Biocompatible Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles from Lactoferrin and Pectin as Potential Vehicles for Antioxidative Curcumin

Thermal stability, antioxidant activity and bioavailability of pea protein-naringin Pickering emulsion for enhanced delivery applications

After successfully addressing to mitigate bitterness of naringin through construction Pickering emulsion using pea protein (PP) and naringin (NG) in our previous study, we now probed thermal stability, antioxidant efficacy, and bioavailability. FTIR analysis and UV-vis spectroscopy indicated predominant interactions between PP and NG were hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds. TGA and DSC analyses demonstrated that PP-NG complexes exhibited superior heat-resistance compared to pure PP and NG. Thermal stability assessments indicated a significant retention of NG in the PP-NG Pickering emulsion than the control NG across varied temperatures (4 °C, 25 °C, 37 °C, and 65 °C). Moreover, the antioxidant activity of PP-NG emulsion was dependent on the concentration of NG, as evidenced by DPPH and ABTS free radicals scavenging abilities, ferric reducing power, and lipid peroxidation resistance. Additionally, PP-NG Pickering emulsion exhibited substantially high bioavailability (92.01 ± 3.91%). These results suggest a promising avenue for the application of NG with improved characteristics.

Preparation and characterization of vitamin E microcapsules stabilized by Zein with different polysaccharides

Vitamin E (VE) microencapsulation using a green surfactant emulsifier not only protects the active substance and is also environmentally friendly. In this study, we used alcohol ether glycoside as an emulsifier to prepare VE microcapsules using the biological macromolecule Zein and various polysaccharides. The resulting nano microcapsules exhibited a spherical structure, stable morphology, uniform size, and a >90% encapsulation efficiency. They also had good thermal stability and slow-release properties. Of these, xanthan gum/Zein-VE microcapsules were superior, with antioxidant properties up to 3.05-fold higher than untreated VE. We successfully developed VE nano microcapsules that meet eco-friendly and sustainable requirements, which may have applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

High oxidative stability of a complex fish liver oil nano-capsules in response to long-term storage, and to hyperthermal and sunlight exposure

BACKGROUND

In this study, a biocompatible nano-carrying platform using chitosan (ChI) and chondroitin sulfate (ChS) was developed for the encapsulation of cobia liver oil (CBLO) to prevent its oxidation and improve its absorption. An ionic gelation method was applied to encapsulate CBLO with different weight ratios (from 1.0 to 1.5) to obtain ChS-ChI nano-capsules (ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs).

RESULTS

Morphological observations of the nano-capsules revealed a spherical shape and diameter around 267-381 nm. The maximum loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE) for ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs estimated by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and derivative thermogravimetric (DTG) analysis were 25.7% and 56.2%, respectively. The structural stability of ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs was confirmed through differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis; moreover DSC also further confirmed the oxidative stability of ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs. Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra confirmed the excellent stability of ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs against high temperature and sunlight exposure. Biocompatibility analysis also verified the non-toxicity of ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs, further indicating safety and potential application in complex-nutritional supplements.

CONCLUSION

Nano-degree of ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs has a loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency of around 16.5 ~ 25.7% and 33.4 ~ 56.2%, respectively, for encapsulation of CBLO. Characterization results also indicate that ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs display high oxidative stability against long-term, hyperthermal, and sunlight exposure. Bioassay results confirm that the ChS-ChI@CBLO NCs are safe and non-toxic. This study demonstrates that nano-capsules are also beneficial in preventing sensitive compounds from metamorphosis, and are non-toxic. These materials are suitable for use in the food and pharmaceutical industries. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Lactoferrin/pectin nanocomplex encapsulating ciprofloxacin and naringin as a lung targeting antibacterial nanoplatform with oxidative stress alleviating effect

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic Gram-negative bacterium with adaptive metabolic abilities. It can cause hospital-acquired infections with significant mortality rates, particularly in people with already existing medical conditions. Its ability to develop resistance to common antibiotics makes managing this type of infections very challenging. Furthermore, oxidative stress is a common consequence of bacterial infection and antibiotic therapy, due to formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) during their mode of action. In this study we aimed to alleviate oxidative stress and enhance the antibacterial efficacy of ciprofloxacin (CPR) antibiotic by its co-encapsulation with naringin (NAR) within a polyelectrolyte complex (PEX). The PEX comprised of polycationic lactoferrin (LF) and polyanionic pectin (PEC). CPR/NAR-loaded PEX exhibited spherical shape with particle size of 237 ± 3.5 nm, negatively charged zeta potential (-23 ± 2.2 mV) and EE% of 61.2 ± 4.9 for CPR and 76.2 ± 3.4 % for NAR. The LF/PEC complex showed prolonged sequential release profile of CPR to limit bacterial expansion, followed by slow liberation of NAR, which mitigates excess ROS produced by CPR's mechanism of action without affecting its efficacy. Interestingly, this PEX demonstrated good hemocompatibility with no significant in vivo toxicity regarding hepatic and renal functions. In addition, infected mice administrated this nanoplatform intravenously exhibited significant CFU reduction in the lungs and kidneys, along with reduced immunoreactivity against myeloperoxidase. Moreover, this PEX was found to reduce the lungs´ oxidative stress via increasing both glutathione (GSH) and catalase (CAT) levels while lowering malondialdehyde (MDA). In conclusion, CPR/NAR-loaded PEX can offer a promising targeted lung delivery strategy while enhancing the therapeutic outcomes of CPR with reduced oxidative stress.

