Methylseleninic Acid Prevents Patulin-Induced Hepatotoxicity and Nephrotoxicity via the Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and Inactivation of p53 and MAPKs

An ultrasensitive dual-mode aptasensor for patulin based on the upconversion particles and G-Quadruplex-hemin DNAzyme

Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin-produced secondary metabolite that can contaminate foods, causing toxic effects on animal and human health. Therefore, for the first time, we have constructed a "turn-on" dual-mode aptamer sensor for PAT using oleic acid-coated upconversion nanomaterials (OA-UCNPs) and G-Quadruplex-hemin DNAzyme (G4-DNAzyme) as fluorescent and colorimetry probes. The sensor employs aptamers binding to PAT as recognition elements for specific molecule detection. Mxene-Au can be used as a biological inducer to assist OA-UCNPs in controlling fluorescence intensity. In addition, colorimetric signal amplification was performed using the trivalent G4-DNAzyme to increase detection sensitivity and reduce false positives. Under optimal conditions, the dual-mode aptasensor has a detection limit of 5.3 pg mL-1 in fluorescence and 2.4 pg mL-1 in colorimetric methods, respectively, with the wider linear range and limit of detection (LOD) of the colorimetric assay. The combination aptasensor can detect PAT with high sensitivity and high specificity and has broad application prospects in the field of food safety detection.

Patulin alters alpha-adrenergic receptor signalling and induces epigenetic modifications in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice

Patulin (PAT) is a food-borne mycotoxin produced by Penicillium and Byssochlamys species. It is widely known for its mutagenic, carcinogenic, and genotoxic effects and has been associated with kidney injury; however, the mechanism of toxicity remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a study to explore the changes in α-adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and epigenetic modifications induced by PAT in the kidneys of C57BL/6 mice during acute (1 day) and prolonged (10 days) exposure. The mice (20-22 g) were orally administered PAT (2.5 mg/kg; at 1 and 10 days), and post-treatment, the kidneys were harvested, homogenised and extracted for RNA, DNA, and protein. The relative gene expression of the α-adrenergic receptors (ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B) and associated signalling pathways (MAPK, MAPK14, ERK, PI3K, and AKT) was assessed by qPCR. The protein expression of ERK1/2 and MAPK was determined by western blot. The impact of PAT on DNA methylation was evaluated by quantifying global DNA methylation; qPCR was used to determine gene expression levels of DNA methyltransferases (DNMT1, DNMT3A, and DNMT3B) and demethylase (MBD2). PAT downregulated the expression of ADRA1, ADRA2A, ADRA2B, PI3K, and AKT and upregulated ERK1/2 and MAPK protein expression. Furthermore, PAT induced alterations in DNA methylation patterns by upregulating DNMT1 and MBD2 expressions and downregulating DNMT3A and DNMT3B expressions, resulting in global DNA hypomethylation. In conclusion, PAT disrupts α-1 and α-2 adrenergic receptor signalling pathways and induces epigenetic modifications, that can lead to kidney injury.

Involvement of multiple forms of cell death in patulin-induced toxicities

Patulin (PAT) is the most common mycotoxin found in moldy fruits and their derived products, and is reported to cause diverse toxic effects, including hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, neurotoxicity, immunotoxicity, gastrointestinal toxicity and dermal toxicity. The cell death induction by PAT is suggested to be a key cellular mechanism involved in PAT-induced toxicities. Accumulating evidence indicates that the multiple forms of cell death are induced in response to PAT exposure, including apoptosis, autophagic cell death, pyroptosis and ferroptosis. Mechanistically, the cell death induction by PAT is associated the oxidative stress induction via reducing the antioxidant capacity or inducing pro-oxidant NADPH oxidase, the activation of mitochondrial pathway via regulating BCL-2 family proteins, the disruption of iron metabolism through ferritinophagy-mediated ferritin degradation, and the induction of the NOD-like receptor (NLR) family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome/caspase-1/gasdermin D (GSDMD) pathway. In this review article, we summarize the present understanding of the cell death induction by PAT, discuss the potential signaling pathways underlying PAT-induced cell death, and propose the issues that need to be addressed to promote the development of cell death-based approach to counteract PAT-induced toxicities.

