Immunoproteomic Analysis of Antibody Responses to Extracellular Proteins of Candida albicans Revealing the Importance of Glycosylation for Antigen Recognition

Identification of two anti-Candida antibodies associated with the survival of patients with candidemia

IMPORTANCE

Candidemia (bloodstream invasion by Candida species) is a major fungal disease in humans. Despite the recent progress in diagnosis and treatment, therapeutic options are limited and under threat of antimicrobial resistance. The disease mortality remains high (around 40%). In contrast with deep-seated invasive candidiasis, particularly that occurring in patients with hematologic malignancies and organ transplants, patients with candidemia are often not immunocompromised and therefore able to mount memory anticandidal immune responses, perhaps primed by Candida commensalism. We investigated antibody immunity in candidemia patients and report here on the ability of these patients to produce antibodies that react with Candida antigens. In particular, the patients with high titers of IgG reactive with two immunodominant, virulence-associated antigens (Als3 and MP65) had a higher 30-day survival. If confirmed by controlled, prospective clinical studies, our data could inform the development of antibody therapy to better treat a severe fungal infection such as candidiasis.

Impaired amino acid uptake leads to global metabolic imbalance of Candida albicans biofilms

Candida albicans biofilm maturation is accompanied by enhanced expression of amino acid acquisition genes. Three state-of-the-art omics techniques were applied to detail the importance of active amino acid uptake during biofilm development. Comparative analyses of normoxic wild-type biofilms were performed under three metabolically challenging conditions: aging, hypoxia, and disabled amino acid uptake using a strain lacking the regulator of amino acid permeases Stp2. Aging-induced amino acid acquisition and stress responses to withstand the increasingly restricted environment. Hypoxia paralyzed overall energy metabolism with delayed amino acid consumption, but following prolonged adaptation, the metabolic fingerprints aligned with aged normoxic biofilms. The extracellular metabolome of stp2Δ biofilms revealed deficient uptake for 11 amino acids, resulting in extensive transcriptional and metabolic changes including induction of amino acid biosynthesis and carbohydrate and micronutrient uptake. Altogether, this study underscores the critical importance of a balanced amino acid homeostasis for C. albicans biofilm development.

Candida albicans Hyphal Extracellular Vesicles Are Different from Yeast Ones, Carrying an Active Proteasome Complex and Showing a Different Role in Host Immune Response

Candida albicans is the principal causative agent of lethal fungal infections, predominantly in immunocompromised hosts. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been described as crucial in the interaction of microorganisms with their host. Since the yeast-to-hypha transition is an important virulence trait with great impact in invasive candidiasis (IC), we have addressed the characterization of EVs secreted by hyphal cells (HEVs) from C. albicans, comparing them to yeast EVs (YEVs). YEVs comprised a larger population of bigger EVs with mainly cell wall proteins, while HEVs were smaller, in general, and had a much higher protein diversity. YEVs were able to rescue the sensitivity of a cell wall mutant against calcofluor white, presumably due to the larger amount of cell wall proteins they contained. On the other hand, HEVs also contained many cytoplasmic proteins related to protein metabolism and intracellular protein transport and the endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRT) pathway related to exosome biogenesis, pointing to an intracellular origin of HEVs. Interestingly, an active 20S proteasome complex was secreted exclusively in HEVs. Moreover, HEVs contained a greater number of virulence-related proteins. As for their immunogenic role, both types of EV presented immune reactivity with human sera from patients suffering invasive candidiasis; however, under our conditions, only HEVs showed a cytotoxic effect on human macrophages and could elicit the release of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) by these macrophages. IMPORTANCE This first analysis of HEVs of C. albicans has shown clear differences between them and the YEVs of C. albicans, showing their relevance and possible use in the discovery of new diagnostic markers and treatment targets against C. albicans infections. The data obtained point to different mechanisms of biogenesis of YEVs and HEVs, as well as different involvements in cell biology and host interaction. YEVs played a more relevant role in cell wall maintenance, while HEVs were more closely related to virulence, as they had greater effects on human immune cells. Importantly, an active 20S proteosome complex was described as a fungal-EV cargo. A deeper study of its role and those of many other proteins exclusively detected in HEVs and involved in different relevant biological processes of this fungus could open up interesting new areas of research in the battle against C. albicans.