Ultrasound and enzyme assisted preparation of novel lactoferrin-cereal phenolic acid conjugates: structural, physicochemical and functional properties

The effects of covalent binding of protocatechuic acid (PA) and gallic acid (GA) to lactoferrin (LF) on the structure, functional, and antioxidant properties of the protein conjugate were investigated. These protein-phenolic conjugates were produced by laccase cross-linking and ultrasound-assisted free radical grafting, which were characterized using turbidity, particle size, and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analyses. Structural changes in conjugates were monitored by endogenous fluorescence spectroscopy, fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and circular dichroism (CD). The antioxidant capacities and pH stability were determined using DPPH, ABTS, FRAP, and potentiometric analysis. The enzymatic cross-linking and free radical grafting yielded LF-PA/GA conjugates with altered hydrodynamic diameter and zeta-potential. Spectroscopic and chromatographic analyses revealed that binding to PA/GA altered the molecular structure of LF, with a decrease in LF isoelectric point post binding to PA/GA, without affecting antioxidant activities. In conclusion, LF-PA/GA conjugates present potential applications in the food industry.

Hemp seed globulin-alginate nanoparticles for encapsulation of Cannabisin A with enhanced colloidal stability and antioxidant activity

This study develops hemp seed globulin (GLB)-alginate (ALG) nanoparticles (GANPs) for Cannabisin A (CA) stabilization under environmental stress and during pepsin digestion. The optimal GLB: ALG mass ratio of 1: 1.5 was determined for GANPs formation at pH 3.5, resulting in a high yield of 95.13 ± 0.91 %, a ζ-potential of -35.73 ± 1.04 mV, a hydrodynamic diameter of 470.67 ± 11.36 nm, and a PDI of 0.298 ± 0.016. GANPs were employed to encapsulate CA, achieving a high loading capacity of 13.48 ± 0.04 μg mg-1. FTIR analysis demonstrated that the formation of CA-GLB-ALG nanoparticles (CGANPs) involves electrostatic interactions, hydrogen bonding, and hydrophobic interactions. XRD and DSC analyses revealed that CA is amorphous within the CGANPs. CGANPs demonstrated remarkable dispersion stability as well as resistance to high ionic strength and high-temperature treatments, indicating their potential as efficient hydrophobic drug-delivery vehicles. When compared to free CA, CA coated within CGANPs displayed greater DPPH/ABTS scavenging activity. Furthermore, the ALG-shelled nanoparticles protected GLB from pepsin digestion and slowed the release of CA throughout the release process, extending their stay on the intestinal wall mucosa. These findings imply that CGANPs is an ideal delivery vehicle for CA as they may expand the application of CA in food items.

Polysaccharide-Based Coatings as Drug Delivery Systems

Therapeutic polysaccharide-based coatings have recently emerged as versatile strategies to transform a conventional medical implant into a drug delivery system. However, the translation of these polysaccharide-based coatings into the clinic as drug delivery systems still requires a deeper understanding of their drug degradation/release profiles. This claim is supported by little or no data. In this review paper, a comprehensive description of the benefits and challenges generated by the polysaccharide-based coatings is provided. Moreover, the latest advances made towards the application of the most important representative coatings based on polysaccharide types for drug delivery are debated. Furthermore, suggestions/recommendations for future research to speed up the transition of polysaccharide-based drug delivery systems from the laboratory testing to clinical applications are given.

Polysaccharides-based nanocarriers enhance the anti-inflammatory effect of curcumin

Curcumin (CUR) has been discovered to have many biological activities, including anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, anti-oxygenation, anti-human immunodeficiency virus, anti-microbial and exhibits a good effect on the prevention and treatment of many diseases. However, the limited properties of CUR, including the poor solubility, bioavailability and instability caused by enzymes, light, metal irons, and oxygen, have compelled researchers to turn their attention to drug carrier application to overcome these drawbacks. Encapsulation may provide potential protective effects to the embedding materials and/or have a synergistic effect with them. Therefore, nanocarriers, especially polysaccharides-based nanocarriers, have been developed in many studies to enhance the anti-inflammatory capacity of CUR. Consequently, it's critical to review current advancements in the encapsulation of CUR using polysaccharides-based nanocarriers, as well as further study the potential mechanisms of action where polysaccharides-based CUR nanoparticles (the complex nanoparticles/Nano CUR-delivery systems) exhibit their anti-inflammatory effects. This work suggests that polysaccharides-based nanocarriers will be a thriving field in the treatment of inflammation and inflammation-related diseases.

Recent advances in cellulose, pectin, carrageenan and alginate-based oral drug delivery systems

Polymers-based drug delivery systems constitute one of the highly explored thrust areas in the field of the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. In the past years, the properties of polymers have been modified in context to their solubility, release kinetics, targeted action site, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. Despite the availability of diverse synthetic polymers for the bioavailability enhancement of drugs, the use of natural polymers is still highly recommended due to their easy availability, accessibility, and non-toxicity. The aim of the review is to provide the available literature of the last five years on oral drug delivery systems based on four natural polymers i.e., cellulose, pectin, carrageenan, and alginate in a concise and tabulated manner. In this review, most of the information is in tabulated form to provide easy accessibility to the reader. The data related to active pharmaceutical ingredients and supported components in different formulations of the mentioned polymers have been made available.

Novel Biodegradable Nanoparticulate Chain-End Functionalized Polyhydroxybutyrate-Caffeic Acid with Multifunctionalities for Active Food Coatings

The bioactivities of polyhydroxyalkanoates have been curtailed owing to the lack of bioactive functional groups in their backbones. In this regard, polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) produced from new locally isolated Bacillus nealsonii ICRI16 was chemically modified for enhancing its functionality, stability as well as solubility. First, PHB was transformed to PHB-diethanolamine (PHB-DEA) by transamination. Subsequently, for the first time, the chain ends of the polymer were substituted by caffeic acid molecules (CafA), generating novel PHB-DEA-CafA. The chemical structure of such a polymer was confirmed by Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR). The modified polyester demonstrated improved thermal behavior compared to PHB-DEA as was shown by thermogravimetric analysis, derivative thermogravimetry, and differential scanning calorimetry analyses. Interestingly, 65% of PHB-DEA-CafA was biodegraded in a clay soil environment after 60 days at 25 °C, while 50% of PHB was degraded within the same period. On another avenue, PHB-DEA-CafA nanoparticles (NPs) were successfully prepared with an impressive mean particle size of 223 ± 0.12 nm and high colloidal stability. The nanoparticulate polyester had powerful antioxidant capacity with an IC₅₀ of 32.2 mg/mL, which was the result of CafA loading in the polymer chain. More importantly, the NPs had a considerable effect on the bacterial behavior of four food pathogens, inhibiting 98 ± 0.12% of Listeria monocytogenes DSM 19094 after 48 h of exposure. Finally, the raw polish sausage coated with NPs had a significantly lower bacterial count of 2.11 ± 0.21 log cfu/g in comparison to other groups. When all these positive features are recognized, the polyester described herein could be considered as a good candidate for commercial active food coatings.

