Immunomodulating Nanomedicine for Cancer Therapy

The advancements and prospective developments in anti-tumor targeted therapy

Cancer poses a major threat to human health worldwide. The development of anti-tumor materials provides new modalities for cancer diagnosis and treatment. In this review, we comprehensively summarize the research progress and clinical applications of anti-tumor materials. First, we introduce the etiology and pathogenesis of cancer, and the significance and challenges of anti-tumor materials research. Then, we classify anti-tumor materials and discuss their mechanisms of action. After that, we elaborate the research advances and clinical applications of anti-tumor materials, including those targeting tumor cells and therapeutic instruments. Finally, we discuss the future perspectives and challenges in the field of anti-tumor materials. This review aims to provide an overview of the current status of anti-tumor materials research and application, and to offer insights into future directions in this rapidly evolving field, which holds promise for more precise, efficient and customized treatment of cancer.

Immunocyte membrane-derived biomimetic nano-drug delivery system: a pioneering platform for tumour immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy characterized by its high specificity and minimal side effects has achieved revolutionary progress in the field of cancer treatment. However, the complex mechanisms of tumor immune microenvironment (TIME) and the individual variability of patients' immune system still present significant challenges to its clinical application. Immunocyte membrane-coated nanocarrier systems, as an innovative biomimetic drug delivery platform, exhibit remarkable advantages in tumor immunotherapy due to their high targeting capability, good biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. In this review we summarize the latest research advances in biomimetic delivery systems based on immune cells for tumor immunotherapy. We outline the existing methods of tumor immunotherapy including immune checkpoint therapy, adoptive cell transfer therapy and cancer vaccines etc. with a focus on the application of various immunocyte membranes in tumor immunotherapy and their prospects and challenges in drug delivery and immune modulation. We look forward to further exploring the application of biomimetic delivery systems based on immunocyte membrane-coated nanoparticles, aiming to provide a new framework for the clinical treatment of tumor immunity.

Advancements in nanomedicine delivery systems: unraveling immune regulation strategies for tumor immunotherapy

This review highlights the significant role of nanodrug delivery systems (NDDS) in enhancing the efficacy of tumor immunotherapy. Focusing on the integration of NDDS with immune regulation strategies, it explores their transformative impacts on the tumor microenvironment and immune response dynamics. Key advancements include the optimization of drug delivery through NDDS, targeting mechanisms like immune checkpoint blockade and modulating the immunosuppressive tumor environment. Despite the progress, challenges such as limited clinical efficacy and complex manufacturing processes persist. The review emphasizes the need for further research to optimize these systems, potentially revolutionizing cancer treatment by improving delivery efficiency, reducing toxicity and overcoming immune resistance.

Nanomaterial-Based Repurposing of Macrophage Metabolism and Its Applications

Macrophage immunotherapy represents an emerging therapeutic approach aimed at modulating the immune response to alleviate disease symptoms. Nanomaterials (NMs) have been engineered to monitor macrophage metabolism, enabling the evaluation of disease progression and the replication of intricate physiological signal patterns. They achieve this either directly or by delivering regulatory signals, thereby mapping phenotype to effector functions through metabolic repurposing to customize macrophage fate for therapy. However, a comprehensive summary regarding NM-mediated macrophage visualization and coordinated metabolic rewiring to maintain phenotypic equilibrium is currently lacking. This review aims to address this gap by outlining recent advancements in NM-based metabolic immunotherapy. We initially explore the relationship between metabolism, polarization, and disease, before delving into recent NM innovations that visualize macrophage activity to elucidate disease onset and fine-tune its fate through metabolic remodeling for macrophage-centered immunotherapy. Finally, we discuss the prospects and challenges of NM-mediated metabolic immunotherapy, aiming to accelerate clinical translation. We anticipate that this review will serve as a valuable reference for researchers seeking to leverage novel metabolic intervention-matched immunomodulators in macrophages or other fields of immune engineering.

Homologous polydopamine ameliorates haemolysis of melittin for enhancing its anticancer efficacy

Despite exhibiting potent anticancer activity, the strong hemolytic properties of melittin (MEL) significantly restrict its delivery efficiency and clinical applications. To address this issue, we have devised a strategy wherein homologous dopamine (DA), an essential component of bee venom, is harnessed as a vehicle for the synthesis of MEL-polydopamine (PDA) nanoparticles (MP NPs). The ingenious approach lies in the fact that MEL is a basic polypeptide, and the polymerization of DA is also conducted under alkaline conditions, indicating the distinctive advantages of PDA in MEL encapsulation. Furthermore, MP NPs are modified with folic acid to fabricate tumor-targeted nanomedicine (MPF NPs). MPF NPs can ameliorate the hemolysis of MEL in drug delivery and undergo degradation triggered by high levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) within solid tumors, thereby facilitating MEL release and subsequent restoration of anticancer activity. After cellular uptake, MPF NPs induce cell apoptosis through the PI3K/Akt-mediated p53 signaling pathway. The tumor growth inhibitory rate of MPF NPs in FA receptor-positive 4T1 and CT26 xenograft mice reached 78.04% and 81.66%, which was significantly higher compared to that in FA receptor-negative HepG2 xenograft mice (45.79%). Homologous vehicles provide a new perspective for nanomedicine design.

Enhancing immunotherapy outcomes by targeted remodeling of the tumor microenvironment via combined cGAS-STING pathway strategies

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) represent a groundbreaking advance in the treatment of malignancies such as melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer, showcasing substantial therapeutic benefits. Nonetheless, the efficacy of ICIs is limited to a small subset of patients, primarily benefiting those with "hot" tumors characterized by significant immune infiltration. The challenge of converting "cold" tumors, which exhibit minimal immune activity, into "hot" tumors to enhance their responsiveness to ICIs is a critical and complex area of current research. Central to this endeavor is the activation of the cGAS-STING pathway, a pivotal nexus between innate and adaptive immunity. This pathway's activation promotes the production of type I interferon (IFN) and the recruitment of CD8+ T cells, thereby transforming the tumor microenvironment (TME) from "cold" to "hot". This review comprehensively explores the cGAS-STING pathway's role in reconditioning the TME, detailing the underlying mechanisms of innate and adaptive immunity and highlighting the contributions of various immune cells to tumor immunity. Furthermore, we delve into the latest clinical research on STING agonists and their potential in combination therapies, targeting this pathway. The discussion concludes with an examination of the challenges facing the advancement of promising STING agonists in clinical trials and the pressing issues within the cGAS-STING signaling pathway research.