Study of cytotoxicity in neuroblastoma cell line exposed to patulin and citrinin

Mycotoxins can be found in food and feed storage as well as in several kinds of foodstuff and are capable of harming mammals and some of them even in small doses. This study investigated on the undifferentiated neuronal cell line SH-SY5Y the effects of two mycotoxins: patulin (PAT) and citrinin (CTN), which are predominantly produced by fungi species Penicillium and Aspergillus. Here, the individual and combined cytotoxicity of PAT and CTN was investigated using the cytotoxic assay MTT. Our findings indicate that after 24 h of treatment, the IC50 value for PAT is 2.01 μM, which decreases at 1.5 μM after 48 h. In contrast, CTN did not attain an IC50 value at the tested concentration. Therefore, we found PAT to be the more toxic compared to CTN. However, the combined treatment suggests an additive toxic effect. With 2,7-dichlorodihydrofluorescin diacetate (DCFH-DA) DCFH-DA assay, ROS generation was demonstrated after CTN treatment, but PAT showed only small changes. The mixture presented a very constant behavior over time. Finally, the median-effect/combination index (CI-) isobologram equation demonstrated an additive effect after 24 h, but an antagonistic effect after 48 h for the interaction of the two mycotoxins.

Mycotoxins Have a Potential of Inducing Cell Senescence: A New Understanding of Mycotoxin Immunotoxicity

Mycotoxins result in immune dysfunction and cause immune diseases in animals and humans. However, the mechanisms of immunotoxicity involved in mycotoxins have not been fully explored, and emerging evidence suggests that these toxins may promote their immunotoxicity via cellular senescence. Mycotoxins induce cell senescence after DNA damage, and activate signaling via the NF-κB and JNK pathways to promote the secretion of senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP) cytokines including IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. DNA damage can also over-activate or cleave poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1), increase the expression of cell cycle inhibitory proteins p21, and p53, and induce cell cycle arrest and then senescence. These senescent cells further down-regulate proliferation-related genes and overexpress inflammatory factors resulting in chronic inflammation and eventual immune exhaustion. Here we review the underlying mechanisms by which mycotoxins trigger cell senescence and the potential roles of SASP and PARP in these pathways. This work will help to further understand the mechanisms of immunotoxicity involved in mycotoxins.

The effects of natural active substances in food on the toxicity of patulin

Patulin (PAT) is a mycotoxin, a secondary metabolite mainly produced by fungi of the genera Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium. Many studies have looked into the potential impacts of this mycotoxin due to its high risk. Researchers are currently doing a more in-depth investigation of and employing physical, chemical, and biological ways to remove PAT. However, existing technology cannot completely remove it, and the residual PAT will continue to pose a threat to human health. As a result, substances capable of reducing PAT toxicity need be discovered. According to previous studies, natural components in food could reduce the toxicity of PAT. This article will review the different types of active compounds and discus the detoxification processes, as well as give recommendations for decreasing the toxicity of PAT and future research directions.

Cocktails of Mycotoxins, Phytoestrogens, and Other Secondary Metabolites in Diets of Dairy Cows in Austria: Inferences from Diet Composition and Geo-Climatic Factors

Dairy production is a pivotal economic sector of Austrian and European agriculture. Dietary toxins and endocrine disruptors of natural origin such as mycotoxins and phytoestrogens can affect animal health, reproduction, and productivity. This study characterized the profile of a wide spectrum of fungal, plant, and unspecific secondary metabolites, including regulated, emerging, and modified mycotoxins, phytoestrogens, and cyanogenic glucosides, in complete diets of lactating cows from 100 Austrian dairy farms. To achieve this, a validated multi-metabolite liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization−tandem mass spectrometric (LC/ESI−MS/MS) method was employed, detecting 155 of >800 tested metabolites. Additionally, the most influential dietary and geo-climatic factors related to the dietary mycotoxin contamination of Austrian dairy cattle were recognized. We evidenced that the diets of Austrian dairy cows presented ubiquitous contamination with mixtures of mycotoxins and phytoestrogens. Metabolites derived from Fusarium spp. presented the highest concentrations, were the most recurrent, and had the highest diversity among the detected fungal compounds. Zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, and fumonisin B1 were the most frequently occurring mycotoxins considered in the EU legislation, with detection frequencies >70%. Among the investigated dietary factors, inclusion of maize silage (MS) and straw in the diets was the most influential factor in contamination with Fusarium-derived and other fungal toxins and metabolites, and temperature was the most influential among the geo-climatic factors.

