Simultaneous Ultrasensitive Detection and Elimination of Drug-Resistant Bacteria by Cyclometalated Iridium(III) Complexes

Shining New Light on Biological Systems: Luminescent Transition Metal Complexes for Bioimaging and Biosensing Applications

Luminescence imaging is a powerful and versatile technique for investigating cell physiology and pathology in living systems, making significant contributions to life science research and clinical diagnosis. In recent years, luminescent transition metal complexes have gained significant attention for diagnostic and therapeutic applications due to their unique photophysical and photochemical properties. In this Review, we provide a comprehensive overview of the recent development of luminescent transition metal complexes for bioimaging and biosensing applications, with a focus on transition metal centers with a d6, d8, and d10 electronic configuration. We elucidate the structure-property relationships of luminescent transition metal complexes, exploring how their structural characteristics can be manipulated to control their biological behavior such as cellular uptake, localization, biocompatibility, pharmacokinetics, and biodistribution. Furthermore, we introduce the various design strategies that leverage the interesting photophysical properties of luminescent transition metal complexes for a wide variety of biological applications, including autofluorescence-free imaging, multimodal imaging, organelle imaging, biological sensing, microenvironment monitoring, bioorthogonal labeling, bacterial imaging, and cell viability assessment. Finally, we provide insights into the challenges and perspectives of luminescent transition metal complexes for bioimaging and biosensing applications, as well as their use in disease diagnosis and treatment evaluation.

Aggregation-induced emission luminogens for latent fingerprint detection

For over a century, fingerprints have served as a pivotal tool for identification of individuals owing to their enduring characteristics and easily apparent features, particularly in the realm of criminal investigations. Latent fingerprints (LFPs) are "invisible fingerprints" that are most commonly available at crime scenes and require a rapid, selective, sensitive, and convenient method for detection. However, existing fingerprint development techniques harbour limitations, prompting the exploration of novel approaches that prioritize investigator safety and environmental sustainability. Leveraging the unique photophysical properties of aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) has emerged as a promising strategy for on-site analysis of LFP visualization. In this highlight, we have presented a comparative analysis of various AIEgens (organic compounds, metal complexes, nanoparticles, and polymers) for the development and detection of LFPs. Through this examination, insights into the efficiency and potential applications of AIE-based fingerprint development techniques are provided. In addition, several strategies have been proposed for circumventing the limitations of existing AIEgens. We hope that this highlight article will encourage more researchers to investigate AIEgens in LFP detection, contributing to forensic science.

Application of Mono and Trinuclear Cyclometalated Iridium (III) Complexes in Differential Bacterial Imaging and Antimicrobial Photodynamic Therapy

The application of transition metal complexes for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as an attractive alternative in mitigating a broad range of bacterial pathogens, including multidrug-resistant pathogens. In view of their photostability, long excited-state lifetimes, and tunable emission properties, transition metal complexes also contribute as bioimaging agents. In the present work, we designed mono and trinuclear cyclometalated iridium (III) complexes to explore their imaging application and antibacterial potential. For this, we used Methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA), the most prevalent of community-associated (CA) multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria (CA MDR) and Lactococcus lactis (L. lactis) as Gram-positive while Campylobacter jejuni (C. jejuni) and E. coli as Gram-negative bacteria. In addition to differential bioimaging of these bacteria, we assessed the antibacterial effects of both mono and trinuclear Ir(III) complexes under exposure to 427 nm LED light. The data presented herein strongly suggest better efficacy of trinuclear Ir(III) complex over the mononuclear complex in imparting photoinduced cell death of MRSA. Based on the safety profile of these complexes, we propose that trinuclear cyclometalated iridium(III) complex holds great promise for selective recognition and targeting MDR bacteria with minimal off-target effect.