Responsive Supramolecular Polymers for Diagnosis and Treatment

Stimuli-responsive supramolecular polymers are ordered nanosized materials that are held together by non-covalent interactions (hydrogen-bonding, metal-ligand coordination, π-stacking and, host-guest interactions) and can reversibly undergo self-assembly. Their non-covalent nature endows supramolecular polymers with the ability to respond to external stimuli (temperature, light, ultrasound, electric/magnetic field) or environmental changes (temperature, pH, redox potential, enzyme activity), making them attractive candidates for a variety of biomedical applications. To date, supramolecular research has largely evolved in the development of smart water-soluble self-assemblies with the aim of mimicking the biological function of natural supramolecular systems. Indeed, there is a wide variety of synthetic biomaterials formulated with responsiveness to control and trigger, or not to trigger, aqueous self-assembly. The design of responsive supramolecular polymers ranges from the use of hydrophobic cores (i.e., benzene-1,3,5-tricarboxamide) to the introduction of macrocyclic hosts (i.e., cyclodextrins). In this review, we summarize the most relevant advances achieved in the design of stimuli-responsive supramolecular systems used to control transport and release of both diagnosis agents and therapeutic drugs in order to prevent, diagnose, and treat human diseases.

Inhibitors of Immune Checkpoints: Small Molecule- and Peptide-Based Approaches

The revolutionary progress in cancer immunotherapy, particularly the advent of immune checkpoint inhibitors, marks a significant milestone in the fight against malignancies. However, the majority of clinically employed immune checkpoint inhibitors are monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with several limitations, such as poor oral bioavailability and immune-related adverse effects (irAEs). Another major limitation is the restriction of the efficacy of mAbs to a subset of cancer patients, which triggered extensive research efforts to identify alternative approaches in targeting immune checkpoints aiming to overcome the restricted efficacy of mAbs. This comprehensive review aims to explore the cutting-edge developments in targeting immune checkpoints, focusing on both small molecule- and peptide-based approaches. By delving into drug discovery platforms, we provide insights into the diverse strategies employed to identify and optimize small molecules and peptides as inhibitors of immune checkpoints. In addition, we discuss recent advances in nanomaterials as drug carriers, providing a basis for the development of small molecule- and peptide-based platforms for cancer immunotherapy. Ongoing research focused on the discovery of small molecules and peptide-inspired agents targeting immune checkpoints paves the way for developing orally bioavailable agents as the next-generation cancer immunotherapies.

Virus-Bionic Mesoporous Silica Nanoplatform for Malignant Tumor Inhibition via Effective Cellular Uptake and Precise Drug Delivery

Over the past few decades, sophisticated nanomaterials have been used as carries for the targeted delivery of therapeutics to solid tumors. However, the low efficiency of intracellular internalization of nanocarriers in current use restricts their biomedical application. In this work, we demonstrate that novel virus-bionic mesoporous-silica-based nanocarriers can be successfully prepared for programmed precise drug delivery. These unique viral mimic nanovesicles not only present virus bionic counterparts and nanostructures, but also have infectious virus-like properties toward tumor cells and tumor tissues. Encouragingly, their large surface area (322.1 m2 /g) endows them with high loading capacity for therapeutic agents, especially, they have more effective gene transfection properties than the commercially available LipoGeneTM transfection reagent. Thanks to their virus-inspired morphology, they exhibit outstanding cellular uptake efficiency with living tumor cells and the ability to invade cells in large quantities with incubation times as short as 5 min, which is much faster than traditional mesoporous silica nanoparticles (mSN) with smooth appearance. Importantly, after doxorubicin (DOX) loading and surface modification of tumor recognition motifs, RGD (Arg-Gly-Asp, vMN@DOX-RGD), the bionic drug-loaded viral mimics elicit potent tumor cell elimination both in vitro and in vivo, greatly exceeding the mSN-based group. Our work paves the way toward virus bionic nanocarrier design for malignant tumor suppression in the clinic.

GM-CSF augmented the photothermal immunotherapeutic outcome of self-driving gold nanoparticles against a mouse CT-26 colon tumor model

BACKGROUND

Hypoxia is a frequent characteristic observed in solid tumors and is strongly associated with tumor metastasis, angiogenesis, and drug resistance. While the vasculature of hypoxic tumor tissues poses obstacles to the efficient administration of conventional drugs, it may prove advantageous in sustaining hyperthermia. Photothermal therapy (PTT) offers a promising treatment strategy that utilizes the activation of photosensitizers to produce heat, thus facilitating the selective ablation of tumor tissues.

METHOD

To enhance the accumulation of photothermal agents in tumor tissue and improve the effectiveness of PTT, we developed a self-propelled hybrid called Bif@PAu-NPs. This hybrid consists of polydopamine (PDA)-coated gold nanoparticles (Au-NPs) loaded onto the anaerobic Bifidobacterium infantis (Bif).

RESULTS

The Bif@PAu-NPs actively aggregated at the tumor site because the ability of Bif can target hypoxic regions, and PAu-NPs achieved precise PTT due to their high photothermal conversion efficiency (η = 67.8%). The tumor tissues were ablated by PTT, resulting in the release of antigens through immunogenic cell death (ICD), which stimulates an immune response. The inclusion of GM-CSF enhanced the immune response by recruiting dendritic cells and initiating long-term anti-tumor immunity.

CONCLUSION

The Bif@PAu-NPs hybrid effectively suppressed the growth of both primary tumors and re-challenged tumors. The utilization Bif@PAu-NPs in conjunction with GM-SCF exhibits great potential as a photothermal-immunotherapeutic strategy for precisely treating solid tumors. In this study, the bacterial Bif@PAu-NPs biohybrid is exploited the self-driving ability of anaerobic Bifidobacterium infantis to deliver polydopamine-modified gold nanoparticles to hypoxic region of tumor. Under irradiation with 808 nm NIR laser, the hybrid exerts precise photothermal therapy to stimulate the immune response, which is further enhanced by GM-CSF, leading to recruitment of dendritic cells and initiation of a long-term anti-tumor immunity remember to prevent tumor recurrence.

Peptide-Appended Nanosonosensitizers Targeting Tumor Glycolysis for Synergistic Sonodynamic-Immunometabolic Therapy of Spinal-Metastasized Tumors

Despite recent advancements in cancer immunotherapy, challenges have yet to be surmounted to achieve two major goals of magnifying antitumor immunity and remodeling the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. Here, a nanosystem (ODM-R) that integrates oxygen-deficient molybdenum oxide (ODM) nanosonosensitizers and R7 peptides with tumor metabolism regulation effects is designed and fabricated for synergistic sonodynamic-immunometabolic therapy of spinal-metastasized tumors. The ODM generates reactive oxygen species upon ultrasound irradiation to implement sonodynamic therapy (SDT), inducing cancer cell apoptosis and immunogenic cell death. The R7 attached on ODM markedly inhibits the uptake of glucose and excretion of lactic acid in cancer cells by perturbing the glycolysis process. The combination of SDT and tumor glycolysis obstruction by ODM-R guarantees satisfactory efficacy in synergizing with PD-L1 antibody to eradicate spinal-metastasized tumors, achieving concurrent sonodynamic-triggered immune activation and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment remodeling. This work provides a proof-of-concept of nanosonosensitizers for boosting cancer immunotherapy by SDT and tumor metabolic regulation.

An update review of smart nanotherapeutics and liver cancer: opportunities and challenges

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the most common form of primary liver cancer, typically diagnosed in advanced stages. Chemotherapy is necessary for treating advanced liver cancer; however, several challenges affect its effectiveness. These challenges include low specificity, high dosage requirements, high systemic toxicity and severe side effects, which significantly limit the efficacy of chemotherapy. These limitations can hinder the treatment of HCC. This review focuses on the prevalence of HCC, different types of liver cancer and the staging of the disease, along with available treatment methods. Additionally, explores recent and relevant studies on smart drug- and gene-delivery systems specifically designed for HCC. These systems include targeted endogenous and exogenous stimuli-responsive platforms.