Patulin disrupts SLC7A11-cystine-cysteine-GSH antioxidant system and promotes renal cell ferroptosis both in vitro and in vivo

Patulin (PAT) is a common food-borne mycotoxin with diverse toxic effects including nephrotoxicity. The induction of oxidative stress is suggested to be a key mechanism contributed to toxicities of PAT. Reduced glutathione (GSH), a sulfhydryl-containing tripeptide, is a key reason for PAT-mediated oxidative stress. Cystine/glutamate antiporter (system x_c^-)-mediated cystine uptake plays a critical role in maintaining redox balance via promoting GSH biosynthesis. In this study, we addressed if GSH reduction by PAT was associated with inhibition of system x_c^--mediated GSH biosynthesis. Results showed that PAT significantly decreased activity of SLC7A11, a core subunit of system x_c^-, through activating AMPK-mediated formation of beclin1-SLC7A11 complex. Furthermore, PAT promoted ferroptosis induced by a known ferroptosis inducer RSL3 in normal renal cells, and exacerbated folic acid-induced nephrotoxicity in a mouse model of acute kidney injury. The findings of the present study provide new insights into PAT-induced kidney toxicity, and implicate that patients with ferroptosis-associated diseases maybe more susceptible to PAT.

Mitochondrial calcium uniporter involved in foodborne mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity

Foodborne mycotoxins are toxic metabolites that are produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and its by-products by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem that potentially threatens public health and other exposed animals. Most foodborne mycotoxins induce hepatotoxicity. However, only few studies have investigated the regulatory mechanisms of mitochondrial calcium transport monomers in mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity. Therefore, according to relevant studies and reports, this review suggests that intracellular Ca(2 +) homeostasis and mitochondrial Ca(2 +) uniporter are involved in the regulation of mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity. This review provides some ideas for future research involving mitochondrial Ca(2 +) uniporter in the molecular targets of mycotoxin-induced hepatotoxicity, as well as a reference for the research and development of related drugs and the treatment of related diseases.

Patulin Induces Acute Kidney Injury in Mice through Autophagy-Ferroptosis Pathway

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin, widely found in cereals, seafood, nuts, and especially in fruits and their products. Exposure to this mycotoxin has been reported to induce kidney injury. However, the possible mechanism remains unclear. In our study, short-term high-dose intake of PAT caused acute kidney injury (AKI) in mice. We performed high-throughput transcriptional sequencing to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between the treatment and control groups. The ferroptosis signaling pathway had the highest enrichment, suggesting ferroptosis is involved in PAT-induced AKI. Further, the existence of ferroptosis and autophagy was confirmed by observing the changes of mitochondria morphology and the formation of autophagosomes by electron microscopy. And the expression of solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11), glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4), p62, nuclear receptor coactivator 4 (NCOA4), and ferritin heavy chain 1 (FTH1) were downregulated, whereas acyl-CoA synthase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4), transferrin (TF), LC3, and ferritin light chain (FTL) expression were upregulated in PAT-exposed mice. These results suggested autophagy-dependent ferroptosis occurred in the animal model. This view has also been confirmed in the human renal tubular epithelial cell (HKC) experiments. Autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine (3MA) attenuated PAT-induced ferroptosis and the iron contents in HKC cells. Simultaneous autophagy-dependent ferroptosis can be inhibited by ferroptosis inhibitors ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) and desferrioxamine (DFO). In general, this study provides a new perspective for exploring the new mechanism of acute kidney injury caused by PAT.

Selenium-Enriched Pediococcus acidilactici MRS-7 Alleviates Patulin-Induced Jejunum Injuries in Mice and Its Possible Mechanisms

Patulin (PAT) is a common mycotoxin. Oral ingestion of PAT could damage the intestinal mucosa. Both selenium and probiotics can alleviate intestinal damage, but there are few reports on selenium-enriched probiotics. Here, we studied the protective effects of a new selenium-enriched Pediococcus acidilactici MRS-7 (SeP) on PAT-induced jejunum injuries in mice. Results show that PAT induced jejunum injuries such as loss of crypts, ulceration of the mucosa, and intestinal epithelial barrier function impairment. However, SeP could protect against PAT-induced jejunum injuries and significantly inhibit the reduction of goblet cell numbers. SeP could not only alleviate PAT-induced oxidative stress by decreasing malondialdehyde (MDA) and increasing superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) levels in the jejunum tissues but also alleviate the inflammatory response caused by PAT by reducing the levels of inflammatory factors (interleukin (IL)-6 snd IL-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)) in the serum and jejunum tissues. In addition, SeP also inhibited the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR-4), increased the expression of tight junction proteins (occludin, ZO-1, and claudin-1), and increased the selenium content in the jejunum, thereby antagonizing the jejunum injuries caused by PAT exposure. Finally, SeP rebalanced the intestinal microbiota and improved probiotic abundance such as Turicibacter, Bifidobacterium, Ileibacterium, and Pediococcus in PAT-treated mice. These results support the possibility of SeP as a novel protective agent to mitigate the toxicity of PAT.