Evaluation of multi-target iridium(iii)-based metallodrugs in combating antimicrobial resistance and infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus

The rapid emergence and spread of multidrug-resistant bacteria pose a serious challenge to human life and health, necessitating the development of novel antibacterial agents. Herein, to address this challenge, three iridium-based antibacterial agents were prepared and their antimicrobial activity were explored. Importantly, the three complexes all showed robust potency against S. aureus with MIC values in the range of 1.9-7.9 μg mL-1. Notably, the most active complex Ir3 also exhibited relative stability in mammalian fluids and a significant antibacterial effect on clinically isolated drug-resistant bacteria. Mechanism studies further demonstrated that the complex Ir3 can kill S. aureus by disrupting the integrity of the bacterial membrane and inducing ROS production. This multi-target advantage allows Ir3 to not only effectively combat bacterial resistance but also efficiently clear the bacterial biofilm. In addition, when used together, complex Ir3 could enhance the antibacterial potency of some clinical antibiotics against S. aureus. Moreover, both G. mellonella wax worms and mouse infection model demonstrated that Ir3 has low toxicity and robust anti-infective efficacy in vivo. Overall, complex Ir3 can serve as a new antibacterial agent for combating Gram-positive bacterial infections.

Photoactive rhodamine-based photosensitizer eliminates Staphylococcus aureus via superoxide radical photosensitization

Due to the antibiotics abuse, bacterial infection has become one of the leading causes of human death worldwide. Novel selective antimicrobial agents are urgently needed, with the hope of maintaining the balance of the microbial environment. Photo-activated chemotherapeutics have shown great potential to eliminate bacteria with appealing spatiotemporal selectivity. In this work, we reported the structural modification to enhance the triplet excited state property of Rhodamine B, synthesizing a rhodamine-based photosensitizer RBPy. Upon light activation, RBPy exhibited much stronger photosensitization ability than the parent compound Rhodamine B both in solution and in bacteria. Importantly, RBPy can selectively inactivate Staphylococcus aureus and inhibit biofilm formation with high biocompatibility. This work provides a new strategy to develop rhodamine-based photoactive chemotherapeutics for antimicrobial photodynamic therapy.

Advances in endotoxin analysis

The outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria is primarily composed of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In addition to protection, LPS defines the distinct serogroups used to identify bacteria specifically. Furthermore, LPS also act as highly potent stimulators of innate immune cells, a phenomenon essential to understanding pathogen invasion in the body. The complex multi-step process of LPS binding to cells involves several binding partners, including LPS binding protein (LBP), CD14 in both membrane-bound and soluble forms, membrane protein MD-2, and toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). Once these pathways are activated, pro-inflammatory cytokines are eventually expressed. These binding events are also affected by the presence of monomeric or aggregated LPS. Traditional techniques to detect LPS include the rabbit pyrogen test, the monocyte activation test and Limulus-based tests. Modern approaches are based on protein, antibodies or aptamer binding. Recently, novel techniques including electrochemical methods, HPLC, quartz crystal microbalance (QCM), and molecular imprinting have been developed. These approaches often use nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles, quantum dots, nanotubes, and magnetic nanoparticles. This chapter reviews current developments in endotoxin detection with a focus on modern novel techniques that use various sensing components, ranging from natural biomolecules to synthetic materials. Highly integrated and miniaturized commercial endotoxin detection devices offer a variety of options as the scientific and technologic revolution proceeds.

Illuminating the path: aggregation-induced emission for food contaminants detection

Food safety is a global concern that deeply affects human health. To ensure the profitability of the food industry and consumer safety, there is an urgent need to develop rapid, sensitive, accurate, and cost-effective detection methods for food contaminants. Recently, the Aggregation-Induced Emission (AIE) has been successfully used to detect food contaminants. AIEgens, fluorescent dyes that cause AIE, have several valuable properties including high quantum yields, photostability, and large Stokes shifts. This review provides a detailed introduction to the principles and advantages of AIE-triggered detection, followed by a focus on the past five years' applications of AIE in detecting various food contaminants including pesticides, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins, food additives, ions, pathogens, and biogenic amines. Each detection principle and component is comprehensively covered and explained. Moreover, the similarities and differences among different types of food contaminants are summarized, aiming to inspire future researchers. Finally, this review concludes with a discussion of the prospects for incorporating AIEgens more effectively into the detection of food contaminants.