Targeting Breast Cancer Signaling via Phytomedicine and Nanomedicine

BACKGROUND

The development of breast cancer (BC) and how it responds to treatment have both been linked to the involvement of inflammation. Chronic inflammation is critical in carcinogenesis, leading to elevated DNA damage, impaired DNA repair machinery, cell growth, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and invasion. Studies have found several targets that selectively modulate inflammation in cancer, limit BC's growth, and boost treatment effectiveness. Drug resistance and the absence of efficient therapeutics for metastatic and triple-negative BC contribute to the poor outlook of BC patients.

SUMMARY

To treat BC, small-molecule inhibitors, phytomedicines, and nanoparticles are conjugated to attenuate BC signaling pathways. Due to their numerous target mechanisms and strong safety records, phytomedicines and nanomedicines have received much attention in studies examining their prospects as anti-BC agents by such unfulfilled demands.

KEY MESSAGES

The processes involved in the affiliation across the progression of tumors and the spread of inflammation are highlighted in this review. Furthermore, we included many drugs now undergoing clinical trials that target cancer-mediated inflammatory pathways, cutting-edge nanotechnology-derived delivery systems, and a variety of phytomedicines that presently address BC.

Inducing a Proinflammatory Response with Bioengineered Yeast Vacuoles with TLR2-Binding Peptides (VacT2BP) as a Drug Carrier for Daunorubicin Delivery

Immune adjuvants have roles in immune activation for cancer therapy, and adjuvants derived from microbes have been applied. In this study, we propose the use of bioengineered vacuoles, derived from recombinant yeast with acute myeloid leukemia (AML) specificity and having a TLR-2-binding peptide (VacT2BP) on their surface, to induce a proinflammatory response as a dual-function nanomaterial for daunorubicin (DNR) delivery. Our results demonstrate that nanosized, isolated VacT2BP induced HL-60 cell-specific DNR delivery and apoptosis. Furthermore, we observed the selective release of high-mobility group box 1 from apoptotic HL-60 cells by DNR@VacT2BP. We concluded that DNR@VacT2BP exhibited target selectivity, and the indiscriminate occurrence of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) was inhibited by the VacT2BP carrier. The therapeutic efficacy of DNR@VacT2BP was confirmed in AML xenograft mice, with about 82% tumor growth inhibition. Following drug delivery, apoptotic cells and DAMPs with residual VacT2BP (apopDNR@VacT2BP) upregulated the proinflammatory immune response of macrophages. In addition, apopDNR@VacT2BP enhanced phagocytosis activity. Macrophages stimulated by apopDNR@VacT2BP suppressed cancer proliferation by about 40%. In summary, our results suggest that dual-functional vacuoles with a target-specific peptide can be a potential strategy for selective drug delivery and construction of an immune environment to fight cancer, thereby improving prognosis.

Nanoparticle-mediated cancer cell therapy: basic science to clinical applications

Every sixth person in the world dies due to cancer, making it the second leading severe cause of death after cardiovascular diseases. According to WHO, cancer claimed nearly 10 million deaths in 2020. The most common types of cancers reported have been breast (lung, colon and rectum, prostate cases), skin (non-melanoma) and stomach. In addition to surgery, the most widely used traditional types of anti-cancer treatment are radio- and chemotherapy. However, these do not distinguish between normal and malignant cells. Additional treatment methods have evolved over time for early detection and targeted therapy of cancer. However, each method has its limitations and the associated treatment costs are quite high with adverse effects on the quality of life of patients. Use of individual atoms or a cluster of atoms (nanoparticles) can cause a paradigm shift by virtue of providing point of sight sensing and diagnosis of cancer. Nanoparticles (1-100 nm in size) are 1000 times smaller in size than the human cell and endowed with safer relocation capability to attack mechanically and chemically at a precise location which is one avenue that can be used to destroy cancer cells precisely. This review summarises the extant understanding and the work done in this area to pave the way for physicians to accelerate the use of hybrid mode of treatments by leveraging the use of various nanoparticles.

Magnetospirillum magneticum triggers apoptotic pathways in human breast cancer cells

The use of bacteria in cancer immunotherapy has the potential to bypass many shortcomings of conventional treatments. The ability of anaerobic bacteria to preferentially accumulate and replicate in hypoxic regions of solid tumors, as a consequence of bacterial metabolic needs, is particularly advantageous and key to boosting their immunostimulatory therapeutic actions in situ. While several of these bacterial traits are well-studied, little is known about their competition for nutrients and its effect on cancer cells which could serve as another potent and innate antineoplastic action. Here, we explored the consequences of the iron-scavenging abilities of a particular species of bacteria, Magnetospirillum magneticum, which has been studied as a potential new class of bacteria for magnetically targeted bacterial cancer therapy. We investigated their influence in hypoxic regions of solid tumors by studying the consequential metabolic effects exerted on cancer cells. To do so, we established an in vitro co-culture system consisting of the bacterial strain AMB-1 incubated under hypoxic conditions with human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231. We first quantified the number of viable cells after incubation with magnetotactic bacteria demonstrating a lower rate of cellular proliferation that correlated with increasing bacteria-to-cancer cells ratio. Further experiments showed increasing populations of apoptotic cells when cancer cells were incubated with AMB-1 over a period of 24 h. Analysis of the metabolic effects induced by bacteria suggest an increase in the activation of executioner caspases as well as changes in levels of apoptosis-related proteins. Finally, the level of several human apoptosis-related proteins was investigated, confirming a bacteria-dependent triggering of apoptotic pathways in breast cancer cells. Overall, our findings support that magnetotactic bacteria could act as self-replicating iron-chelating agents and indicate that they interfere with proliferation and lead to increased apoptosis of cancer cells. This bacterial feature could serve as an additional antineoplastic mechanism to reinforce current bacterial cancer therapies.

Carbon Nanomaterials: Emerging Roles in Immuno-Oncology

Cancer immunotherapy has made breakthrough progress in cancer treatment. However, only a subset of patients benefits from immunotherapy. Given their unique structure, composition, and interactions with the immune system, carbon nanomaterials have recently attracted tremendous interest in their roles as modulators of antitumor immunity. Here, we focused on the latest advances in the immunological effects of carbon nanomaterials. We also reviewed the current preclinical applications of these materials in cancer therapy. Finally, we discussed the challenges to be overcome before the full potential of carbon nanomaterials can be utilized in cancer therapies to ultimately improve patient outcomes.