Lactoferrin-Based Ternary Composite Nanoparticles with Enhanced Dispersibility and Stability for Curcumin Delivery

Curcumin has been reported to exhibit free radical antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities, which are beneficial for nutraceutical applications. However, its application for this purpose is limited by its poor water solubility, stability, and bioavailability. These problems can be overcome using food-grade colloidal particles that encapsulate, protect, and deliver curcumin. These colloidal particles can be assembled from structure-forming food components that may also exhibit protective effects, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and polyphenols. In this study, lactoferrin (LF), (-)-epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and hyaluronic acid (HA) were used to fabricate composite nanoparticles using a simple pH-shift method. We showed that curcumin could be successfully loaded into these LF-EGCG-HA nanoparticles (d = 145 nm). The encapsulation efficiency (86%) and loading capacity (5.8%) of curcumin within these nanoparticles were relatively high. Encapsulation improved the thermal, light, and storage stabilities of the curcumin. Moreover, the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles exhibited good redispersibility after dehydration. The in vitro digestion properties, cellular uptake, and anticancer effects of the curcumin-loaded nanoparticles were then explored. Compared to free curcumin, the bioaccessibility and cellular uptake of the curcumin were significantly improved after encapsulation in the nanoparticles. Furthermore, the nanoparticles significantly promoted the apoptosis of colorectal cancer cells. This study suggests that food-grade biopolymer nanoparticles can be used to improve the bioavailability and bioactivity of an important nutraceutical.

Nose-to-brain delivery of self-assembled curcumin-lactoferrin nanoparticles: Characterization, neuroprotective effect and in vivo pharmacokinetic study

Curcumin (CUR) is a natural polyphenol extract with significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, which indicates its great potential for neuroprotection. Lactoferrin (LF), a commonly used oral carrier and targeting ligand, has not been reported as a multifunctional nanocarrier for nose-to-brain delivery. This study aims to develop a nose-to-brain delivery system of curcumin-lactoferrin nanoparticles (CUR-LF NPs) and to further evaluate the neuroprotective effects in vitro and brain accumulation in vivo. Herein, CUR-LF NPs were prepared by the desolvation method with a particle size of 84.8 ± 6.5 nm and a zeta potential of +22.8 ± 4.3 mV. The permeability coefficient of CUR-LF NPs (4.36 ± 0.79 × 10−6 cm/s) was 50 times higher than that of CUR suspension (0.09 ± 0.04 × 10−6 cm/s) on MDCK monolayer, indicating that the nanoparticles could improve the absorption efficiency of CUR in the nasal cavity. Moreover, CUR-LF NPs showed excellent protection against Aβ25-35-induced nerve damage in PC12 cells. In vivo pharmacokinetic studies showed that the brain-targeting efficiency of CUR-LF NPs via IN administration was 248.1%, and the nose-to-brain direct transport percentage was 59.7%. Collectively, nose-to-brain delivery of CUR-LF NPs is capable of achieving superior brain enrichment and potential neuroprotective effects.

Preparation and characterization of novel composite nanoparticles using zein and hyaluronic acid for efficient delivery of naringenin

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a polymer mainly found in animal tissues, plays an important role in food research. In this study, it was used for delivery improvement of naringenin (NAR) by loading it into zein nanoparticles using an anti-solvent precipitation method. The optimal Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles were uniformly spherical with particle sizes of 209.2 ± 1.9 nm, polydispersity indexes of 0.146 ± 0.032 and zeta-potentials of -19.0 ± 0.7 mV. Moreover, the microstructure of Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles was maintained primarily by hydrophobic, electrostatic, and hydrogen-bonding interactions. Furthermore, Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles showed favorable physical stability and enhanced encapsulation efficiency. Additionally, the antioxidant capacity and release in simulated gastrointestinal digestion of Nar were significantly improved. Overall, these findings indicate that the delivery efficiency of Nar was improved by formulation of ternary nanoparticles.

Pectin-based nanoencapsulation strategy to improve the bioavailability of bioactive compounds

Pectin is one of the polysaccharides to be used as a coating nanomaterial. The characteristics of pectin are suitable to form nanostructures for protection, increased absorption, and bioavailability of different active compounds. This review aims to point out the structural features of pectins and their use as nanocarriers. It also indicates the principal methodologies for the elaboration and application of foods. The research carried out shows that pectin is easily extracted from natural sources, biodegradable, biocompatible, and non-toxic. The mechanical resistance and stability in different pH ranges and the action of digestive enzymes allow the nanostructures to pass intact through the gastrointestinal system and be effectively absorbed. Pectin can bind to macromolecules, especially proteins, to form stable nanostructures, which can be formed by different methods; polyelectrolyte complexes are the most frequent ones. The pectin-derived nanoparticles could be added to foods and dietary supplements, demonstrating a promising nanocarrier with a broad technological application.