Aggregation-Induced Near-Infrared Emission and Electrochemiluminescence of an Iridium(III) Complex for Ampicillin Sodium Sensing

A new iridium(III) complex was synthesized and characterized. Its photophysical properties and aggregation-induced emission and electrochemiluminescence in the near-infrared range were studied. The large conjugated cyclometallic ligand 1,2-phenylbenzoquinoline (pbq) was selected to form the Ir-C bond with the metal iridium(III) center and provide near-infrared emission of the complex. The auxiliary ligand 4,4'-diamino-2,2'-bipyridine (dabpy) can form hydrogen bonds, which was beneficial for the generation of aggregation-induced emission. The complex was aggregated into small spherical nanoparticles in 80% water and fascinating nanorings in 90% water. The sensing of ampicillin sodium (AMP) antibiotic by the iridium(III) complex were also investigated by photoluminescent and electrochemiluminescent methods. The complex showed a good selectivity toward AMP antibiotic compared to sodium phenylacetate and other eight antibiotics. The detection limits for AMP antibiotic was 0.76 μg/mL. This work provided a new strategy for the design of iridium(III) complex-based aggregation-induced emission and electrochemiluminescence probes for the sensing application.

Visible and NIR light photoactivatable o-hydroxycinnamate system for efficient drug release with fluorescence monitoring

Photoactivatable protecting groups (PPGs) have become powerful materials for controlling the activity of biologically important molecules in the biomedical field. However, designing PPGs that can be efficiently activated by biologically benign visible and NIR light with fluorescence monitoring is still a great challenge. Herein, we report o-hydroxycinnamate-based PPGs that can be activated by both visible (one-photon) and NIR (two-photon) light for controlled drug release with real-time monitoring. Thus, a photoremovable 7-diethylamino o-hydroxycinnamate group is covalently attached to an anticancer drug, gemcitabine, to establish a photoactivatable prodrug system. Upon excitation by visible (400-700 nm) or NIR (800 nm) light, the prodrug efficiently releases drug which is quantified by monitoring the formation of a strongly fluorescent coumarin reporter. The prodrug is taken up by the cancer cells and interestingly accumulates within mitochondria as determined by FACS and fluorescence microscopy imaging. Further, the prodrug demonstrates photo-triggered, dose-dependent, and temporally controlled cell death upon irradiation with both visible and NIR light. This photoactivatable system could be useful and adapted in the future for the development of advanced therapies in biomedicine.

Ultrasensitive Detection of Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria Based on Boric Acid-Functionalized Fluorescent MOF@COF

The widespread use of antibiotics has made multidrug-resistant bacteria (MDRB) one of the greatest threats toward global health. Current conventional microbial detection methods are usually time-consuming, labor-intensive, expensive, and unable to detect low concentrations of bacteria, which cause great difficulties in clinical diagnosis and treatment. Herein, we constructed a versatile biosensing platform on the basis of boric acid-functionalized porous framework composites (MOF@COF-BA), which were able to realize highly efficient and sensitive label-free MDRB detection via fluorescence. In this design, MDRB were captured using aptamer-coated nanoparticles and the fluorescent probe MOF@COF-BA was tightly anchored onto the surface of MDRB due to interactions between boric acid groups and glycolipids on bacteria cells. Benefitting from the remarkable fluorescence performance of MOF@COF-BA, rapid and specific detection of MDRB, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and Acinetobacter baumannii (AB), was realized with a detection range of 20-10⁸ CFU/mL (for both) and limits of detection of 7 CFU/mL (MRSA) and 5 CFU/mL (AB). The feasibility of using the developed platform to selectively detect MRSA and AB from complex urine, human serum, and cerebrospinal fluid samples was also demonstrated. This work provides a promising strategy for accurate MDRB diagnosis, avoiding serious infection using rational antibiotic therapy.

Computer-Aided Drug Design and Synthesis of Rhenium Clotrimazole Antimicrobial Agents

In the context of the global health issue caused by the growing occurrence of antimicrobial resistance (AMR), the need for novel antimicrobial agents is becoming alarming. Inorganic and organometallic complexes represent a relatively untapped source of antibiotics. Here, we report a computer-aided drug design (CADD) based on a 'scaffold-hopping' approach for the synthesis and antibacterial evaluation of fac-Re(I) tricarbonyl complexes bearing clotrimazole (ctz) as a monodentate ligand. The prepared molecules were selected following a pre-screening in silico analysis according to modification of the 2,2'-bipyridine (bpy) ligand in the coordination sphere of the complexes. CADD pointed to chiral 4,5-pinene and 5,6-pinene bipyridine derivatives as the most promising candidates. The corresponding complexes were synthesized, tested toward methicillin-sensitive and -resistant S. aureus strains, and the obtained results evaluated with regard to their binding affinity with a homology model of the S. aureus MurG enzyme. Overall, the title species revealed very similar minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values as those of the reference compound used as the scaffold in our approach. The obtained docking scores advocate the viability of 'scaffold-hopping' for de novo design, a potential strategy for more cost- and time-efficient discovery of new antibiotics.