Nanotechnology-enabled immunogenic cell death for improved cancer immunotherapy

Tumor immunotherapy has revolutionized the field of oncology treatments in recent years. As one of the promising strategies of cancer immunotherapy, tumor immunogenic cell death (ICD) has shown significant potential for tumor therapy. Nanoparticles are widely used for drug delivery due to their versatile characteristics, such as stability, slow blood elimination, and tumor-targeting ability. To increase the specificity of ICD inducers and improve the efficiency of ICD induction, functionally specific nanoparticles, such as liposomes, nanostructured lipid carriers, micelles, nanodiscs, biomembrane-coated nanoparticles and inorganic nanoparticles have been widely reported as the vehicles to deliver ICD inducers in vivo. In this review, we summarized the strategies of different nanoparticles for ICD-induced cancer immunotherapy, and systematically discussed their advantages and disadvantages as well as provided feasible strategies for solving these problems. We believe that this review will offer some insights into the design of effective nanoparticulate systems for the therapeutic delivery of ICD inducers, thus, promoting the development of ICD-mediated cancer immunotherapy.

Role of Nanomedicine-Based Therapeutics in the Treatment of CNS Disorders

Central nervous system disorders, especially neurodegenerative diseases, are a public health priority and demand a strong scientific response. Various therapy procedures have been used in the past, but their therapeutic value has been insufficient. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) and the blood-cerebrospinal fluid barrier is two of the barriers that protect the central nervous system (CNS), but are the main barriers to medicine delivery into the CNS for treating CNS disorders, such as brain tumors, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and Huntington's disease. Nanotechnology-based medicinal approaches deliver valuable cargos targeting molecular and cellular processes with greater safety, efficacy, and specificity than traditional approaches. CNS diseases include a wide range of brain ailments connected to short- and long-term disability. They affect millions of people worldwide and are anticipated to become more common in the coming years. Nanotechnology-based brain therapy could solve the BBB problem. This review analyzes nanomedicine's role in medication delivery; immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and gene therapy are combined with nanomedicines to treat CNS disorders. We also evaluated nanotechnology-based approaches for CNS disease amelioration, with the intention of stimulating the immune system by delivering medications across the BBB.

Surface-engineered nanoparticles in cancer immune response and immunotherapy: Current status and future prospects

Cancer immunotherapy is a therapeutic strategy to inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by intervening in the immune response process. Strategies applied to cancer immunotherapy mainly include blocking immune checkpoints, adoptive transfer of engineered immune cells, cytokine therapy, cancer vaccines, and oncolytic virus infection. However, many factors, such as off-target side effects, immunosuppressive cell infiltration and/or upregulation of immune checkpoint expression, cancer cell heterogeneity, and lack of antigen presentation, affect the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy on cancer. To improve the efficacy of targeted immunotherapy and reduce off-target effects, over the past two decades, nanoparticle delivery platforms have been increasingly used in tumor immunotherapy. However, nanoparticles are still subject to biological barriers and biodistribution challenges, which limit their overall clinical potential. This has prompted a series of engineered nanoparticles to overcome specific obstacles and transfer the accumulation of payloads to tumor-infiltrating immune cells. In recent years, new techniques and chemical methods have been employed to modify or functionalize the surfaces of nanoparticles. This review discusses the recent progress of surface-engineered nanoparticles in inducing tumor immune responses and immunotherapy, as well as future directions for the development of next-generation nanomedicines.

Nanoimmunoengineering strategies in cancer diagnosis and therapy

Cancer immunotherapy strategies in combination with engineered nanosystems have yielded beneficial results in the treatment of cancer and their application is increasing day by day. The pivotal role of stimuli-responsive nanosystems and nanomedicine-based cancer immunotherapy, as a subsidiary discipline in the field of immunology, cannot be ignored. Today, rapid advances in nanomedicine are used as a platform for exploring new therapeutic applications and modern smart healthcare management strategies. The progress of nanomedicine in cancer treatment has confirmed the findings of immunotherapy in the medical research phase. This study concentrates on approaches connected to the efficacy of nanoimmunoengineering strategies for cancer immunotherapies and their applications. By assessing improved approaches, different aspects of the nanoimmunoengineering strategies for cancer therapies are discussed in this study.

Natural and Synthetic Chalcones: Potential Impact on Breast Cancer

Chalcones are small molecules, naturally found in fruits and vegetables, and exhibit diverse pharmacological activities. They also possess anticancer activity against different tumors. They can be converted into numerous derivatives by modifying hydrogen moieties, enabling the exploration of their diverse anticancer potentials. The main aims are to provide valuable insights into the recent progress made in utilizing chalcones and their derivatives as agents against breast cancer while delivering their underlying molecular mechanisms of action. This review presents anticancer molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways modulated by chalcones. Furthermore, it helps in the understating of the precise mechanisms of action and specific molecular targets of chalcones and their synthetic derivatives for breast cancer treatment.

Nanoparticles in Drug Delivery: From History to Therapeutic Applications

Current research into the role of engineered nanoparticles in drug delivery systems (DDSs) for medical purposes has developed numerous fascinating nanocarriers. This paper reviews the various conventionally used and current used carriage system to deliver drugs. Due to numerous drawbacks of conventional DDSs, nanocarriers have gained immense interest. Nanocarriers like polymeric nanoparticles, mesoporous nanoparticles, nanomaterials, carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, liposomes, metallic nanoparticles, nanomedicine, and engineered nanomaterials are used as carriage systems for targeted delivery at specific sites of affected areas in the body. Nanomedicine has rapidly grown to treat certain diseases like brain cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and many others. These nanomedicines can improve drug bioavailability and drug absorption time, reduce release time, eliminate drug aggregation, and enhance drug solubility in the blood. Nanomedicine has introduced a new era for drug carriage by refining the therapeutic directories of the energetic pharmaceutical elements engineered within nanoparticles. In this context, the vital information on engineered nanoparticles was reviewed and conferred towards the role in drug carriage systems to treat many ailments. All these nanocarriers were tested in vitro and in vivo. In the coming years, nanomedicines can improve human health more effectively by adding more advanced techniques into the drug delivery system.

Phenylboronic ester-modified polymeric nanoparticles for promoting TRP2 peptide antigen delivery in cancer immunotherapy

The tremendous development of peptide-based cancer vaccine has attracted incremental interest as a powerful approach in cancer management, prevention and treatment. As successful as tumor vaccine has been, major challenges associated with achieving efficient immune response against cancer are (1) drainage to and retention in lymph nodes; (2) uptake by dendritic cells (DCs); (3) activation of DCs. In order to overcome these barriers, here we construct PBE-modified TRP2 nanovaccine, which comprises TRP2 peptide tumor antigen and diblock copolymer PEG-b-PAsp grafted with phenylboronic ester (PBE). We confirmed that this TRP2 nanovaccine can be effectively trapped into lymph node, uptake by dendritic cells and induce DC maturation, relying on increased negative charge, ROS response and pH response. Consistently, this vehicle loaded with TRP2 peptide could boost the strongest T cell immune response against melanoma in vivo and potentiate antitumor efficacy both in tumor prevention and tumor treatment without any exogenous adjuvant. Furthermore, the TRP2 nanovaccine can suppress the tumor growth and prolong animal survival time, which may result from its synergistic effect of inhibiting tumor immunosuppression and increasing cytotoxic lymphocyte (CTL) response. Hence this type of PBE-modified nanovaccine would be widely used as a simple, safe and robust platform to deliver other antigen in cancer immunotherapy.