Investigation of the location and secretion features of Candida albicans enolase with monoclonal antibodies

Purpose

The glycolytic enzyme enolase plays important role in the pathogenesis of Candida albicans infection and has been also considered as a promising molecular marker for the diagnosis of invasive candidiasis. This study aimed to investigate the location and secretion features of Candida albicans enolase (CaEno) with a couple of specific monoclonal antibodies (mAbs).

Methods

Two mAbs named 9H8 and 10H8 against CaEno were generated by fusing SP2/0 myeloma cell with the spleen lymphocytes from CaEno immunized mice. The specificity of the mAbs was then validated by Western blot and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS). A diverse set of experiments were conducted based on the pair of mAbs which involved immunohistochemical staining analysis, whole cell enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), double antibody sandwich ELISA, and confocal microscopy to analyze the possible location and secretion features of CaEno.

Results

CaEno is abundantly expressed in the cytoplasm of C. albicans blastospores and is distributed in a ring-shaped pattern along the cell wall. CaEno appeared in the hyphal C. albicans as just a “mushroom” form. CaEno was found to be weakly expressed on the surface of blastospores but constantly expressed at various stages of growth. CaEno concentrations in C. albicans blastospores culture supernatant are considerably higher than in C. albicans hyphae culture supernatant. The dynamic changes of supernatant CaEno concentration in blastospores and hyphal C. albicans exhibit distinct features, although both appear to be associated with the C. albicans growth state. When cultivated under normal circumstances, however, no apparent CaEno degradation was seen in the cell-free supernatant.

Conclusion

Our results implied that CaEno was constantly expressed on the cell surface and its secretion features varied according to the growth stage of C. albicans. However, further experimental and theoretical studies are needed in future to identify the specific mechanisms by which this phenomenon can arise.

Systemic Candidiasis in Mice: New Insights From an Old Model

Animal models are essential to understand the pathophysiology of infections, to test novel antifungal compounds, and to determine the potential of adjunctive therapies, e.g. immune modulation. The murine model of systemic candidiasis induced by intravenous infection is technically straightforward, highly reproducible, and well-characterized. However, intravenous inoculation circumvents the necessity for the fungus to translocate across mucosal barriers, and the use of SPF mice that are immunologically naïve to Candida does not reflect the situation in human patients, in whom adaptive immune responses have been induced by mucosal colonization prior to infection. Therefore, mouse models that combine intestinal colonization and systemic infection have been developed, resulting in novel insights into host-fungal interactions and immunity. In this review, we summarize the main findings, current questions, and discuss how these might impact the translatability of results from mice to humans.

Mass Spectrometry-Based Proteomic and Immunoproteomic Analyses of the Candida albicans Hyphal Secretome Reveal Diagnostic Biomarker Candidates for Invasive Candidiasis

Invasive candidiasis (IC) is associated with high morbidity and mortality in hospitalized patients if not diagnosed early. Long-term use of central venous catheters is a predisposing factor for IC. Hyphal forms of Candida albicans (the major etiological agent of IC) are related to invasion of host tissues. The secreted proteins of hyphae are involved in virulence, host interaction, immune response, and immune evasion. To identify IC diagnostic biomarker candidates, we characterized the C. albicans hyphal secretome by gel-free proteomic analysis, and further assessed the antibody-reactivity patterns to this subproteome in serum pools from 12 patients with non-catheter-associated IC (ncIC), 11 patients with catheter-associated IC (cIC), and 11 non-IC patients. We identified 301 secreted hyphal proteins stratified to stem from the extracellular region, cell wall, cell surface, or intracellular compartments. ncIC and cIC patients had higher antibody levels to the hyphal secretome than non-IC patients. Seven secreted hyphal proteins were identified to be immunogenic (Bgl2, Eno1, Pgk1, Glx3, Sap5, Pra1 and Tdh3). Antibody-reactivity patterns to Bgl2, Eno1, Pgk1 and Glx3 discriminated IC patients from non-IC patients, while those to Sap5, Pra1 and Tdh3 differentiated between cIC and non-IC patients. These proteins may be useful for development of future IC diagnostic tests.