How Exactly Do AIEgens Target Bacteria? Leveraging the Targeting Mechanism to Design Sensitive Fluorescent Immunosensors

Aggregation-induced emission luminogens (AIEgens) are promising candidates for bacterial imaging and detection because they can "Light-Up" pathogenic bacteria without complicated labeling or washing steps. However, there have been few in-depth analyses of the intrinsic mechanism underlying their utility as fluorescence probes for targeting bacteria. Therefore, using large-scale molecular dynamics simulations, we investigated the mechanism of their bacterial "Light-Up" behavior with N,N-diphenyl-4-(7-(pyridin-4-yl)benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazol-4-yl) aniline functionalized with 1-bromoethane (TBP-1). We propose that the triphenylamine motif of TBP-1, rather than the positively charged pyridine group, first contacts the cell membrane. After TBP-1 completely inserts into the cell membrane, the hydrophobic triphenylamine motif localizes in the hydrophobic core of the cell membrane, restricting the molecular variation of TBP-1, which induces the fluorescent "turn-on" and bacterial "Light-Up." On this basis, we established a heterogeneous lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA) for the detection of foodborne pathogens. The LFIA system showed improved sensitivity with a limit of detection as low as 10³ CFU mL^-1 and strong specificity. Our protocol opened an effective shortcut to the design of more efficient AIEgens and novel AIEgens-based immunoassays.

Specific discrimination and efficient elimination of gram-positive bacteria by an aggregation-induced emission-active ruthenium (II) photosensitizer

The infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria (G⁺) have seriously endangered public heath due to their high morbidity and mortality. Therefore, it is urgent to develop a multifunctional system for selective recognition, imaging and efficient eradication of G⁺. Aggregation-induced emission materials have shown great promise for microbial detection and antimicrobial therapy. In this paper, a multifunctional ruthenium (II) polypyridine complex Ru2 with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) characteristic, was developed and used for selective discrimination and efficient extermination of G⁺ from other bacteria with unique selectivity. The selective G⁺ recognition benefited from the interaction between lipoteichoic acids (LTA) and Ru2. Accumulation of Ru2 on the G⁺ membrane turned on its AIE luminescence and allowed specific G⁺ staining. Meanwhile, Ru2 under light irradiation also possessed robust antibacterial activity for G⁺in vitro and in vivo antibacterial experiments. To the best of our knowledge, Ru2 is the first Ru-based AIEgen photosensitizer for simultaneous dual applications of G⁺ detection and treatment, and inspires the development of promising antibacterial agents in the future.

COVID-19 detection using AIE-active iridium complexes

The highly contagious COVID-19, caused by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is commonly diagnosed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). However, despite being highly sensitive, RT-PCR is also time consuming and quite complex, which limits its use for point-of-care (POC) testing. We have developed a simple single-step fluorescence assay for SARS-CoV-2 RNA detection based on the principle of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) using iridium complexes. Our smartly designed iridium probes fluorescently "turn-on" in the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA and give specific results at room temperature within 10 min. The lower limit of detection (LOD) is 1.84 genome copies per reaction, and the sensitivity and specificity of the assay in 20 clinical samples are found to be 90% and 80%, respectively.

Development of Mitochondria Targeting AIE-Active Cyclometalated Iridium Complexes as Potent Antimalarial Agents

The emergence of resistance to conventional antimalarial treatments remains a major cause for concern. New drugs that target the distinct development stages of Plasmodium parasites are required to address this risk. Herein, water-soluble aggregation-induced emission active cyclometalated iridium(III) polypyridyl complexes (Ir1-Ir12) are developed for the elimination of malaria parasites. Remarkably, these complexes show potent antimalarial activity in low nanomolar range against 3D7 (chloroquine and artemisinin sensitive strain), RKL9 (chloroquine resistant strain), and R539T (artemisinin resistant strains) strains of Plasmodium falciparum with faster killing rate of malaria parasites. Concomitantly, these complexes exhibit efficient in vivo antimalarial activity against both the asexual and gametocyte stages of Plasmodium berghei malaria parasite, suggesting promising transmission-blocking potential. The complexes tend to localize into mitochondria of P. falciparum determined by image and cell-based assay. The mechanistic studies reveal that these complexes exert their antimalarial activity by increasing reactive oxygen species levels and disrupting its mitochondrial membrane potential. Furthermore, the mitochondrial-dependent antimalarial activity of these complexes is confirmed in yeast model. Thus, this study for the first time highlights the potential role of targeting P. falciparum mitochondria by iridium complexes in discovering and developing the next-generation antimalarial agents for treating multidrug resistant malaria parasites.