Encapsulation of vitexin-rhamnoside based on zein/pectin nanoparticles improved its stability and bioavailability

To improve the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of vitexin-rhamnoside (VR) isolated from hawthorn, it was encapsulated by the zein-pectin nanoparticles system. When the mass ratio of zein to pectin was 1:4, the particle size of nanoparticles was 222.7 nm, and the encapsulation efficiency of VR was 67%. Analysis with the scanning electron microscope (SEM), fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed that the zein-VR-pectin nanoparticles were spherical and uniformly distributed. The hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions were the main forces to assemble the nanoparticles. The nanoparticle had good stability at pH 3-8.5 with particle sizes ranging from 234 to 251 nm, and the nanoparticles were able to resist the relatively lower ionic strength. In vitro simulated digestion and rat in vivo intestinal perfusion experiments showed that the nanoparticles exhibited significant slow-release properties and the highest absorption rate in the duodenal segment of rats, with Ka and Papp of 0.830 ± 0.11 and 17.004 ± 1.09. These results provided a theoretical and technological approach for the construction of flavonoids delivery system with slow-release properties and improved bioavailability.

Hesperetin (citrus peel flavonoid aglycone) encapsulation using pea protein-high methoxyl pectin electrostatic complexes: complex optimization and biological activity

BACKGROUND

Orange pomace polyphenols have potential for use as nutraceutical ingredients in functional foods and beverages. However, owing to their low water solubility and bioaccessibility, they are not being utilized to their full potential. The goal of this research is to assess the impact of encapsulation on hesperetin (HT - a model orange polyphenol) water solubility, antioxidant activity, and in vitro bioaccessibility.

RESULTS

In this study, a citrus flavonoid aglycone, HT, was encapsulated within water-dispersible colloidal complexes (d = 350 ± 8 nm) formed by electrostatic attraction of pea protein isolate and high-methoxyl pectin at a mixing ratio of 1:1 (v/v) and pH 4. The maximum amount of HT that could be dispersed in water was much higher for the encapsulated form (99 ± 7 μg mL^-1 ) than the non-encapsulated form (<10 μg mL^-1 ). The radical scavenging activity of the encapsulated HT (>90%, pH 4) was much higher than the non-encapsulated form (<15% at pH 4 or 7). The in vitro bioaccessibility of encapsulated HT (27 ± 7%) was also much higher than the non-encapsulated form (<7%).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that a well-designed, biopolymer-based delivery system may improve the effective incorporation of HT, and potentially other orange pomace polyphenols, into food and beverage products. This could provide an additional high-value use for orange juicing by-products while introducing a new nutraceutical product to the food and beverage industry. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Delivery of hyperoside by using a soybean protein isolated-soy soluble polysaccharide nanocomplex: Fabrication, characterization, and in vitro release properties

Nanoparticles made from natural proteins and polysaccharides are green, biodegradable, and sustainable. In this study, soybean protein isolate (SPI) and soybean soluble polysaccharide (SSPS) were employed as delivery vehicles for hyperoside (HYP) to explore the mechanism of the formation of complexes and evaluate the performance of this mechanism at different pH values. The structures of SPI-SSPS-HYP complexes were studied by Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), and the stability was evaluated based on free radical scavenging ability, loading rate, and simulated release. The results showed that nanoparticles were subjected to non-covalent electrostatic complexation, which was affected mainly by electrostatic, hydrogen bond, and hydrophobic interactions, and the optimal encapsulation efficiency was 85.56% at pH 3.5. Encapsulated HYP retained its high antioxidant capacity. This study provides a new strategy for developing a biodegradable nanocarrier with superior encapsulation properties, enhancing the application range of HYP.

Research Advances of Lactoferrin in Electrostatic Spinning, Nano Self-Assembly, and Immune and Gut Microbiota Regulation

Lactoferrin (LF) is a naturally present iron-binding globulin with the structural properties of an N-lobe strongly positively charged terminus and a cage-like structure of nano self-assembly encapsulation. These unique structural properties give it potential for development in the fields of electrostatic spinning, targeted delivery systems, and the gut-brain axis. This review will provide an overview of LF's unique structure, encapsulation, and targeted transport capabilities, as well as its applications in immunity and gut microbiota regulation. First, the microstructure of LF is summarized and compared with its homologous ferritin, revealing both structural and functional similarities and differences between them. Second, the electrostatic interactions of LF and its application in electrostatic spinning are summarized. Its positive charge properties can be applied to functional environmental protection packaging materials and to improving drug stability and antiviral effects, while electrostatic spinning can promote bone regeneration and anti-inflammatory effects. Then the nano self-assembly behavior of LF is exploited as a cage-like protein to encapsulate bioactive substances to construct functional targeted delivery systems for applications such as contrast agents, antibacterial dressings, anti-cancer therapy, and gene delivery. In addition, some covalent and noncovalent interactions of LF in the Maillard reaction and protein interactions and other topics are briefly discussed. Finally, LF may affect immunological function via controlling the gut microbiota. In conclusion, this paper reviews the research advances of LF in electrostatic spinning, nano self-assembly, and immune and gut microbiota regulation, aiming to provide a reference for its application in the food and pharmaceutical fields.

Biocompatible Polyelectrolyte Complex Nanoparticles for Lycopene Encapsulation Attenuate Oxidative Stress-Induced Cell Damage

In this study, lycopene was successfully encapsulated in polyelectrolyte complex nanoparticles (PEC NPs) fabricated with a negatively charged polysaccharide, TLH-3, and a positively charged sodium caseinate (SC) via electrostatic interactions. Results showed that the lycopene-loaded PEC NPs were spherical in shape, have a particle size of 241 nm, have a zeta potential of −23.6 mV, and have encapsulation efficiency of 93.6%. Thus, lycopene-loaded PEC NPs could serve as effective lycopene carriers which affected the physicochemical characteristics of the encapsulated lycopene and improved its water dispersibility, storage stability, antioxidant capacity, and sustained release ability in aqueous environments when compared with the free lycopene. Moreover, encapsulated lycopene could enhance the cells' viability, prevent cell apoptosis, and protect cells from oxidative damage through the Nrf2/HO-1/AKT signalling pathway, via upregulation of antioxidase activities and downregulation of MDA and ROS levels. Therefore, the biocompatible lycopene-loaded PEC NPs have considerable potential use for the encapsulation of hydrophobic nutraceuticals in the food and pharmaceutical industries.