The Role of Secretory Pathways in Candida albicans Pathogenesis

Candida albicans is a fungus that is a commensal organism and a member of the normal human microbiota. It has the ability to transition into an opportunistic invasive pathogen. Attributes that support pathogenesis include secretion of virulence-associated proteins, hyphal formation, and biofilm formation. These processes are supported by secretion, as defined in the broad context of membrane trafficking. In this review, we examine the role of secretory pathways in Candida virulence, with a focus on the model opportunistic fungal pathogen, Candida albicans.

N-glycosylation and homodimeric folding significantly enhance the immunoreactivity of Mycobacterium tuberculosis virulence factor CFP32 when produced in the yeast Pichia pastoris

We previously reported that immunoreactivity of recombinant CFP32 (Rv0577), a virulence factor of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, was higher when produced in transformed Pichia pastoris as compared to transformed E. coli. In this study, we show that this difference is partly due to the N-glycosylation of the recombinant CFP32 (rCFP32) by the yeast Pichia pastoris. In addition, SDS-PAGE and western blotting analysis of Mycobacterium bovis BCG and yeast-produced rCFP32 showed the presence of a band corresponding to a homodimeric state of the protein, unlike that of rCFP32 produced in E. coli. Computational modeling indicates that a single cysteine residue at position 193 of each monomer might bond to stabilize the homodimeric state of CFP32. Computational study showed that this residue is buried inside the protein core of E. coli-produced rCFP32 suggesting that rCFP32 may adopt a different folding in P. pastoris and BCG, in which C193 is solvent exposed. Surprisingly, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay using a generated monoclonal antibody (14D4) reveals the presence of a differential epitope that appears to be the consequence of the protein dimerization of the yeast- and BCG-, but not E.coli- produced, CFP32 recombinant form. We conclude that, in addition to N-glycosylation, homodimeric folding significantly enhances the immunoreactivity of rCFP32 and may these post-translational modifications may factor into the structure and function of native M. tuberculosis CFP32.

Biofilms and vulvovaginal candidiasis

Candida species, including C. albicans, are part of the mucosal flora of most healthy women, and inhabit the gastrointestinal and genitourinary tracts. Under favourable conditions, they can colonize the vulvovaginal mucosa, giving rise to symptomatic vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). The mechanism by which Candida spp. produces inflammation is unknown. Both, the blastoconidia and the pseudohyphae are capable of destroying the vaginal epithelium by direct invasion. Although the symptoms are not always related to the fungal burden, in general, VVC is associated with a greater number of yeasts and pseudohyphae. Some years ago, C. albicans was the species most frequently involved in the different forms of VVC. However, infections by different species have emerged during the last two decades producing an increase in causative species of VVC such as C. glabrata, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei and C. tropicalis. Candida species are pathogenic organisms that have two forms of development: planktonic and biofilm. A biofilm is defined as a community of microorganisms attached to a surface and encompassed by an extracellular matrix. This form of presentation gives microorganisms greater resistance to antifungal agents. This review, about Candia spp. with a special emphasis on Candida albicans discusses specific areas such as biofilm structure and development, cell morphology and biofilm formation, biofilm-associated gene expression, the cell surface and adherence, the extracellular matrix, biofilm metabolism, and biofilm drug resistance in vulvovaginitis biofilms as an important virulence factor in fungi.

The external face of Candida albicans: A proteomic view of the cell surface and the extracellular environment