Ir(III) Complexes with AIE Characteristics for Biological Applications

Both biological process detection and disease diagnosis on the basis of luminescence technology can provide comprehensive insights into the mechanisms of life and disease pathogenesis and also accurately guide therapeutics. As a family of prominent luminescent materials, Ir(III) complexes with aggregation-induced emission (AIE) tendency have been recently explored at a tremendous pace for biological applications, by virtue of their various distinct advantages, such as great stability in biological media, excellent fluorescence properties and distinctive photosensitizing features. Significant breakthroughs of AIE-active Ir(III) complexes have been achieved in the past few years and great progress has been witnessed in the construction of novel AIE-active Ir(III) complexes and their applications in organelle-specific targeting imaging, multiphoton imaging, biomarker-responsive bioimaging, as well as theranostics. This review systematically summarizes the basic concepts, seminal studies, recent trends and perspectives in this area.

Inert cationic iridium(III) complexes with phenanthroline-based ligands: application in antimicrobial inactivation of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains

The antimicrobial activity of a new series of heteroleptic iridium(III) complexes of the type [Ir(C^N)₂(N^N)][PF₆] (C^N = deprotonated 2-phenylbenzimidazole-κN, κC; N^N = phen (Ir1), dpq (Ir2), dppz (Ir3), dppn (Ir4), and dppz-idzo (Ir5)) was studied towards two Gram positive (vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium and a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) and two Gram negative (Acinetobacter baumanii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) multidrug-resistant bacterial strains of clinical interest. Although the complexes were inactive towards Gram negative bacteria, their effectiveness against Gram positive strains was remarkable, especially for Ir1 and Ir2, the most bactericidal complexes that were even more active (10 times) than the fluoroquinolone antibiotic norfloxacin and displayed no toxicity in human kidney cells (HEK293). Mechanistic studies revealed that the cell wall and membrane of MRSA S. aureus remained intact on treatment with these compounds and that DNA was not their main target. It is important to note that the complexes were able to induce ROS generation, this being the feature key to their antimicrobial activity.

Bacterial infections in cancer: A bilateral relationship

Bacteria share a long commensal relationship with the human body. New findings, however, continue to unravel many complexities associated with this old alliance. In the past decades, the dysbiosis of human microbiome has been linked to tumorigenesis, and more recently to spontaneous colonization of existing tumors. The topic, however, remains open for debate as the claims for causative-prevailing dual characteristics of bacteria are mostly based on epidemiological evidence rather than robust mechanistic models. There are also no reviews linking the collective impact of bacteria in tumor microenvironments to the efficacy of cancer drugs, mechanisms of pathogen-initiated cancer and bacterial colonization, personalized nanomedicine, nanotechnology, and antimicrobial resistance. In this review, we provide a holistic overview of the bilateral relationship between cancer and bacteria covering all these aspects. Our collated evidence from the literature does not merely categorize bacteria as cancer causative or prevailing agents, but also critically highlights the gaps in the literature where more detailed studies may be required to reach such a conclusion. Arguments are made in favor of dual drug therapies that can simultaneously co-target bacteria and cancer cells to overcome drug resistance. Also discussed are the opportunities for leveraging the natural colonization and remission power of bacteria for cancer treatment. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies.