Nanoparticle Enhancement of Natural Killer (NK) Cell-Based Immunotherapy

Simple Summary

Natural killer cells are a part of the native immune response to cancer. NK cell-based immunotherapies are an emerging strategy to kill tumor cells. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action for killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. In this review, the role of nanoparticles in NK cell activation and increased cytotoxicity of NK cells against cancer are highlighted.

Abstract

Natural killer (NK) cells are one of the first lines of defense against infections and malignancies. NK cell-based immunotherapies are emerging as an alternative to T cell-based immunotherapies. Preclinical and clinical studies of NK cell-based immunotherapies have given promising results in the past few decades for hematologic malignancies. Despite these achievements, NK cell-based immunotherapies have limitations, such as limited performance/low therapeutic efficiency in solid tumors, the short lifespan of NK cells, limited specificity of adoptive transfer and genetic modification, NK cell rejection by the patient’s immune system, insignificant infiltration of NK cells into the tumor microenvironment (TME), and the expensive nature of the treatment. Nanotechnology could potentially assist with the activation, proliferation, near-real time imaging, and enhancement of NK cell cytotoxic activity by guiding their function, analyzing their performance in near-real time, and improving immunotherapeutic efficiency. This paper reviews the role of NK cells, their mechanism of action in killing tumor cells, and the receptors which could serve as potential targets for signaling. Specifically, we have reviewed five different areas of nanotechnology that could enhance immunotherapy efficiency: nanoparticle-assisted immunomodulation to enhance NK cell activity, nanoparticles enhancing homing of NK cells, nanoparticle delivery of RNAi to enhance NK cell activity, genetic modulation of NK cells based on nanoparticles, and nanoparticle activation of NKG2D, which is the master regulator of all NK cell responses.

Nanomedicine Strategies for Heating "Cold" Ovarian Cancer (OC): Next Evolution in Immunotherapy of OC

Immunotherapy has revolutionized cancer treatment, dramatically improving survival rates of melanoma and lung cancer patients. Nevertheless, immunotherapy is almost ineffective against ovarian cancer (OC) due to its cold tumor immune microenvironment (TIM). Many traditional medications aimed at remodeling TIM are often associated with severe systemic toxicity, require frequent dosing, and show only modest clinical efficacy. In recent years, emerging nanomedicines have demonstrated extraordinary immunotherapeutic effects for OC by reversing the TIM because the physical and biochemical features of nanomedicines can all be harnessed to obtain optimal and expected tissue distribution and cellular uptake. However, nanomedicines are far from being widely explored in the field of OC immunotherapy due to the lack of appreciation for the professional barriers of nanomedicine and pathology, limiting the horizons of biomedical researchers and materials scientists. Herein, a typical cold tumor-OC is adopted as a paradigm to introduce the classification of TIM, the TIM characteristics of OC, and the advantages of nanomedicines for immunotherapy. Subsequently, current nanomedicines are comprehensively summarized through five general strategies to substantially enhance the efficacy of immunotherapy by heating the cold OC. Finally, the challenges and perspectives of this expanding field for improved development of clinical applications are also discussed.

Exosome transportation-mediated immunosuppression relief through cascade amplification for enhanced apoptotic body vaccination

Cancer vaccines represent the most promising strategies in the battle against cancers. Eliciting a robust therapeutic effect with vaccines, however, remains a challenge owing to the weak immunogenicity of autologous tumor antigens and highly immunosuppressive microenvironment. In the present study, we constructed CpG oligodeoxyribonucleotide (CpG ODN)-loaded cancer cell apoptotic bodies (Abs) as cancer vaccines for enhanced immunotherapy through cascade amplification-mediated immunosuppression relief. Abs that contain an abundant source of tumor-specific neoantigens and other tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) can be regarded as vaccines with higher immunogenicity. The de novo synthesized Abs-CpG could target and polarize macrophages to improve the immunosuppressive microenvironment. More importantly, we found that the effect of immunosuppression relief was cascade amplified, which was mediated by M1 macrophage-derived exosome transportation. Our results showed that CpG ODN polarized macrophages to M1 type and produced a large amount of TNF-α, which then activated cell division control protein 42 (Cdc42). Interestingly, we found that exosomes from M1 macrophages delivered Cdc42 and CpG to adjacent macrophages and further enhanced the phagocytosis of adjacent macrophages by positive feedback. Through cascade amplification induced by Abs-CpG with macrophage exosomes, the immunogenicity and immunosuppressive microenvironment were greatly improved, which then enhanced the performance of cancer vaccine therapy. Thus, we propose that a strategy of combining the Abs-based vaccine platform with the immunomodulatory approach represents the next generation of cancer immunotherapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: 1. We discovered a relieving strategy for tumor immunosuppressive microenvironment: Abs-CpG polarized macrophages to M1 type, and M1 macrophage-derived exosomes delivered Cdc42 and CpG to adjacent macrophages, which then further enhanced the phagocytosis of adjacent macrophages by positive feedback. Through cascade amplification induced by the transfer of macrophage exosomes, the immunogenicity and immunosuppressive microenvironment were greatly improved. 2. As a vaccine, Abs contained both tumor-specific neoantigens and other tumor-associated antigens with higher immunogenicity and high clinical transformability.

Lipid Membrane-Wrapped Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8 for Synergistic Chemotherapy and Photothermal Therapy to Target Prostate Cancer

Endocrine therapy is often used for advanced prostate cancer. However, with cancer progress, prostate cancer gradually resistant to hormone which lead to serious threatens to life of patients. Herein, a multifunctional synergistic core–shell nanoplatform is reported for improving the therapeutic effect of chemotherapy for advanced or metastatic prostate cancer, and reducing the risk of leakage of chemotherapy drugs. Particularly, Zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) is chosen as inner core to load doxorubicin, and the of liposomes which are embedded with IR780 iodide are used as outer shell, and further modified with target ligand that binds to luteinizing hormone releasing hormone receptor. The prepared nanocarrier exhibit satisfactory photothermal effect under near infrared laser irradiation, and the temperature increases to 60.8 °C within 6 min. Meanwhile, the elevated temperature accelerates the degradation of lipid shell, releasing ZIF-8 core to acidic microenvironment of tumor, and resulting in the release of doxorubicin. Moreover, in vivo and in vitro studies have shown the ZIF-D@ALIP core–shell nanoparticles can achieve targeted drug delivery, pH and NIR dual stimuli-responsive drug release, as well as chemotherapy and photothermal therapy synergistically on the tumor site. In addition, the problem of premature leakage and changes in the physicochemical properties of anticancer drugs are avoided under the protection of the outer shell structure. Therefore, the core–shell nanostructure proposes a new lipid membrane coating strategy to promote the effective targeting of prostate cancer cells or tissues and provides some insights in clinical treatment for advanced prostate cancer.