Naturally-Sourced Antibacterial Polymeric Nanomaterials with Special Reference to Modified Polymer Variants

Despite the recent advancements in treating bacterial infections, antibiotic resistance (AR) is still an emerging issue. However, polymeric nanocarriers have offered unconventional solutions owing to their capability of exposing more functional groups, high encapsulation efficiency (EE) and having sustained delivery. Natural polymeric nanomaterials (NMs) are contemplated one of the most powerful strategies in drug delivery (DD) in terms of their safety, biodegradability with almost no side effects. Every nanostructure is tailored to enhance the system functionality. For example, cost-effective copper NPs could be generated in situ in cellulose sheets, demonstrating powerful antibacterial prospects for food safety sector. Dendrimers also have the capacity for peptide encapsulation, protecting them from proteolytic digestion for prolonged half life span. On the other hand, the demerits of naturally sourced polymers still stand against their capacities in DD. Hence, Post-synthetic modification of natural polymers could play a provital role in yielding new hybrids while retaining their biodegradability, which could be suitable for building novel super structures for DD platforms. This is the first review presenting the contribution of natural polymers in the fabrication of eight polymeric NMs including particulate nanodelivery and nanofabrics with antibacterial and antibiofilm prospects, referring to modified polymer derivatives to explore their full potential for obtaining sustainable DD products.

Synthesis and characterization of lotus seed protein-based curcumin microcapsules with enhanced solubility, stability, and sustained release

BACKGROUND

Lotus seed protein (LSP) was extracted from lotus seed and used to encapsulate curcumin with or without complexing with pectin. The physicochemical properties of LSP-based microcapsules, including solubility, stability, and in vitro sustained release, were determined. The mechanism of interaction between curcumin, LSP, and pectin was revealed.

RESULTS

The encapsulation efficiency of curcumin was found to depend on LSP concentration and was highest (86.32%, w/w) at 50 mg mL^-1 . The curcumin in curcumin-LSP and curcumin-LSP-pectin powder particles achieved a solubility of 75.15% and 81.39%, respectively, which was a remarkable enhancement. The microencapsulation with LSP and LSP-pectin matrix showed a significant improvement in the antioxidant activity, photostability, thermostability, and storage stability of free curcumin. The microencapsulated curcumin showed sustained control release at the gastric stage and burst-type release in the subsequent intestinal stage, presenting cumulative release rates of 64.3% and 72.4% from curcumin-LSP and curcumin-LSP-pectin particles after gastrointestinal digestion. The LSP-pectin complex produced microcapsules with higher solubility, smaller particle size, enhanced physicochemical stability, and increased bioaccessibility. Fourier transform infrared, circular dichroism spectra, and differential scanning calorimetry data indicated that the encapsulated curcumin interacted with LSP and pectin mainly through hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions.

CONCLUSION

This work shows that LSP can be an alternative encapsulant for the delivery of hydrophobic nutraceuticals with enhanced solubility, stability, and sustained release. The results may contribute to the design of novel food-grade delivery systems based on LSP vehicles, thereby broadening the applications of LSP in the fields of functional food. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effect of chitosan oligosaccharide glycosylation on the emulsifying property of lactoferrin

There is fast increasing interest in the development of alimentary protein stabilized emulsions due to their potential applications in functional food fields. This work studied the effect of glycation degree with chitosan oligosaccharide (COS) on the emulsifying properties of lactoferrin (LF) through Maillard reaction. In the present study, SDS-PAGE and FT-IR were used to confirm LF and COS covalently binding together successfully. Intrinsic fluorescence showed that glycation with COS led more hydrophobic groups exposed to the surface of the structure and particle size increase of LF. Emulsions with 50% (v/v) oil phase and protein concentration of 2% (w/v) was fabricated through one-step shear method. Compared with native LF, emulsions stabilized by LF-COS conjugates showed smaller droplet size and lower creaming index (CI). Among these samples, LF-COS conjugates under 4 h had the best emulsifying efficiency and stability, the emulsion droplet size and the CI of which decreased 39.66% and 28.55% compared with LF, respectively. Furthermore, glycation with COS enhanced the interfacial activity of LF leading to more adsorbing amount and forming thicker layer on the droplets and gel network in the emulsions. This finding would make sense to further understand the modification of emulsifying properties of alimentary proteins through glycosylation with saccharides and develop novel protein-based emulsifiers.

Self-assembled nano-micelles of lactoferrin peptides: Structure, physicochemical properties, and application for encapsulating and delivering curcumin

Food-derived protein hydrolysate exhibits good bioactivity, compatibility, and low toxicity, etc. However, the information on protein hydrolysate-based micelles and their application as carriers for hydrophobic bioactive compounds is limited. In this study, an enzymatic partially hydrolyzed lactoferrin hydrolysate nano-micelle with the size within 50 nm was constructed, and its formation mechanism and delivery characteristics for curcumin (Cur) were studied. The results demonstrated that Cur was loaded into the micelles through hydrophobic interaction, and the encapsulation rate of Cur by nano-micelles was (93.44 ± 0.01)%. In addition, the nano-micelle system demonstrated excellent thermal stability, dilution stability, and storage stability. The in vitro simulated digestion proved that self-assembled nano-micelles could improve the transformation rate and bioaccessibility of Cur. This study revealed that lactoferrin hydrolysate self-assembled nano-micelle is a promising delivery system for hydrophobic bioactive compounds.

Chitosan-Tripolyphosphate Nanoparticles Prepared by Ionic Gelation Improve the Antioxidant Activities of Astaxanthin in the In Vitro and In Vivo Model

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of chitosan (CS)-tripolyphosphate (TPP) nanoparticles (NPs) on the stability, antioxidant activity, and bioavailability of astaxanthin (ASX). ASX-loaded CS-TPP NPs (ACT-NPs) prepared by ionic gelation between CS (0.571 mg/mL) and TPP (0.571 mg/mL) showed 505.2 ± 184.8 nm, 20.4 ± 1.2 mV, 0.348 ± 0.044, and 63.9 ± 3.0% of particle size, zeta potential, polydispersity index and encapsulation efficiency, respectively. An in vitro release study confirmed that the release of ASX in simulated gastric (pH 1.2) and intestinal (pH 6.8) fluid was prolonged within ACT-NPs. The in vitro antioxidant activities of ACT-NPs were significantly improved compared with free ASX (FA) (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the cellular and in vivo antioxidant analysis verified that ACT-NPs could enhance the cytoprotective effects on the BHK-21 cell line and demonstrate sustained release properties, leading to prolonged residence time in the rat plasma. The results suggest that the stability, antioxidant properties, and bioavailability of ASX can be effectively enhanced through encapsulation within CS-TPP NPs.