pH-Responsive Emission of Novel Water-Soluble Polymeric Iridium(III) Complexes

The synthesis and characterization of water-soluble copolymers containing N,N-dimethylacrylamide (DMAM) and a vinylic monomer containing an Iridium(III), Ir(III), complex substituted with the quinoline-based unit 2-(pyridin-2-ylo)-6-styrene-4-phenylquinoline (VQPy) as ligand are reported. These copolymers were prepared through pre- or post-polymerization complexation of Ir(III) with the VQPy units. The first methodology led to copolymer P1 having fully complexed VQPy units, whereas the latter methodology allowed the preparation of terpolymers containing free and Ir(III)-complexed VQPy units (copolymer P2). The optical properties of the copolymers were studied in detail through UV-Vis and photoluminescence spectroscopy in aqueous solution. It is shown that the metal-to-ligand charge transfer (ΜLCT) emission is prevailing in the case of P1, regardless of pH. In contrast, in the case of terpolymer P2 the MLCT emission of the Ir(III) complex is combined with the pH-responsive emission of free VQPy units, leading to characteristic pH-responsive color changes under UV illumination in the acidic pH region.

Cellular imaging properties of phosphorescent iridium(III) complexes substituted with ester or amide groups

We reported four iridium(III) complexes substituted with ester or amide groups as luminescent cellular imaging reagents. While three of the complexes stained the cytoplasm, the other complex showed the exceptional...

Mitochondria-Targeted Photoactivatable Real-Time Monitoring of a Controlled Drug Delivery Platform

The current anticancer therapies are limited by their lack of controlled spatiotemporal release at the target site of action. We report a novel drug delivery platform that provides on-demand, real-time, organelle-specific drug release and monitoring upon photoactivation. The system is comprised of a model anticancer drug doxorubicin, an alkyltriphenylphosphonium moiety to target mitochondria in cancer cells, and a hydroxycinnamate photoactivatable linker that is covalently attached to the drug and mitochondria-targeting moieties such that it can be phototriggered by either UV (one-photon) or NIR (two-photon) light to form a fluorescent coumarin product and facilitate the release of drug payload. The extent of drug release is quantified by the fluorescence intensity of the coumarin formed. Further, the photoactivatable prodrug accumulates in the mitochondria and shows light-triggered temporally controlled cell death. In the future, our platform can be tuned for any biological application of interest, offering immense value in biomedicine.

Weak-emission iridium(III) complexes as fluorescent turn-on probes for ultrasensitive and selective imaging histidine in living cells and rat tissues

Visualizing endogenous histidine (His) in living systems is an important and challenging work in life science field. Herein, two weak-emission iridium(III) complexes (IrL1 and IrL2) with solvent ligands (CH₃CN) were designed and synthesized. It was found that IrL2 showed a better performance for detecting His with more remarkable fluorescence enhancement and lower limit of detection (LOD = 35 nM). Moreover, the recognitionmechanism was confirmed to be a substitution of solvent ligands by His. Importantly, probe IrL2 was applicable to visualize endogenous His in living cells and rat tissue slices via an energy-dependent endocytotic pathway. We hope that this probe can serve as a useful tool for the diagnosis of His-related diseases.

First aggregation-induced emission-active probe for species-specific detection of β-galactosidase

Sensitive detection of β-galactosidase (β-gal) is of great significance for early diagnosis of ovarian cancer. Fluorescent probes for detecting β-gal have received great interest due to the non-invasiveness, excellent sensitivity, high temporal, and superior spatial resolution. However, most reported fluorescent sensors for β-gal suffer from aggregation caused quenching effect when accumulated, and cannot discriminate β-gal from other species, especially, Escherichia coliβ-gal. Herein, we report the first aggregation-induced emission (AIE)-active fluorescent probe HBTTPAG, which achieves species-selective detection of β-gal. Probe HBTTPAG can discriminate Aspergillus oryzae β-gal from Escherichia coliβ-gal, with high sensitivity (detection limit of 3.7 × 10-3 UmL-1), superior selectivity and low cytotoxicity. Furthermore, HBTTPAG is utilized to visualize endogenous β-gal in lysosomes of SKOV-3 cells, as well as to detect β-gal activity in ovarian cancer tissues. Notably, owing to the AIE-active, HBTTPAG realizes long-term (12 h) tracking β-gal in ovarian cancer cells. This work provides a promising method for species-selective detection of β-gal in preclinical.

