects the inflammation, gut barrier dysfunction, and gut microbiota disturbance in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxian Xie
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Jiafeng Zhou
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Luting Hu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Ruonan Shu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Mengya Zhang
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Ze Xiong
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China
| | - Fengchun Wu
- Department of Psychiatry, The Affiliated Brain Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, 510370, China; Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center for Translational Medicine of Mental Disorders, Guangzhou, 510370, China
| | - Zhengwei Fu
- College of Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310032, China.
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Xu X, Ni H, Guo Y, Lin Y, Ji J, Jin C, Yuan F, Feng M, Ji N, Zheng Y, Jiang Q. Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) induced developmental cardiotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in hatchling chickens: Roles of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 290:118112. [PMID: 34500398 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.118112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Hexafluoropropylene oxide dimer acid (HFPO-DA) is a perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) substitute. In the current study, potential developmental cardiotoxicity and hepatotoxicity following HFPO-DA exposure in chicken embryo has been investigated, focusing on the roles of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARα), the major molecular target in PFOA-induced toxicities. HFPO-DA was exposed to fertile chicken eggs via air cell injection, morphology and function of the target organs (heart and liver) in hatchlings were investigated with histopathology and electrocardiography, and the serum levels of HFPO-DA had been measured with quadrupole-time of flight liquid chromatograph-mass spectrometer (Q-TOF LC/MS). Additionally, lentivirus-mediated in ovo PPARα silencing was used to assess the roles of PPARα in HFPO-DA induced developmental toxicities. The results indicated that developmental exposure to HFPO-DA induced developmental cardiotoxicity, including thinned right ventricular wall and elevated heart rates, similar to those observed with PFOA exposure, as well as developmental hepatotoxicity in the form of steatosis. Silencing of PPARα alleviated such effects, suggesting participation of PPARα in HFPO-DA induced developmental toxicities in chicken embryo. Moreover, enhanced expression of PPARα downstream genes, cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) and enoyl-CoA hydratase and 3-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase (EHHADH), were observed in HFPO-DA exposed animal heart tissues, which can be abolished by PPARα silencing. On the other hand, liver-type fatty acid binding protein (L-FABP) and CD36 expression were effectively enhanced in exposed liver tissues, but not EHHADH, suggesting differential mechanism of toxicity in heart and liver tissues. In summary, developmental exposure to HFPO-DA induced developmental cardiotoxicity and hepatotoxicity in hatchling chickens similar to PFOA, and PPARα still participates in such toxicities, with some differential downstream gene regulations in different organs. Further investigation on HFPO-DA-induced developmental toxicities is guaranteed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaohui Xu
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Hao Ni
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Yajie Guo
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Yongfeng Lin
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Jing Ji
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Congying Jin
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Fuchong Yuan
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Mengxiao Feng
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Na Ji
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Yuxin Zheng
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China
| | - Qixiao Jiang
- Department of Toxicology, School of Public Health, Qingdao University, China.
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Guo W, Lei L, Shi X, Li R, Wang Q, Han J, Yang L, Chen L, Zhou B. Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Development in Zebrafish upon Exposure to Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate, a Novel Brominated Flame Retardant. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:6926-6935. [PMID: 33938212 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH), a novel brominated flame retardant, can potentially cause lipid metabolism disorder; however, its biological effects on lipid homeostasis remain unknown. We investigated its ability to cause nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in zebrafish. Female zebrafish were fed a high-fat diet (HFD, 24% crude fat) or normal diet (ND, 6% crude fat), and exposed to TBPH (0.02, 2.0 μM) for 2 weeks. Consequently, HFD-fed fish showed a higher measured concentration of TBPH than ND-fed fish. Further, TBPH-treated fish in the HFD group showed higher hepatic triglyceride levels and steatosis. In comparison to ND-fed fish, treating HFD-fed fish with TBPH led to an increase in the concentration of several proinflammatory markers (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6); TBPH exposure also caused oxidative stress. In addition, the mRNA levels of genes encoding peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors were increased, and the transcription of genes involved in lipid synthesis, transport, and oxidation was upregulated in both ND- and HFD-fed fish. Both the ND and HFD groups also showed demethylation of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1-α gene promoter, accompanied by the upregulation of tet1 and tet2 transcription. To summarize, we found that TBPH amplified the disruption of lipid homeostasis in zebrafish, leading to the enhancement of diet-induced NAFLD progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Lei Lei
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiongjie Shi
- College of Life Sciences, the Institute for Advanced Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Ruiwen Li
- Ecological Environment Monitoring and Scientific Research Center, Changjiang River Basin Ecological Environment Administration, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Wuhan 430014, China
| | - Qiangwei Wang
- Ministry of Agriculture Key Laboratory of Molecular Biology of Crop Pathogens and Insects, Institute of Pesticide and Environmental Toxicology, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Jian Han
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lihua Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Lianguo Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
| | - Bingsheng Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430072, China
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Wang Z, Chen J, Hong H. Developing QSAR Models with Defined Applicability Domains on PPARγ Binding Affinity Using Large Data Sets and Machine Learning Algorithms. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:6857-6866. [PMID: 33914508 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Chemicals may cause adverse effects on human health through binding to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ). Hence, binding affinity is useful for evaluating chemicals with potential endocrine-disrupting effects. Quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) regression models with defined applicability domains (ADs) are important to enable efficient screening of chemicals with PPARγ binding activity. However, lack of large data sets hindered the development of QSAR models. In this study, based on PPARγ binding affinity data sets curated from various sources, 30 QSAR models were developed using molecular fingerprints, two-dimensional descriptors, and five machine learning algorithms. Structure-activity landscapes (SALs) of the training compounds were described by network-like similarity graphs (NSGs). Based on the NSGs, local discontinuity scores were calculated and found to be positively correlated with the cross-validation absolute prediction errors of the models using the different training sets, descriptors, and algorithms. Moreover, innovative ADs were defined based on pairwise similarities between compounds and were found to outperform some conventional ADs. The curated data sets and developed regression models could be useful for evaluating PPARγ-involved adverse effects of chemicals. The SAL analysis and the innovative ADs could facilitate understanding of prediction results from QSAR models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), Dalian Key Laboratory on Chemicals Risk Control and Pollution Prevention Technology, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Jingwen Chen
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), Dalian Key Laboratory on Chemicals Risk Control and Pollution Prevention Technology, School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Huixiao Hong
- National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, Arkansas 72079, United States
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50
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Investigating Molecular Mechanisms of Immunotoxicity and the Utility of ToxCast for Immunotoxicity Screening of Chemicals Added to Food. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073332. [PMID: 33804855 PMCID: PMC8036665 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
The development of high-throughput screening methodologies may decrease the need for laboratory animals for toxicity testing. Here, we investigate the potential of assessing immunotoxicity with high-throughput screening data from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ToxCast program. As case studies, we analyzed the most common chemicals added to food as well as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) shown to migrate to food from packaging materials or processing equipment. The antioxidant preservative tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) showed activity both in ToxCast assays and in classical immunological assays, suggesting that it may affect the immune response in people. From the PFAS group, we identified eight substances that can migrate from food contact materials and have ToxCast data. In epidemiological and toxicological studies, PFAS suppress the immune system and decrease the response to vaccination. However, most PFAS show weak or no activity in immune-related ToxCast assays. This lack of concordance between toxicological and high-throughput data for common PFAS indicates the current limitations of in vitro screening for analyzing immunotoxicity. High-throughput in vitro assays show promise for providing mechanistic data relevant for immune risk assessment. In contrast, the lack of immune-specific activity in the existing high-throughput assays cannot validate the safety of a chemical for the immune system.
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