In vitro and ex vivo nano-enabled immunomodulation by the protein corona

New technologies with the capacity to tune immune system activity are highly desired in clinical practice and disease management. Here we demonstrate that nanoparticles with a protein corona enriched with gelsolin (GSN), an abundant plasma protein that acts as a modulator of immune responses, are avidly captured by human monocytic THP-1 cells in vitro and by leukocyte subpopulations derived from healthy donors ex vivo. In human monocytes, GSN modulates the production of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in an inverse dose-dependent manner. Overall, our results suggest that artificial coronas can be exploited to finely tune the immune response, opening new approaches for the prevention and treatment of diseases.

Covalent and Noncovalent Loading of Doxorubicin by Folic Acid-Carbon Dot Nanoparticles for Cancer Theranostics

With special properties such as excellent fluoresce features, low toxicity, good biocompatibility, permeability, and easy clearance from the body, carbon dot (CD)-based nanoparticles (NPs) have the potential to deliver drugs and use in vivo diagnostics through molecular imaging. In this work, folic acid-CD (FA-CD) NPs were prepared to deliver doxorubicin (Dox) covalently and noncovalently as cancer theranostics. FA was conjugated to the surface of CDs for targeting cancer cells with overexpressing folate receptors. CDs prepared with various amounts of precursors lead to their associated NPs with different photoluminescence properties and drug release profiles. The loading of Dox and its releasing data depends on the linkage of drug Dox to FA-CD and CD composition. All NPs were characterized by UV-vis, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and dynamic light scattering. The noncovalent FA-CD-Dox NPs were preferred with a simple preparation process, excellent photoluminescence, and in vitro drug release properties. The noncovalent FA-CD-Dox showed the best efficacy against MDA-MB-231 compared to the CD-Dox and covalent FA-CD-Dox.

A Hybrid Supramolecular Polymeric Nanomedicine for Cascade-Amplified Synergetic Cancer Therapy

Supramolecular nanomedicines have shown great merits in cancer therapy, but their clinical translation is hampered by monotonous therapeutic modality and unsatisfactory antitumor performance. Herein, a hybrid supramolecular polymeric nanomedicine (SNPs) is developed based on β-cyclodextrin/camptothecin (CPT) host-guest molecular recognition and iron-carboxylate coordination. Iron ions stabilizing SNPs catalyze the conversion of intracellular hydrogen peroxide into highly toxic hydroxyl radical through a Fenton reaction, which further cleaves the thioketal linker of the supramolecular monomer to release potent CPT, thus amplifying the therapeutic efficacy by combining chemodynamic therapy and chemotherapy. The combination therapy stimulates antitumor immunity and promotes intratumoral infiltration of cytotoxic T lymphocytes by triggering immunogenic cell death. In synergy with PD-L1 checkpoint blockade, SNPs enables enhanced immune therapy and a long-term tumor remission.

UV Light-Activated GdYVO4:Eu3+ Nanoparticles Induce Reactive Oxygen Species Generation in Leukocytes Without Affecting Erythrocytes In Vitro

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been reported to be promising enhancement agents for radiation therapy. The aim of the study was to assess the cytotoxicity of UV non-treated and UV pretreated GdYVO₄:Eu³⁺ nanoparticles against erythrocytes and leukocytes by detecting eryptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Levels of intracellular ROS in erythrocytes and leukocytes using a ROS-sensitive dye 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2DCFDA), as well as eryptosis rate utilizing annexin V staining, following direct exposure to UV-activated and nonactivated NPs were detected by flow cytometry. Blood cells were collected from 9 intact WAG rats. Neither the UV light-untreated GdYVO₄:Eu³⁺ NPs nor the treated ones promoted eryptosis and ROS generation in erythrocytes. Low concentrations of UV light-untreated NPs did not induce oxidative stress in leukocytes, evidenced by unaffected intracellular ROS levels. UV light treatment grants prooxidant properties to NPs, confirmed by NP-induced ROS overproduction in leukocytes. High concentrations of both UV light-treated and untreated NPs altered the redox state of leukocytes. UV light treatment imparts prooxidant properties to GdYVO₄:Eu³⁺ NPs, making them promising radiosensitizing agents in cancer radiation therapy.

Advanced Biomaterials for Cell-Specific Modulation and Restore of Cancer Immunotherapy

The past decade has witnessed the explosive development of cancer immunotherapies. Nevertheless, low immunogenicity, limited specificity, poor delivery efficiency, and off-target side effects remain to be the major limitations for broad implementation of cancer immunotherapies to patient bedside. Encouragingly, advanced biomaterials offering cell-specific modulation of immunological cues bring new solutions for improving the therapeutic efficacy while relieving side effect risks. In this review, focus is given on how functional biomaterials can enable cell-specific modulation of cancer immunotherapy within the cancer-immune cycle, with particular emphasis on antigen-presenting cells (APCs), T cells, and tumor microenvironment (TME)-resident cells. By reviewing the current progress in biomaterial-based cancer immunotherapy, here the aim is to provide a better understanding of biomaterials' role in targeting modulation of antitumor immunity step-by-step and guidelines for rationally developing targeting biomaterials for more personalized cancer immunotherapy. Moreover, the current challenge and future perspective regarding the potential application and clinical translation will also be discussed.

MMP-responsive transformation nanomaterials with IAP antagonist to boost immune checkpoint therapy

The clinical effect of immune checkpoint therapy is limited by the poor blocking efficiency of immune checkpoints and the insufficient infiltration of tumor-specific T cells. Here, we constructed enzyme-responsive PVA-peptide conjugates (PPCs) to achieve re-assembly with enhanced accumulation in the tumor region, enable enhanced PD-L1 occupancy and improve the blocking efficiency. The self-assembled PPC-1 nanoparticles can enter tumor environment, whereas the enzyme-cleavable peptide was digested under overgenerated matrix metalloproteinases (MMP). The accumulated PPC-1 simultaneously transformed into β-sheet fibrous structures around the solid tumor and remained stable for over 96 h, which led to efficiently interrupting the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction. Upon introduction of the IAP antagonists, the non-classical NF-κB pathway of dendritic cells was activated and increased the infiltration of T cells in tumors. With the synergistic contribution of IAP antagonists from the substantial increase in expression of chemokines (CCL5 and CXCL9) and adequate T-cell infiltration in tumor sites, PPC-1 improved the biodistribution and accumulation of PD-L1 antagonists in tumor regions ultimately realizing higher-performance (P < 0.01) tumor growth inhibition efficiency (~80%) than PPC-2 group (~58%) in B16F10 tumor-bearing mice. The growth of the second tumor at the distal end was obviously inhibited (P < 0.01) after the resection of the primary tumor. The combined efficacy was similar to that observed in a Pan02 pancreatic cancer tumor model. This strategy aims to offer novel perspective for the development of locational assembly platforms in vivo and the optimal design of immune checkpoint combination therapy.