The cell surface and secreted proteins are the initial points of contact between Candida albicans and the host. Improvements in protein extraction approaches and mass spectrometers have allowed researchers to obtain a comprehensive knowledge of these external subproteomes. In this paper, we review the published proteomic studies that have examined C. albicans extracellular proteins, including the cell surface proteins or surfome and the secreted proteins or secretome. The use of different approaches to isolate cell wall and cell surface proteins, such as fractionation approaches or cell shaving, have resulted in different outcomes. Proteins with N-terminal signal peptide, known as classically secreted proteins, and those that lack the signal peptide, known as unconventionally secreted proteins, have been consistently identified. Existing studies on C. albicans extracellular vesicles reveal that they are relevant as an unconventional pathway of protein secretion and can help explain the presence of proteins without a signal peptide, including some moonlighting proteins, in the cell wall and the extracellular environment. According to the global view presented in this review, cell wall proteins, virulence factors such as adhesins or hydrolytic enzymes, metabolic enzymes and stress related-proteins are important groups of proteins in C. albicans surfome and secretome.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Candida albicans extracellular proteins are involved in biofilm formation, cell nutrient acquisition and cell wall integrity maintenance. Furthermore, these proteins include virulence factors and immunogenic proteins. This review is of outstanding interest, not only because it extends knowledge of the C. albicans surface and extracellular proteins that could be related with pathogenesis, but also because it presents insights that may facilitate the future development of new antifungal drugs and vaccines and contributes to efforts to identify new biomarkers that can be employed to diagnose candidiasis. Here, we list more than 570 C. albicans proteins that have been identified in extracellular locations to deliver the most extensive catalogue of this type of proteins to date. Moreover, we describe 16 proteins detected at all locations analysed in the works revised. These proteins include the glycophosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored proteins Ecm33, Pga4 and Phr2 and unconventional secretory proteins such as Eft2, Eno1, Hsp70, Pdc11, Pgk1 and Tdh3. Furthermore, 13 of these 16 proteins are immunogenic and could represent a set of interesting candidates for biomarker discovery.

Antibodies against a β-glucan-protein complex of Candida albicans and its potential as indicator of protective immunity in candidemic patients

Sera from candidemic and non-candidemic subjects were examined for antibodies against the cell wall β1,3- and β1,6-glucans, as well as the β-glucan-associated protein MP65 of Candida species. Although antibodies against each of the above components were detected in all subjects, candidemic patients had lower antibody titers against β1,3-glucan, but higher antibody titers against β1,6-glucan and MP65, than non-candidemic subjects. The elevated levels of anti-β1,6-glucan and -MP65 antibodies found in candidemic patients were independent on the patient risk category, APACHE II score, presence of co-morbidities, β1,3-glucanemia level, Candida isolate, and antifungal treatment. Interestingly, however, the anti-MP65, but not the anti-β1,6-glucan antibodies, of candidemic patients had higher titers in survivors than in non-survivors, particularly in those subject categories with the highest mortality (>65-years old, diabetic, or septic shock patients). Thus, candidemic patients are capable of boosting anti-Candida immune responses upon infection, and some of these responses might be associated to the generation of protective immunity in patients with candidemia.

Identification of Proteins Interacting with Cytoplasmic High-Mobility Group Box 1 during the Hepatocellular Response to Ischemia Reperfusion Injury

Ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) occurs inevitably in liver transplantations and frequently during major resections, and can lead to liver dysfunction as well as systemic disorders. High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) plays a pathogenic role in hepatic IRI. In the normal liver, HMGB1 is located in the nucleus of hepatocytes; after ischemia reperfusion, it translocates to the cytoplasm and it is further released to the extracellular space. Unlike the well-explored functions of nuclear and extracellular HMGB1, the role of cytoplasmic HMGB1 in hepatic IRI remains elusive. We hypothesized that cytoplasmic HMGB1 interacts with binding proteins involved in the hepatocellular response to IRI. In this study, binding proteins of cytoplasmic HMGB1 during hepatic IRI were identified. Liver tissues from rats with warm ischemia reperfusion (WI/R) injury and from normal rats were subjected to cytoplasmic protein extraction. Co-immunoprecipitation using these protein extracts was performed to enrich HMGB1-protein complexes. To separate and identify the immunoprecipitated proteins in eluates, 2-dimensional electrophoresis and subsequent mass spectrometry detection were performed. Two of the identified proteins were verified using Western blotting: betaine–homocysteine S-methyltransferase 1 (BHMT) and cystathionine γ-lyase (CTH). Therefore, our results revealed the binding of HMGB1 to BHMT and CTH in cytoplasm during hepatic WI/R. This finding may help to better understand the cellular response to IRI in the liver and to identify novel molecular targets for reducing ischemic injury.