Maillard-Type Protein-Polysaccharide Conjugates and Electrostatic Protein-Polysaccharide Complexes as Delivery Vehicles for Food Bioactive Ingredients: Formation, Types, and Applications

Due to their combination of featured properties, protein and polysaccharide-based carriers show promising potential in food bioactive ingredient encapsulation, protection, and delivery. The formation of protein–polysaccharide complexes and conjugates involves non-covalent interactions and covalent interaction, respectively. The common types of protein–polysaccharide complex/conjugate-based bioactive ingredient delivery systems include emulsion (conventional emulsion, nanoemulsion, multiple emulsion, multilayered emulsion, and Pickering emulsion), microcapsule, hydrogel, and nanoparticle-based delivery systems. This review highlights the applications of protein–polysaccharide-based delivery vehicles in common bioactive ingredients including polyphenols, food proteins, bioactive peptides, carotenoids, vitamins, and minerals. The loaded food bioactive ingredients exhibited enhanced physicochemical stability, bioaccessibility, and sustained release in simulated gastrointestinal digestion. However, limited research has been conducted in determining the in vivo oral bioavailability of encapsulated bioactive compounds. An in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion model incorporating gut microbiota and a mucus layer is suggested for future studies.

Development of Encapsulation Strategies and Composite Edible Films to Maintain Lactoferrin Bioactivity: A Review

Lactoferrin (LF) is a whey protein with various and valuable biological activities. For this reason, LF has been used as a supplement in formula milk and functional products. However, it must be considered that the properties of LF can be affected by technological treatments and gastrointestinal conditions. In this article, we have revised the literature published on the research done during the last decades on the development of various technologies, such as encapsulation or composite materials, to protect LF and avoid its degradation. Multiple compounds can be used to conduct this protective function, such as proteins, including those from milk, or polysaccharides, like alginate or chitosan. Furthermore, LF can be used as a component in complexes, nanoparticles, hydrogels and emulsions, to encapsulate, protect and deliver other bioactive compounds, such as essential oils or probiotics. Additionally, LF can be part of systems to deliver drugs or to apply certain therapies to target cells expressing LF receptors. These systems also allow improving the detection of gliomas and have also been used for treating some pathologies, such as different types of tumours. Finally, the application of LF in edible and active films can be effective against some contaminants and limit the increase of the natural microbiota present in meat, for example, becoming one of the most interesting research topics in food technology.

Expanding the Biocatalytic Scope of Enzyme-Loaded Polymeric Hydrogels

In recent years, polymeric hydrogels have appeared promising matrices for enzyme immobilization to design, signify and expand bio-catalysis engineering. Therefore, the development and deployment of polymeric supports in the form of hydrogels and other robust geometries are continuously growing to green the twenty-first-century bio-catalysis. Furthermore, adequately fabricated polymeric hydrogel materials offer numerous advantages that shield pristine enzymes from denaturation under harsh reaction environments. For instance, cross-linking modulation of hydrogels, distinct rheological behavior, tunable surface entities along with elasticity and mesh size, larger surface-volume area, and hydrogels' mechanical cushioning attributes are of supreme interest makes them the ideal candidate for enzyme immobilization. Furthermore, suitable coordination of polymeric hydrogels with requisite enzyme fraction enables pronounced loading, elevated biocatalytic activity, and exceptional stability. Additionally, the unique catalytic harmony of enzyme-loaded polymeric hydrogels offers numerous applications, such as hydrogels as immobilization matrix, bio-catalysis, sensing, detection and monitoring, tissue engineering, wound healing, and drug delivery applications. In this review, we spotlight the applied perspective of enzyme-loaded polymeric hydrogels with recent and relevant examples. The work also signifies the combined use of multienzyme systems and the future directions that should be attempted in this field.

Control and Preparation of Quaternized Chitosan and Carboxymethyl Chitosan Nanoscale Polyelectrolyte Complexes Based on Reactive Flash Nanoprecipitation

Nanoscale polyelectrolyte complex materials have been extensively investigated for their promising application in protocell, drug carriers, imaging, and catalysis. However, the conventional preparation approach involving positive and negative polyelectrolytes leads to large size, wide size distribution, instability, and aggregation due to the nonhomogeneous mixing process. Herein, we employ reactive flash nanoprecipitation (RFNP) to control the mixing and preparation of the nanoscale polyelectrolyte complex. With RFNP, homogeneous mixing complexation between oppositely charged chitosan derivatives could be achieved, resulting in stable nanoscale complexes (NCs) with controllable size and narrow size distribution. The smallest size of NCs is found at specific pH due to the maximum attraction of positive and negative molecules of chitosan. The size can be modulated by altering the volumetric flow rates of inlet streams, concentration, and charge molar ratio of two oppositely charged chitosan derivatives. The charge molar ratio is also tuned to create NCs with positive and negative shells. There is no significant variation in the size of NCs produced at different intervals of time. This method allows continuous and tunable NC production and could have the potential for fast, practical translation.