Fullerenol Quantum Dots-Based Highly Sensitive Fluorescence Aptasensor for Patulin in Apple Juice

A highly selective and sensitive aptasensor for detecting patulin (PAT) was constructed based on the fluorescence quenching of fullerenol quantum dots (FOQDs) towards carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) through PET mechanism. The π-π stacking interaction between PAT aptamer and FOQDs closed the distance between TAMRA and FOQDs and the fluorescence of TAMRA was quenched with maximum quenching efficiency reaching 85%. There was no non-specific fluorescence quenching caused by FOQDs. In the presence of PAT, the PAT aptamer was inclined to bind with PAT and its conformation was changed. Resulting in the weak π-π stacking interaction between PAT aptamer and FOQDs. Therefore, the fluorescence of TAMRA recovered and was linearly correlated to the concentration of PAT in the range of 0.02–1 ng/mL with a detection limit of 0.01 ng/mL. This PAT aptasensor also performed well in apple juice with linear dynamic range from 0.05–1 ng/mL. The homogeneous fluorescence aptasensor shows broad application prospect in the detection of various food pollutants.

Effects of Selenium Nanoparticles on Preventing Patulin-Induced Liver, Kidney and Gastrointestinal Damage

Patulin (PAT) is a toxic fungal metabolite, and oxidative damage was proved to be its important toxicity mechanism. Selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) were prepared by reducing sodium selenite with chitosan as a stabilizer and used for preventing PAT-induced liver, kidney and gastrointestinal damage. SeNPs have good dispersibility, in vitro antioxidant activity, and are much less cytotoxic than sodium selenite. Cell culture studies indicated that SeNPs can effectively alleviate PAT-induced excessive production of intracellular ROS, the decline of glutathione peroxidase activity, and the suppression of cell viability. Evaluation of serum biochemical parameters, histopathology, oxidative stress biomarkers and activities of antioxidant enzymes in a mouse model showed that pre-treatment with SeNPs (2 mg Se/kg body weight) could ameliorate PAT-induced oxidative damage to the liver and kidneys of mice, but PAT-induced gastrointestinal oxidative damage and barrier dysfunction were not recovered by SeNPs, possibly because the toxin doses suffered by the gastrointestinal as the first exposed tissues exceeded the regulatory capacity of SeNPs. These results suggested that a combination of other strategies may be required to completely block PAT toxicity.

Involvement of caspase in patulin-induced hepatotoxicity in vitro and in vivo

Patulin (PAT) a kind of mycotoxin, is a widely disseminated mycotoxin found in agricultural products and could cause liver damage. However, evidence on the underlying mechanisms of patulin is still lacking. In the present study, Human liver cancer cells (HepG2) together with a mouse model were used to explore the possible effect and mechanism. The results demonstrated that PAT treatment inhibited cell proliferation and caused liver toxicity in mice. In vitro, PAT inhibited the growth of HepG2 cells in a dose-dependent manner and a time-dependent manner; lipid peroxidation, malondialdehyde (MDA) production increased and the level of SOD and GSH in cells changed significantly. In vivo, Kunming mice were treated with PAT(2.5-15 μM), We indicated that liver damage are observed. The activity of serum alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST) were increased significantly, the hepatocyte nucleus stained with Hematoxylin and Eosin (HE) was blurred and deformed. we also explored the lipid peroxidation and enzymes related to redox and found that the activities of SOD in animals do not change significantly, not like that in cells, while GSHpx played a major role. In addition, we measured the caspase activity of cells and the expression of caspase in mice. PAT-induced the caspase cascade was confirmed with the elevation of the activity and expression of caspase. These data suggest that PAT treatment altered both the redox systems in cells and animals. involvement of caspase in patulin-induced hepatotoxicity.

Cardiotoxicity of patulin was found in H9c2 cells

Patulin (PAT) is a kind of mycotoxins that is universally found at rotten fruits, especially apples and apple products. Previous studies have shown that PAT has hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity. However, cardiotoxicity of PAT is rarely reported. Present study aimed at investigate the cardiotoxicity and relevant mechanisms of PAT on H9c2 cells. Cytotoxicity of PAT were evaluated by MTT assay and LDH. Hoechst 33258 staining was used to examine the nuclear morphology and AV/PI double staining was employed for apoptosis on H9c2 cells. Expression level of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax, Bcl-2 were quantified to verify the potential mechanism of mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. The tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin 6 (IL-6) were quantified to determine the inflammatory response by using ELISA assay. ROS, SOD, MDA, GSH levels were measured to determine the oxidative stress status. Results demonstrated that PAT significantly induced cell injury, as evidenced by the down-regulated of cell viability, and the increase of LDH release. Hoesst33258 staining and flow cytometry showed that apoptosis rate was elevated by PAT. PAT treatment up-regulated the expression of Caspase-3, Caspase-9, Bax level and down-regulated the expression of Bcl-2 level. TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 levels showed that PAT increased the pro-inflammatory response. As PAT concentration increased, intracellular MDA, ROS content were elevated, while GSH content and the activity of SOD were significantly decreased. Thus, it is concluded that PAT may induce apoptosis of H9c2 cells through oxidative stress.