Nanodiscs: a versatile nanocarrier platform for cancer diagnosis and treatment

Cancer therapy is a significant challenge due to insufficient drug delivery to the cancer cells and non-selective killing of healthy cells by most chemotherapy agents. Nano-formulations have shown great promise for targeted drug delivery with improved efficiency. The shape and size of nanocarriers significantly affect their transport inside the body and internalization into the cancer cells. Non-spherical nanoparticles have shown prolonged blood circulation half-lives and higher cellular internalization frequency than spherical ones. Nanodiscs are desirable nano-formulations that demonstrate enhanced anisotropic character and versatile functionalization potential. Here, we review the recent development of theranostic nanodiscs for cancer mitigation ranging from traditional lipid nanodiscs encased by membrane scaffold proteins to newer nanodiscs where either the membrane scaffold proteins or the lipid bilayers themselves are replaced with their synthetic analogues. We first discuss early cancer detection enabled by nanodiscs. We then explain different strategies that have been explored to carry a wide range of payloads for chemotherapy, cancer gene therapy, and cancer vaccines. Finally, we discuss recent progress on organic-inorganic hybrid nanodiscs and polymer nanodiscs that have the potential to overcome the inherent instability problem of lipid nanodiscs.

Electrospinning: New Strategies for the Treatment of Skin Melanoma

Recent studies have shown a significant growth of skin cancer cases in northern regions of the world, in which its presence was not common. Skin cancer is one of the cancers that mostly affects the world's population, ranking fifth in studies conducted in the United States (USA). Melanoma is cancer that has the highest number of deaths worldwide since it is the most resistant skin cancer to current treatments. This is why alternatives for its treatment has been investigated considering nanomedicine concepts. This study approaches the role of this field in the creation of promising electrospun devices, composed of nanoparticles and nanofibers, among other structures, capable of directing and/or loading active drugs and/or materials with the objective of inhibiting the growth of melanoma cells or even eliminating those cells.

Personalized gel-droplet monocyte vaccines for cancer immunotherapy

Among the numerous forms of cancer immunotherapy, cancer vaccines have attracted increasing attention because of their ability to elicit sustained antitumor immune responses and durable tumor regression. Here, a personalized gel-droplet monocyte vaccine (GEMA) derived from host blood was reported. A streamlined microfluidic vaccine production platform was designed to combine the separation of monocytes from host blood and the encapsulation of monocytes in an alginate gel droplet, which simplified the handling of the blood product and permitted the rapid preparation of vaccines. In addition, the application of alginate gel encapsulation not only improved the efficiency of antigen uptake by monocytes, but it also promoted the production of antigen-specific CD8⁺ T cells in the spleen, resulting in an intense cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response. Moreover, depending on the disease profile of a specific patient, different adjuvant- and antigen-loaded monocytes could be simultaneously encapsulated in gel droplets to prepare a cocktail vaccine based on patient needs. In this study, anti-PD-1 antibodies were encapsulated in gel droplets as a model adjuvant to obtain a cocktail vaccine, and this demonstrated enhanced antitumor efficacy in a 4T1 breast tumor model. In summary, this study provided a unique vaccine production strategy and an efficient combination therapy approach, holding great promise for the development of personalized cancer vaccines.

Traditional herbal medicine and nanomedicine: Converging disciplines to improve therapeutic efficacy and human health

Traditional herbal medicine (THM), an ancient science, is a gift from nature. For thousands of years, it has helped humans fight diseases and protect life, health, and reproduction. Nanomedicine, a newer discipline has evolved from exploitation of the unique nanoscale morphology and is widely used in diagnosis, imaging, drug delivery, and other biomedical fields. Although THM and nanomedicine differ greatly in time span and discipline dimensions, they are closely related and are even evolving toward integration and convergence. This review begins with the history and latest research progress of THM and nanomedicine, expounding their respective developmental trajectory. It then discusses the overlapping connectivity and relevance of the two fields, including nanoaggregates generated in herbal medicine decoctions, the application of nanotechnology in the delivery and treatment of natural active ingredients, and the influence of physiological regulatory capability of THM on the in vivo fate of nanoparticles. Finally, future development trends, challenges, and research directions are discussed.

Anticancer Activity of Natural and Synthetic Chalcones

Cancer is a condition caused by many mechanisms (genetic, immune, oxidation, and inflammatory). Anticancer therapy aims to destroy or stop the growth of cancer cells. Resistance to treatment is theleading cause of the inefficiency of current standard therapies. Targeted therapies are the most effective due to the low number of side effects and low resistance. Among the small molecule natural compounds, flavonoids are of particular interest for theidentification of new anticancer agents. Chalcones are precursors to all flavonoids and have many biological activities. The anticancer activity of chalcones is due to the ability of these compounds to act on many targets. Natural chalcones, such as licochalcones, xanthohumol (XN), panduretin (PA), and loncocarpine, have been extensively studied and modulated. Modification of the basic structure of chalcones in order to obtain compounds with superior cytotoxic properties has been performed by modulating the aromatic residues, replacing aromatic residues with heterocycles, and obtaining hybrid molecules. A huge number of chalcone derivatives with residues such as diaryl ether, sulfonamide, and amine have been obtained, their presence being favorable for anticancer activity. Modification of the amino group in the structure of aminochalconesis always favorable for antitumor activity. This is why hybrid molecules of chalcones with different nitrogen hetercycles in the molecule have been obtained. From these, azoles (imidazole, oxazoles, tetrazoles, thiazoles, 1,2,3-triazoles, and 1,2,4-triazoles) are of particular importance for the identification of new anticancer agents.

Nanobiotechnology-assisted therapies to manage brain cancer in personalized manner

There are numerous investigated factors that limit brain cancer treatment efficacy such as ability of prescribed therapy to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), tumor specific delivery of a therapeutics, transport within brain interstitium, and resistance of tumor cells against therapies. Recent breakthroughs in the field of nano-biotechnology associated with developing multifunctional nano-theranostic emerged as an effective way to manage brain cancer in terms of higher efficacy and least possible adverse effects. Keeping challenges and state-of-art accomplishments into consideration, this review proposes a comprehensive, careful, and critical discussion focused on efficient nano-enabled platforms including nanocarriers for drug delivery across the BBB and nano-assisted therapies (e.g., nano-immunotherapy, nano-stem cell therapy, and nano-gene therapy) investigated for brain cancer treatment. Besides therapeutic efficacy point-of-view, efforts are being made to explore ways projected to tune such developed nano-therapeutic for treating patients in personalized manner via controlling size, drug loading, delivery, and retention. Personalized brain tumor management based on advanced nano-therapies can potentially lead to excellent therapeutic benefits based on unique genetic signatures in patients and their individual disease profile. Moreover, applicability of nano-systems as stimulants to manage the brain cancer growth factors has also been discussed in photodynamic therapy and radiotherapy. Overall, this review offers a comprehensive information on emerging opportunities in nanotechnology for advancing the brain cancer treatment.

Mito-Bomb: Targeting Mitochondria for Cancer Therapy

Cancer has been one of the most common life-threatening diseases for a long time. Traditional cancer therapies such as surgery, chemotherapy (CT), and radiotherapy (RT) have limited effects due to drug resistance, unsatisfactory treatment efficiency, and side effects. In recent years, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) have been utilized for cancer treatment owing to their high selectivity, minor resistance, and minimal toxicity. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that selective delivery of drugs to specific subcellular organelles can significantly enhance the efficiency of cancer therapy. Mitochondria-targeting therapeutic strategies are promising for cancer therapy, which is attributed to the essential role of mitochondria in the regulation of cancer cell apoptosis, metabolism, and more vulnerable to hyperthermia and oxidative damage. Herein, the rational design, functionalization, and applications of diverse mitochondria-targeting units, involving organic phosphine/sulfur salts, quaternary ammonium (QA) salts, peptides, transition-metal complexes, guanidinium or bisguanidinium, as well as mitochondria-targeting cancer therapies including PDT, PTT, CDT, and others are summarized. This review aims to furnish researchers with deep insights and hints in the design and applications of novel mitochondria-targeting agents for cancer therapy.