Lactoferrin may inhibit the development of cancer via its immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory activities (Review)

Lactoferrin (Lf) is secreted by ectodermal tissue and has a structure similar to that of transferrin. Although Lf seems to be multifunctional, its main function is related to the natural defense system of mammals. The present review aims to highlight the major actions of Lf, including the regulation of cell growth, the inhibition of toxic compound formation, the removal of harmful free radicals and its important role in immune response regulation. Moreover, Lf has antibacterial, antiviral, antioxidant, anticancer and anti‑inflammatory activities. In addition, the use of Lf for functionalization of drug nanocarriers, with emphasis on tumor‑targeted drug delivery, is illustrated. Such effects serve as an important theoretical basis for its future development and application. In neurodegenerative diseases and the brains of elderly people, Lf expression is markedly upregulated. Lf may exert an anti‑inflammatory effect by inhibiting the formation of hydroxyl free radicals. Through its antioxidant properties, Lf can prevent DNA damage, thereby preventing tumor formation in the central nervous system. In addition, Lf specifically activates the p53 tumor suppressor gene.

When metal-organic framework mediated smart drug delivery meets gastrointestinal cancers

Cancers of the gastrointestinal tract constitute one of the most common cancer types worldwide and a ∼58% increase in the global number of cases has been estimated by IARC for the next twenty years. Recent advances in drug delivery technologies have attracted scientific interest for developing and utilizing efficient therapeutic systems. The present review focuses on the use of nanoscale MOFs (Nano-MOFs) as carriers for drug delivery and imaging purposes. In pursuit of significant improvements to current gastrointestinal cancer chemotherapy regimens, systems that allow multiple concomitant therapeutic options (polytherapy) and controlled release are highly desirable. In this sense, MOF-based nanotherapeutics represent a significant step towards achieving this goal. Here, the current state-of-the-art of interdisciplinary research and novel developments into MOF-based gastrointestinal cancer therapy are highlighted and reviewed.

Structure and Applications of Pectin in Food, Biomedical, and Pharmaceutical Industry: A Review

Pectin is a biocompatible polysaccharide with intrinsic biological activity, which may exhibit different structures depending on its source or extraction method. The extraction of pectin from various industrial by-products presents itself as a green option for the valorization of agro-industrial residues by producing a high commercial value product. Pectin is susceptible to physical, chemical, and/or enzymatic changes. The numerous functional groups present in its structure can stimulate different functionalities, and certain modifications can enable pectin for countless applications in food, agriculture, drugs, and biomedicine. It is currently a trend to use pectin to produce edible coating to protect foodstuff, antimicrobial bio-based films, nanoparticles, healing agents, and cancer treatment. Advances in methodology, use of different sources of extraction, and knowledge about structural modification have significantly expanded the properties, yields, and applications of this polysaccharide. Recently, structurally modified pectin has shown better functional properties and bioactivities than the native one. In addition, pectin can be used in conjunction with a wide variety of biopolymers with differentiated properties and specific functionalities. In this context, this review presents the structural characteristics and properties of pectin and information on the modification of this polysaccharide, its respective applications, perspectives, and future challenges.

Naturally Occurring Polyelectrolytes and Their Use for the Development of Complex-Based Mucoadhesive Drug Delivery Systems: An Overview

Biopolymers have several advantages for the development of drug delivery systems, since they are biocompatible, biodegradable and easy to obtain from renewable resources. However, their most notable advantage may be their ability to adhere to biological tissues. Many of these biopolymers have ionized forms, known as polyelectrolytes. When combined, polyelectrolytes with opposite charges spontaneously form polyelectrolyte complexes or multilayers, which have great functional versatility. Although only one natural polycation-chitosan has been widely explored until now, it has been combined with many natural polyanions such as pectin, alginate and xanthan gum, among others. These polyelectrolyte complexes have been used to develop multiple mucoadhesive dosage forms such as hydrogels, tablets, microparticles, and films, which have demonstrated extraordinary potential to administer drugs by the ocular, nasal, buccal, oral, and vaginal routes, improving both local and systemic treatments. The advantages observed for these formulations include the increased bioavailability or residence time of the formulation in the administration zone, and the avoidance of invasive administration routes, leading to greater therapeutic compliance.

In vitroassessment of green polyhydroxybutyrate/chitosan blend loaded with kaempferol nanocrystals as a potential dressing for infected wounds

Despite the major medical advancements in recent decades, treating infected wounds successfully remains a challenge. In this research, a functional blend of Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and Chitosan (Cs) was developed for wound infection mitigation with tailored biological and physicochemical properties. Water insoluble kaempferol (KPF) was pre-formulated to water soluble KPF nanocrystals (KPF-NCs) with fine particle size of 145 ± 11 nm, and high colloidal stability (-31 ± 0.4 mV) to improve its drug transdermal delivery. PHB-Cs-KPF-NCs (1:2 ratio) film owned the best physical properties in terms of high breathability, thermal stability and mechanical strength (33 ± 1 MPa). Besides, XRD and FTIR findings indicated the interaction between Cs, PHB and KPF, reducing the film crystallinity. The scanning electron microscopy of the film displayed a highly interconnected porous morphology. KPF-NCs were integrated in PHB-Cs matrix with a marked encapsulation efficiency of 96.6%. The enhanced drug-loading film showed a sustain release pattern of KPF-NCs over 48 h. Interestingly, the developed blend possessed an impressive blood clotting capacity within 20 min. Furthermore, we presented a new naturally-sourced mixture of Cs+KPF-NCs with powerful antibacterial effects against MDRStaphylococcus aureusandAcentibacter baumanniiat very low concentrations. The membrane evidenced a remarkable antibacterial naturein vitrowith almost 100% cell viability reduction against the study strains after 48 h. By virtue of these advantages, this green blend is highly proposed for optimal wound care.