N-Acetylcysteine Inhibits Patulin-Induced Apoptosis by Affecting ROS-Mediated Oxidative Damage Pathway

Patulin (PAT) belongs to the family of food-borne mycotoxins. Our previous studies revealed that PAT caused cytotoxicity in human embryonic kidney cells (HEK293). In the present research, we systematically explored the detailed mechanism of ROS production and ROS clearance in PAT-induced HEK293 cell apoptosis. Results showed that PAT treatment (2.5, 5, 7.5, 10 μM) for 10 h could regulate the expression of genes and proteins involved in the mitochondrial respiratory chain complex, resulting in dysfunction of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation and induction of ROS overproduction. We further investigated the role of N-acetylcysteine (NAC), an ROS scavenger, in promoting the survival of PAT-treated HEK293 cells. NAC improves PAT-induced apoptosis of HEK293 cells by clearing excess ROS, modulating the expression of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex genes and proteins, and maintaining normal mitochondrial function. In addition, NAC protects the activity of antioxidant enzymes, maintains normal GSH content, and relieves oxidative damage. Additionally, 4 mM NAC alleviated 7.5 μM PAT-mediated apoptosis through the caspase pathway in HEK293 cells. In summary, our study demonstrated that ROS is significant in PAT-mediated cytotoxicity, which provides valuable insight into the management of PAT-associated health issues.

Hepatotoxicity of food-borne mycotoxins: molecular mechanism, anti-hepatotoxic medicines and target prediction

Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi. The widespread contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins is a global food safety problem and a serious threat to people's health. Most food-borne mycotoxins have strong hepatotoxicity. However, no effective methods have been found to prevent or treat Mycotoxin- Induced Liver Injury (MILI) in clinical and animal husbandry. In this paper, the molecular mechanisms and potential anti-MILI medicines of six food-borne MILI are reviewed, and their targets are predicted by network toxicology, which provides a theoretical basis for further study of the toxicity mechanism of MILI and the development of effective strategies to manage MILI-related health problems in the future and accelerate the development of food safety.

Comparative evaluation of phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine with different fatty acids on nephrotoxicity in vancomycin-induced mice

Phospholipids reportedly alleviate drug-induced acute kidney injury. However, no study has compared the effect of phospholipids with different fatty acids and polar heads on drug-induced nephrotoxicity. In the present study, we aimed to compare the possible nephroprotection afforded by phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine with different fatty acids in a mouse model of vancomycin-induced nephrotoxicity. Pretreatment with phospholipids rich in docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) or eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) doubled the survival time when compared with the model group. Moreover, phospholipids rich in DHA/EPA significantly reduced the serum levels of renal function biomarkers and ameliorated kidney pathologies. In terms of alleviating renal damage, no significant differences were observed between different polar heads in DHA-enriched phospholipids, while phosphatidylserine from soybean was better than phosphatidylcholine in mitigating renal injury. Furthermore, DHA/EPA-enriched phospholipids inhibited vancomycin-induced nephrotoxicity mainly by inhibiting apoptosis and oxidative stress. These results provide a scientific basis for phospholipids as potential ingredients to prevent acute kidney injury.

Patulin in food: A mycotoxin concern for human health and its management strategies

The mycotoxin patulin is primarily produced as a secondary metabolite by numerous fungal species and predominantly by Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Penicillium species. It is generally associated with fungal infected food materials. Penicillium expansum is considered the only fungal species liable for patulin contamination in pome fruits, especially in apples and apple-based products. This toxin in food poses serious health concerns and economic threat, which has aroused the need to adopt effective detection and mitigation strategies. Understanding its origin sources and biosynthetic mechanism stands essential for efficiently designing a management strategy against this fungal contamination. This review aims to present an updated outline of the sources of patulin occurrence in different foods and their biosynthetic mechanisms. It further provides information regarding the detrimental effects of patulin on human and agriculture as well as its effective detection, management, and control strategies.