Cancer immunotherapies revisited: state of the art of conventional treatments and next-generation nanomedicines

Nowadays, the landscape of cancer treatments has broadened thanks to the clinical application of immunotherapeutics. After decades of failures, cancer immunotherapy represents an exciting alternative for those patients suffering from a wide variety of cancers, especially for those skin cancers, such as the early stages of melanoma. However, those cancers affecting internal organs still face a long way to success, because of the poor biodistribution of immunotherapies. Here, nanomedicine appears as a hopeful strategy to modulate the biodistribution aiming at target organ accumulation. In this way, efficacy will be improved, while reducing the side effects at the same time. In this review, we aim to highlight the most promising cancer immunotherapeutic strategies. From monoclonal antibodies and their traditional use as targeted therapies to their current use as immune checkpoint inhibitors; as well as adoptive cell transfer therapies; oncolytic viruses, and therapeutic cancer vaccination. Then, we aim to discuss the important role of nanomedicine to improve the performance of these immunotherapeutic tools to finally review the already marketed nanomedicine-based cancer immunotherapies.

Gold nanorods enhance different immune cells and allow for efficient targeting of CD4+ Foxp3+ Tregulatory cells

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) hold great promise in nanomedicine, yet their successful clinical translation has not been realized. Some challenges include effective AuNP targeting and delivery to improve modulation of immune cells of interest while limiting potential adverse effects. In order to overcome these challenges, we must fully understand how AuNPs impact different immune cell subsets, particularly within the dendritic cell and T cell compartments. Herein, we show that polyethylene glycol coated (PEG) gold nanorods (AuNRs) and PEG AuNRs covered with a thin layer of silver (AuNR/Ag) may enhance the immune response towards immune suppression or activation. We also studied the ability to enhance CD4+ Foxp3+ Tregs in vitro using AuNRs functionalized with interleukin 2 (IL2), a cytokine that is important in Treg development and homeostasis. Our results indicate that AuNRs enhance different immune cells and that NP composition matters in immune targeting. This knowledge will help us understand how to better design AuNRs to target and enhance the immune system.

Phototherapy Facilitates Tumor Recruitment and Activation of Natural Killer T cells for Potent Cancer Immunotherapy

Adoptively transferred natural killer T (NKT) cells confer distinct cancer surveillance without causing obvious side effects, making them a promising candidate for cancer immunotherapy. However, their therapeutic efficacy is limited by inefficient tumor infiltration and inadequate activation in an immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. To overcome these obstacles, we develop a strategy of using photothermal therapy (PTT) to promote the antitumor ability of adoptively transferred NKT cells. The transferred NKT cells are efficiently recruited to PTT-treated tumors in response to PTT-created inflammation. Moreover, PTT treatment promotes the activation of NKT cells and enhances the NKT cell-initiated immune cascade. As a consequence, the combined therapy of PTT plus NKT cell transfer exhibits excellent growth inhibition of local tumors. Moreover, it efficiently rejects distant tumors and elicits long-term immunological memory to prevent tumor recurrence. Overall, the current study opens new paths to the clinical translation of NKT cells for cancer immunotherapy.

Nanobiotechnology and Immunotherapy: Two Powerful and Cooperative Allies against Cancer

A number of novel cancer therapies have recently emerged that have rapidly moved from the bench to the clinic. Onco-immunotherapies, such as immune checkpoint blockade inhibitors and adoptive cell therapies, have revolutionized the field, since they provide a way to induce strong anti-tumor immune responses, which are able to fight cancer effectively. However, despite showing great efficacy in hematological and some solid tumors, unresponsiveness, development of therapy resistance and the development of serious adverse effects, limit their capacity to impact the vast majority of tumors. Nanoparticle-based delivery systems are versatile vehicles for a wide variety of molecular cargoes and provide an innovative strategy to improve conventional onco-immunotherapies. They can be finely tuned to release their contents in the tumor microenvironment, or to deliver combinations of adjuvants and antigens in the case of nanovaccines. In this review, we summarize the recent advancements in the field of nanobiotechnology, to remodel the tumor microenvironment and to enhance immunotherapies.

Engineering the Deformability of Albumin-Stabilized Emulsions for Lymph-Node Vaccine Delivery

A major challenge in vaccine delivery is to achieve robust lymph-node (LN) accumulation, which can capitalize on concentrated immunocytes and cytokines in LNs to stimulate the onset and persistence of adaptive immune responses. Previous attempts at developing vaccine delivery systems have focused on the sizes, charges, or surface ligands but not on their deformability. In fact, the LN homing of antigen-presenting cells depends on deformability to pass through the cellular gaps. Herein, the deformability of albumin-stabilized emulsions is engineered. Owing to self-adaptive deformability, the droplets (≈330 nm) can attach to and deform between cells and adjust their sizes to pass through the endothelial gaps (20-100 nm), favoring direct LN transfer (intercellular pathway). Additionally, owing to relatively large sizes, some emulsions can be retained at the administration sites for potent antigen uptake and activation of APCs as well as LN-targeted delivery of vaccines (intracellular pathway). Compared with solid particles, the dual LN transfer strategy evidently enhances antigen accumulation and activation of LN drainage, potently stimulates cellular immune responses, and increases the survival rate of tumor-bearing mice. Thus, the deformability of albumin-stabilized droplets may offer an efficient strategy for potent LN targeting and enhanced vaccinations.

Determinants of Ligand-Functionalized DNA Nanostructure-Cell Interactions

Synthesis of ligand-functionalized nanomaterials with control over size, shape, and ligand orientation facilitates the design of targeted nanomedicines for therapeutic purposes. DNA nanotechnology has emerged as a powerful tool to rationally construct two- and three-dimensional nanostructures, enabling site-specific incorporation of protein ligands with control over stoichiometry and orientation. To efficiently target cell surface receptors, exploration of the parameters that modulate cellular accessibility of these nanostructures is essential. In this study, we systematically investigate tunable design parameters of antibody-functionalized DNA nanostructures binding to therapeutically relevant receptors, including the programmed cell death protein 1, the epidermal growth factor receptor, and the human epidermal growth factor receptor 2. We show that, although the native affinity of antibody-functionalized DNA nanostructures remains unaltered, the absolute number of bound surface receptors is lower compared to soluble antibodies due to receptor accessibility by the nanostructure. We explore structural determinants of this phenomenon to improve efficiency, revealing that receptor binding is mainly governed by nanostructure size and DNA handle location. The obtained results provide key insights in the ability of ligand-functionalized DNA nanostructures to bind surface receptors and yields design rules for optimal cellular targeting.