Delivery of curcumin using a zein-xanthan gum nanocomplex: Fabrication, characterization, and in vitro release properties

This study aimed to use xanthan gum as a stabilizer to improve the stability of zein nanoparticles. Zein-xanthan gum composite nanoparticles were prepared via anti-solvent precipitation at pH 4.0. The particle size, zeta potential, and stability of the system were related to the amount of xanthan gum added. When 20 mg of xanthan gum was added, spherical nanoparticles with a small particle size (179 ± 2.1 nm) and sufficient negative zeta potential (-42 ± 1.6 mV) were obtained. The zeta potential and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results indicated that electrostatic attraction was the main driving force, followed by hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic interactions. Composite nanoparticles were coated by xanthan gum and remained stable over a wide pH range and at high temperatures and salt concentrations; they did not precipitate or aggregate after 30 days of storage. Moreover, the addition of xanthan gum considerably improved the encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of nanoparticles containing high curcumin amounts, which facilitated slow and sustained release of curcumin in simulated intestinal fluid. Therefore, zein-xanthan gum nanoparticles can be used for the delivery of biologically active compounds in food and pharmaceutical preparations.

Targeting Cancer using Curcumin Encapsulated Vesicular Drug Delivery Systems

Curcumin is a major curcuminoid present in turmeric. The compound is attributed to various therapeutic properties, which include anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial, anti-malarial, and neuroprotection. Due to its therapeutic potential, curcumin has been employed for centuries in treating different ailments. Curcumin has been investigated lately as a novel therapeutic agent in the treatment of cancer. However, the mechanisms by which curcumin exerts its cytotoxic effects on malignant cells are still not fully understood. One of the main limiting factors in the clinical use of curcumin is its poor bioavailability and rapid elimination. Advancements in drug delivery systems such as nanoparticle-based vesicular drug delivery platforms have improved several parameters, namely, drug bioavailability, solubility, stability, and controlled release properties. The use of curcumin-encapsulated niosomes to improve the physical and pharmacokinetic properties of curcumin is one such approach. This review provides an up-to-date summary of nanoparticle-based vesicular drug carriers and their therapeutic applications. Specifically, we focus on niosomes as novel drug delivery formulations and their potential in improving the delivery of challenging small molecules, including curcumin. Overall, the applications of such carriers will provide a new direction for novel pharmaceutical drug delivery, as well as for biotechnology, nutraceutical, and functional food industries.

Calcium pectinate and hyaluronic acid modified lactoferrin nanoparticles loaded rhein with dual-targeting for ulcerative colitis treatment

Herein, dual-bioresponsive of Rhein (RH) in promoting colonic mucous damage repair and controlling inflammatory reactions were combined by the dual-targeting (intestinal epithelial cells and macrophages) oral nano delivery strategy for effective therapy of ulcerative colitis (UC). Briefly, two carbohydrates, calcium pectinate (CP) and hyaluronic acid (HA) were used to modify lactoferrin (LF) nanoparticles (NPs) to encapsulate RH (CP/HA/RH-NPs). CP layer make CP/HA/RH-NPs more stable and protect against the destructive effects of the gastrointestinal environment and then release HA/RH-NPs to colon lesion site. Cellular uptake evaluation confirmed that NPs could specifically target and enhance the uptake rate via LF and HA ligands. in vivo experiments revealed that CP/HA/RH-NPs significantly alleviated inflammation by inhibiting the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway and accelerated colonic healing. Importantly, with the help of CP, this study was the first to attempt for LF as a targeting nanomaterial in UC treatment and offers a promising food-based nanodrug in anti-UC.

Fabrication of whey protein isolate-sodium alginate nanocomplex for curcumin solubilization and stabilization in a model fat-free beverage

The present study aimed to fabricate whey protein isolate (WPI)-sodium alginate (ALG) nanocomplexes for curcumin (CUR) stabilization in a model fat-free beverage. Mass ratio of 5:1 at pH 5.0 in the absence of NaCl was optimized for WPI-ALG nanocomplex fabrication. Mean particle size and zeta-potential of CUR-WPI-ALG nanocomplex was 209.9 nm and -39.1 mV at pH 5.0, respectively. Highest loading amount (LA) of CUR in CUR-WPI-ALG nanocomplex were 15.26 μg/mg. No obvious precipitates were observed for CUR-WPI-ALG nanocomplex under simulated food processing and storage conditions including high sucrose, high NaCl, and thermal treatment at 90 °C for 2 h. Fluorescence results confirmed that the spontaneous interaction between CUR and WPI-ALG nanocomplex was primarily motivated by hydrophobic interaction and hydrogen bonding. Compared with CUR (free), chemical stability (UV light, and heat), and DPPH scavenging capacities of CUR in CUR-WPI-ALG nanocomplex were strikingly improved.

Nano-technological approaches for plant and marine-based polysaccharides for nano-encapsulations and their applications in food industry

Novel food preservation methods, along with preservatives have been employed to prevent food products from spoilage. There is an increasing demand to substitute synthetic preservatives with natural bioactive compounds since they are safe and environmentally friendly. Bioactive compounds with functional and therapeutic properties are found in foods and have also beneficial physiological and immunological health effects. However, there are some issues associated with bioactive compounds, such as low stability, solubility, and permeability. Encapsulation techniques, especially nano-encapsulation, are a promising technique to overcome these restrictions. A range of the plants' constituents can be converted into bio-nanomaterials. Major plant constituents are polysaccharides which have good biocompatibility properties and therapeutic activities, such as antioxidant, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and anti-tumor. Among plant and marine-based polysaccharides, cellulose, starch, alginates, chitosan, and carrageenans have been used as carrier materials to preserve core material. Moreover, many studies indicated that favorable sources such as plant and marine based polysaccharides are emerging. This chapter will cover plant and marine-based polysaccharides for nano-encapsulation and their application in the food industry.

Lactoferrin, a unique molecule with diverse therapeutical and nanotechnological applications

Lactoferrin (LF) is a naturally glycoprotein with iron-binding properties and diverse biological applications including; antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-cancer and immune stimulating effects. In addition, LF was found to be an ideal nanocarrier for some hydrophobic therapeutics because of its active targeting potential due to overexpression of its receptor on the surface of many cells. Moreover, it was proven to be a good candidate for fabrication of nanocarriers to specifically deliver drugs in case of brain tumors owing to the capability of LF to cross the blood brain barrier (BBB). Consequently, it seems to be a promising molecule with multiple applications in the field of cancer therapy and nanomedicine.