The characteristics of patulin detoxification by Lactobacillus plantarum 13M5

Patulin (PAT) is a widespread mycotoxin that harms the health of both humans and animals. In this study, among the 17 tested Lactobacillus plantarum strains, L. plantarum 13M5, isolated from traditional Chinese fermented foods, showed the highest PAT degradation rate of up to 43.8% (PAT 5 mg/L). Evaluation of the living and dead 13M5 cells revealed that only the living cells had the ability to remove PAT and degrade it into E-ascladiol. A cell-based assay revealed that L. plantarum 13M5 administration alleviated PAT-induced injuries in Caco-2 cells, including cytotoxicity, oxidative stress, and tight junction disruption. Our results suggest that L. plantarum 13M5 has the potential to reduce PAT toxicity and can thus be used as a probiotic supplement to reduce or eliminate the toxicity of PAT ingested from diet.

Synthesis of Novel Selenocyanates and Evaluation of Their Effect in Cultured Mouse Neurons Submitted to Oxidative Stress

Herein, we report the synthesis of novel selenocyanates and assessment of their effect on the oxidative challenge elicited by hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) in cultured mouse neurons. First, α-methylene-β-hydroxy esters were prepared as precursors of allylic bromides. A reaction involving the generated bromides and sodium selenocyanate was conducted to produce the desired selenocyanates (3a-f). We next prepared cultures of neurons from 7-day-old mice (n = 36). H₂O₂ (10^-5 M) was added into the culture flasks as an oxidative stress inducer, alone or combined with one of each designed compounds. (PhSe)₂ was used as a positive control. It was carried out assessment of lipid (thiobarbituric acid reactive species, 4-hydroxy-2'-nonenal, 8-isoprostane), DNA (8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine), and protein (carbonyl) modification parameters. Finally, catalase and superoxide dismutase activities were also evaluated. Among the compounds, 3b, 3d, and 3f exhibited the most pronounced pattern of antioxidant activity, similar to (PhSe)₂. These novel aromatic selenocyanates could be promising to be tried in most sophisticated in vitro studies or even at the preclinical level.

Thiol-functionalized inactivated yeast embedded in agar aerogel for highly efficient adsorption of patulin in apple juice

The issue of patulin (PAT) contamination in apple juice has attracted widespread concern. Recently, inactivated yeast based biosorbents have shown great advantages in the removal of toxic contaminants. However, the traditional yeast adsorbents have disadvantages of a limited adsorption capacity in juice and separation difficulty. In the present work, five chemical thiol-functionalization methods were used to increase the PAT adsorption efficiency of yeast cells in apple juice. Thereinto, glutaraldehyde cross-linking increased the thiol (-SH) content of yeast cells to 1.26 mmol g^-1 and improved the PAT adsorption capacity of inactivated yeast in apple juice by 150 times. The covalent bonding of -SH and PAT played an important role in the improvement of adsorption capacity. The as-prepared thiol-modification yeast (Y-SH(Gl)) was then embedded in the agar aerogel to obtain Y-SH(Gl)@Agar free of separation. PAT adsorption of Y-SH(Gl)@Agar was consistent with the Freundlich model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Moreover, Y-SH(Gl)@Agar was competent for PAT removal in apple juice and manifested negligible effects on juice quality. Cytotoxicity investigation indicated its good biocompatibility and ignorable food safety risk, thereby demonstrating that Y-SH(Gl)@Agar may be a promising adsorbent material for the control of PAT contaminant in juice.

Functional Role of p53 in the Regulation of Chemical-Induced Oxidative Stress

The nuclear transcription factor p53, discovered in 1979, has a broad range of biological functions, primarily the regulation of apoptosis, the cell cycle, and DNA repair. In addition to these canonical functions, a growing body of evidence suggests that p53 plays an important role in regulating intracellular redox homeostasis through transcriptional and nontranscriptional mechanisms. Oxidative stress induction and p53 activation are common responses to chemical exposure and are suggested to play critical roles in chemical-induced toxicity. The activation of p53 can exert either prooxidant or antioxidant activity, depending on the context. In this review, we discuss the functional role of p53 in regulating chemical-induced oxidative stress, summarize the potential signaling pathways involved in p53's regulation of chemically mediated oxidative stress, and propose issues that should be addressed in future studies to improve understanding of the relationship between p53 and chemical-induced oxidative stress.