Aggregation-Induced Emission-Based Platforms for the Treatment of Bacteria, Fungi, and Viruses

The prevention and control of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses is a herculean task for all the countries since they greatly threaten global public health. Rapid detection and effective elimination of these pathogens is crucial for the treatment of related diseases. It is urgently demanded to develop new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies to combat bacteria, fungi, and viruses-induced infections. The emergence of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) luminogens (AIEgens) is a revolutionary breakthrough for the treatment of many diseases, including pathogenic infections. In this review, the main focus is on the applications of AIEgens for theranostic treatment of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Due to the AIE characteristic, AIEgens are promising fluorescent probes for the detection of bacteria, fungi, and viruses with excellent sensitivity and photostability. Moreover, AIEgen-based theranostic platforms can be fabricated by introducing bactericidal moieties or designing AIE photosensitizers and AIE photothermal agents. The current strategies and ongoing developments of AIEgens for the treatment of pathogenic bacteria, fungi, and viruses will be discussed in detail.

AIEgens for Bacterial Imaging and Ablation

Accurate and sensitive diagnosis of pathogenic bacterial infection is a fundamental first step for correct bacteria management, helping to avoid the development of drug-resistant bacteria caused by the inappropriate use and overuse of antibiotics. Fluorescence probes as a promising visual tool can help identify pathogens rapidly and reliably. However, rigidly structured traditional fluorescence probes generally suffer from the drawback of aggregation-caused quenching (ACQ) effect, which greatly undermines their advantages with respect to sensitivity. Luminogens with aggregation-induced emission properties, namely AIEgens, can overcome the ACQ effect and certain AIEgen-based materials are capable of generating reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the aggregate states. Hence, they have become powerful tools for imaging and killing bacteria. This review summarizes the recent advances in AIEgens for the diagnosis and treatment of pathogen infections. Special attention has been paid to the molecular design, the application in bacterial imaging and ablation in vitro and in vivo, and the biocompatibility of AIEgens. Finally, the challenges and prospects are discussed in terms of using AIEgens to advance precision therapies for pathogen infections.

Dipyrrinato-Iridium(III) Complexes for Application in Photodynamic Therapy and Antimicrobial Photodynamic Inactivation

The generation of bio-targetable photosensitizers is of utmost importance to the emerging field of photodynamic therapy and antimicrobial (photo-)therapy. A synthetic strategy is presented in which chelating dipyrrin moieties are used to enhance the known photoactivity of iridium(III) metal complexes. Formed complexes can thus be functionalized in a facile manner with a range of targeting groups at their chemically active reaction sites. Dipyrrins with N- and O-substituents afforded (dipy)iridium(III) complexes via complexation with the respective Cp*-iridium(III) and ppy-iridium(III) precursors (dipy=dipyrrinato, Cp*=pentamethyl-η5 -cyclopentadienyl, ppy=2-phenylpyridyl). Similarly, electron-deficient [IrIII (dipy)(ppy)2 ] complexes could be used for post-functionalization, forming alkenyl, alkynyl and glyco-appended iridium(III) complexes. The phototoxic activity of these complexes has been assessed in cellular and bacterial assays with and without light; the [IrIII (Cl)(Cp*)(dipy)] complexes and the glyco-substituted iridium(III) complexes showing particular promise as photomedicine candidates. Representative crystal structures of the complexes are also presented.

Brief survey on organometalated antibacterial drugs and metal-based materials with antibacterial activity

Rising bacterial antibiotic resistance is a global threat. To deal with it, new antibacterial agents and antiseptic materials need to be developed. One alternative in this quest is the organometallic derivatization of well-established antibacterial drugs and also the fabrication of advanced metal-based materials having antibacterial properties. Metal-based agents and materials often show new modes of antimicrobial action which enable them to overcome drug resistance in pathogenic bacterial strains. This review summarizes recent (2017-2020) progress in the field of organometallic-derived antibacterial drugs and metal-based materials having antibacterial activity. Specifically, it covers organometallic derivatives of antibacterial drugs including β-lactams, ciprofloxacin, isoniazid, trimethoprim, sulfadoxine, sulfamethoxazole, and ethambutol as well as non-antibacterial drugs like metformin, phenformin and aspirin. Recent advances and reported clinical trials in the use of metal-based nanomaterials as antibiofouling coatings on medical devices, as photocatalytic agents in indoor air pollutant control, and also as photodynamic/photothermal antimicrobial agents are also summarized.

Aggregation-induced emission active metal complexes: a promising strategy to tackle bacterial infections

This Feature Article discusses the recent development of metal-based aggregation-induced emission luminogens for detection, discrimination and decimation of bacterial pathogens to tackle antimicrobial resistance.