Combination of Patulin and Chlorpyrifos Synergistically Induces Hepatotoxicity via Inhibition of Catalase Activity and Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species

Patulin (PAT) is the most common food-borne mycotoxin found in fruits and fruit-derived products, while chlorpyrifos (CPF) is a widely used pesticide on fruit and other crops. On the basis of the residue data, certain types of fruits can be contaminated simultaneously by patulin and chlorpyrifos. However, there are no available data about the combined toxicity. Since liver is a possible toxic target of both patulin and chlorpyrifos, we tested whether the combination exposure can cause enhanced hepatotoxicity using both cell culture and animal models. Results showed that the combination resulted in synergistic cytotoxicity in vitro and significantly enhanced liver toxicity in vivo. Mechanistically, PAT inhibited catalase activity via PIG3 induction, while CPF decreased catalase expression. These two mechanisms were converged in response to the combination, leading to enhanced inactivating catalase and boosted reactive oxygen species generation. The finding implicated that it is necessary to consider the combined toxicity in safety assessment of these food-borne contaminants.

Mechanism of bioactive polysaccharide from Lachnum sp. acts synergistically with 5-fluorouracil against human hepatocellular carcinoma

The antimetabolite 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) is a widely used antitumor agent, however the overall response rate to 5-FU as a single agent is usually limited. Herein, how Lachnum expolysaccharide (LEP-2a), a type of active polysaccharide isolated from Lachnum sp., acted synergistically with 5-FU on HepG2 cells was investigated. It was found that LEP-2a notably enhanced 5-FU sensitivity in HepG2 cells in a synergistic manner. After combination treatment of 5-FU and LEP-2a, Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway were inactivated. In addition, combination treatment induced generation of reactive oxygen species, decreased the levels of intracellular antioxidant enzymes and triggered mitochondrial apoptosis pathway. Furthermore, 5-FU combined with LEP-2a also resulted in p53 activation and NF-κB inhibition, and cell cycle arrest in the S phase as well as cell metastasis stagnation. Interestingly, LEP-2a treatment also blocked the DNA damage repair procedure. These findings demonstrate that LEP-2a enhanced 5-FU sensitivity and combination of 5-FU and LEP-2a exerts synergistic antitumor efficiency through multiple approaches.

The characteristics, occurrence, and toxicological effects of patulin

Mycotoxins are the secondary metabolites secreted by different types of fungi to which humans can get exposed mainly via ingestion. Patulin (C₇H₆O₄) is a polyketide lactone produced by various fungal specifies, including Penicillium expansum as the main producer. P. expansum can infect different fruits and vegetables yet it has preference to apples in which they cause blue rot. Therefore, apples and apple-based food products are the main source of Patulin exposure for humans. Patulin was first identified in 1943 under the name of tercinin as a possible antimicrobial agent. Although it is categorized as a non-carcinogen, Patulin has been linked, in the last decades, to neurological, gastrointestinal, and immunological adverse effects, mainly causing liver and kidney damages. In this review, the characteristics of and possible human exposure pathways to Patulin are discussed. Various surveillance and toxicity studies on the levels of Patulin in various food products and effects of Patulin on cells and animal models have been documented as well. Importance of epidemiological studies and a summary of the possible toxicity mechanisms are highlighted with a case study. The commonly used control methods as described in the literature are also discussed to guide future researchers to focus on mitigating mycotoxins contamination in the food industry.

Patulin in Apples and Apple-Based Food Products: The Burdens and the Mitigation Strategies

Apples and apple-based products are among the most popular foods around the world for their delightful flavors and health benefits. However, the commonly found mold, Penicillium expansum invades wounded apples, causing the blue mold decay and ensuing the production of patulin, a mycotoxin that negatively affects human health. Patulin contamination in apple products has been a worldwide problem without a satisfactory solution yet. A comprehensive understanding of the factors and challenges associated with patulin accumulation in apples is essential for finding such a solution. This review will discuss the effects of the pathogenicity of Penicillium species, quality traits of apple cultivars, and environmental conditions on the severity of apple blue mold and patulin contamination. Moreover, beyond the complicated interactions of the three aforementioned factors, patulin control is also challenged by the lack of reliable detection methods in food matrices, as well as unclear degradation mechanisms and limited knowledge about the toxicities of the metabolites resulting from the degradations. As apple-based products are mainly produced with stored apples, pre- and post-harvest strategies are equally important for patulin mitigation. Before storage, disease-resistance breeding, orchard-management, and elicitor(s) application help control the patulin level by improving the storage qualities of apples and lowering fruit rot severity. From storage to processing, patulin mitigation strategies could benefit from the optimization of apple storage conditions, the elimination of rotten apples, and the safe and effective detoxification or biodegradation of patulin.

Safety of the fungal workhorses of industrial biotechnology: update on the mycotoxin and secondary metabolite potential of Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei

This review presents an update on the current knowledge of the secondary metabolite potential of the major fungal species used in industrial biotechnology, i.e., Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae, and Trichoderma reesei. These species have a long history of safe use for enzyme production. Like most microorganisms that exist in a challenging environment in nature, these fungi can produce a large variety and number of secondary metabolites. Many of these compounds present several properties that make them attractive for different industrial and medical applications. A description of all known secondary metabolites produced by these species is presented here. Mycotoxins are a very limited group of secondary metabolites that can be produced by fungi and that pose health hazards in humans and other vertebrates when ingested in small amounts. Some mycotoxins are species-specific. Here, we present scientific basis for (1) the definition of mycotoxins including an update on their toxicity and (2) the clarity on misclassification of species and their mycotoxin potential reported in literature, e.g., A. oryzae has been wrongly reported as an aflatoxin producer, due to misclassification of Aspergillus flavus strains. It is therefore of paramount importance to accurately describe the mycotoxins that can potentially be produced by a fungal species that is to be used as a production organism and to ensure that production strains are not capable of producing mycotoxins during enzyme production. This review is intended as a reference paper for authorities, companies, and researchers dealing with secondary metabolite assessment, risk evaluation for food or feed enzyme production, or considerations on the use of these species as production hosts.

Mycotoxins and oxidative stress: where are we?

Mycotoxins are the most common contaminants of food and feed worldwide and are considered an important risk factor for human and animal health. Oxidative stress occurs in cells when the concentration of reactive oxygen species exceeds the cell’s antioxidant capacity. Oxidative stress causes DNA damage, enhances lipid peroxidation, protein damage and cell death. This review addresses the toxicity of the major mycotoxins, especially aflatoxin B1, deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, T-2 toxin, fumonisin B1, ochratoxin, patulin and zearalenone, in relation to oxidative stress. It summarises the data associated with oxidative stress as a plausible mechanism for mycotoxin-induced toxicity. Given the contamination caused by mycotoxins worldwide, the protective effects of a variety of natural compounds due to their antioxidant capacities have been evaluated. We review data on the ability of vitamins, flavonoids, crocin, curcumin, green tea, lycopene, phytic acid, L-carnitine, melatonin, minerals and mixtures of anti-oxidants to mitigate the toxic effect of mycotoxins associated with oxidative stress.

Protective Effects of DHA-PC against Vancomycin-Induced Nephrotoxicity through the Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and Apoptosis in BALB/c Mice

The clinical use of glycopeptide antibiotic vancomycin is usually accompanied by nephrotoxicity, limiting its application and therapeutic efficiency. The aim of this study was to investigate the protection of DHA-enriched phosphatidylcholine (DHA-PC) against nephrotoxicity using a model of vancomycin-induced male BALB/c mice with renal injury by measuring death curves, histological changes, and renal function indexes. The addition of DHA in DHA and DHA-PC groups were 300 mg/kg per day on the basis of human intake level in our study. Results indicated that DHA-PC could dramatically extend the survival time of mice, while traditional DHA and PC had no significant effects. Moreover, oral administration of DHA-PC exhibited better effects on reducing vancomycin-induced increases of blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, cystatin C, and kidney injury molecule-1 levels than traditional DHA and PC. DHA-PC significantly delayed the development of vancomycin-induced renal injury, including tubular necrosis, hyaline casts, and tubular degeneration. A further mechanistic study revealed that the protective effect of DHA-PC on vancomycin-mediated toxicity might be attributed to its ability to inhibit oxidative stress and inactivate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways, which was associated with upregulation of Bcl-2 and downregulation of caspase-9, caspase-3, cytochrome-c, p38, and JNK. These findings suggest that DHA-PC may be acted as the dietary supplements or functional foods against vancomycin-induced nephrotoxicity.

A Summary of New Findings on the Biological Effects of Selenium in Selected Animal Species-A Critical Review

Selenium is an essential trace element important for many physiological processes, especially for the functions of immune and reproductive systems, metabolism of thyroid hormones, as well as antioxidant defense. Selenium deficiency is usually manifested by an increased incidence of retention of placenta, metritis, mastitis, aborts, lowering fertility and increased susceptibility to infections. In calves, lambs and kids, the selenium deficiency demonstrates by WMD (white muscle disease), in foals and donkey foals, it is associated with incidence of WMD and yellow fat disease, and in pigs it causes VESD (vitamin E/selenium deficiency) syndrome. The prevention of these health disorders can be achieved by an adequate selenium supplementation to the diet. The review summarizes the survey of knowledge on selenium, its biological significance in the organism, the impact of its deficiency in mammalian livestock (comparison of ruminants vs. non-ruminants, herbivore vs. omnivore) and possibilities of its peroral administration. The databases employed were as follows: Web of Science, PubMed, MEDLINE and Google Scholar.