Stem-Cell-Membrane Camouflaging on Near-Infrared Photoactivated Upconversion Nanoarchitectures for in Vivo Remote-Controlled Photodynamic Therapy

Personalized SO2 Prodrug for pH-Triggered Gas Enhancement in Anti-Tumor Radio-Immunotherapy

The inhibition of the immune response in the tumor microenvironment by therapy regimens can impede the eradication of tumors, potentially resulting in tumor metastasis. As a non-invasive therapeutic method, radiotherapy is utilized for tumor ablation. In this study, we aimed to improve the therapeutic impact of radiotherapy and trigger an immune response by formulating a benzothiazole sulfinate (BTS)-loaded fusion liposome (BFL) nanoplatform, which was then combined with radiotherapy for anti-cancer treatment. The platelet cell membrane, equipped with distinctive surface receptors, enables BFL to effectively target tumors while evading the immune system and adhering to tumor cells. This facilitates BFL's engulfment by cancer cells, subsequently releasing BTS within them. Following the release, the BTS produces sulfur dioxide (SO2) for gas therapy, initiating the oxidation of intracellular glutathione (GSH). This process demonstrates efficacy in repairing damage post-radiotherapy, thereby achieving effective radiosensitization. It was revealed that an immune response was triggered following the enhanced radiosensitization facilitated by BFL. This approach facilitated the maturation of dendritic cell (DC) within lymph nodes, leading to an increase in the proportion of T cells in distant tumors. This resulted in significant eradication of primary tumors and inhibition of growth in distant tumors. In summary, the integration of personalized BFL with radiotherapy shows potential in enhancing both tumor immune response and the elimination of tumors, including metastasis.

A SU6668 pure nanoparticle-based eyedrops: toward its high drug Accumulation and Long-time treatment for corneal neovascularization

Corneal neovascularization (CNV) is one of the common blinding factors worldwide, leading to reduced vision or even blindness. However, current treatments such as surgical intervention and anti-VEGF agent therapy still have some shortcomings or evoke some adverse effects. Recently, SU6668, an inhibitor targeting angiogenic tyrosine kinases, has demonstrated growth inhibition of neovascularization. But the hydrophobicity and low ocular bioavailability limit its application in cornea. Hereby, we proposed the preparation of SU6668 pure nanoparticles (NanoSU6668; size ~135 nm) using a super-stable pure-nanomedicine formulation technology (SPFT), which possessed uniform particle size and excellent aqueous dispersion at 1 mg/mL. Furthermore, mesenchymal stem cell membrane vesicle (MSCm) was coated on the surface of NanoSU6668, and then conjugated with TAT cell penetrating peptide, preparing multifunctional TAT-MSCm@NanoSU6668 (T-MNS). The T-MNS at a concentration of 200 µg/mL was treated for CNV via eye drops, and accumulated in blood vessels with a high targeting performance, resulting in elimination of blood vessels and recovery of cornea transparency after 4 days of treatment. Meanwhile, drug safety test confirmed that T-MNS did not cause any damage to cornea, retina and other eye tissues. In conclusion, the T-MNS eye drop had the potential to treat CNV effectively and safely in a low dosing frequency, which broke new ground for CNV theranostics.

The clinical regimens and cell membrane camouflaged nanodrug delivery systems in hematologic malignancies treatment

Hematologic malignancies (HMs), also referred to as hematological or blood cancers, pose significant threats to patients as they impact the blood, bone marrow, and lymphatic system. Despite significant clinical strategies using chemotherapy, radiotherapy, stem cell transplantation, targeted molecular therapy, or immunotherapy, the five-year overall survival of patients with HMs is still low. Fortunately, recent studies demonstrate that the nanodrug delivery system holds the potential to address these challenges and foster effective anti-HMs with precise treatment. In particular, cell membrane camouflaged nanodrug offers enhanced drug targeting, reduced toxicity and side effects, and/or improved immune response to HMs. This review firstly introduces the merits and demerits of clinical strategies in HMs treatment, and then summarizes the types, advantages, and disadvantages of current nanocarriers helping drug delivery in HMs treatment. Furthermore, the types, functions, and mechanisms of cell membrane fragments that help nanodrugs specifically targeted to and accumulate in HM lesions are introduced in detail. Finally, suggestions are given about their clinical translation and future designs on the surface of nanodrugs with multiple functions to improve therapeutic efficiency for cancers.

Biomimetic Nano-Drug Delivery System: An Emerging Platform for Promoting Tumor Treatment

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown broad prospects as drug delivery vehicles. However, they exhibit certain limitations, including low biocompatibility, poor physiological stability, rapid clearance from the body, and nonspecific targeting, which have hampered their clinical application. Therefore, the development of novel drug delivery systems with improved biocompatibility and high target specificity remains a major challenge. In recent years, biofilm mediated biomimetic nano-drug delivery system (BNDDS) has become a research hotspot focus in the field of life sciences. This new biomimetic platform uses bio-nanotechnology to encapsulate synthetic NPswithin biomimetic membrane, organically integrating the low immunogenicity, low toxicity, high tumor targeting, good biocompatibility of the biofilm with the adjustability and versatility of the nanocarrier, and shows promising applications in the field of precision tumor therapy. In this review, we systematically summarize the new progress in BNDDS used for optimizing drug delivery, providing a theoretical reference for optimizing drug delivery and designing safe and efficient treatment strategies to improve tumor treatment outcomes.

Progress of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy

In recent years, considerable attention has been given to phototherapy, including photothermal and photodynamic therapy to kill tumor cells by producing heat or reactive oxygen species (ROS). It has the high merits of noninvasiveness and limited drug resistance. To fully utilize this therapy, an extraordinary nanovehicle is required to target phototherapeutic agents in the tumor cells. Nanovesicles embody an ideal strategy for drug delivery applications. Cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles represent a developing type of nanocarrier. Combining this technique with cancer phototherapy could enable a novel strategy. Herein, efforts are made to describe a comprehensive overview of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy. The description in this review is mainly based on representative examples of exosome-derived biomimetic nanomedicine research, ranging from their comparison with traditional nanocarriers to extensive applications in cancer phototherapy. Additionally, the challenges and future prospectives for translating these for clinical application are discussed.

Emerging role of mesenchymal stromal cells in gynecologic cancer therapy

Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) show considerable promise in regenerative medicine with superior anti-fibrotic, immunomodulatory, and angiogenic functions. More recently, discovered with the tumor tropism, MSCs have been exploited as the basis of targeted cancer therapy. In this scenario, MSCs can directly home to tumor tissues and play anti-tumor properties. In addition, MSCs, MSC-derived exosomes and MSC-derived membranes are often developed as carriers for precisely delivering cytotoxic agents to cancer sites, including chemotherapeutic drugs, therapeutic genes, or oncolytic viruses. However, it has revealed the tumorigenic risk of MSCs as an important component within the tumor microenvironment, hampering the translation of MSC-based cancer therapies into clinical settings. Therefore, in this review, we introduce the specific tumor-tropic ability of MSCs and underlying mechanisms. We also summarize the current application of MSC-based therapeutic approaches in treating gynecologic cancers, mainly including cervical, ovarian, and endometrial cancers. Moreover, we discuss the main challenges that the current MSC-based cancer therapies are facing.

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Recent advances in cancer cell bionic nanoparticles for tumour therapy

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have found extensive use in delivering oncology therapeutics; however, some delivery vehicles still exhibit rapid immune clearance, lack of biocompatibility and insufficient targeting. In recent years, bionanoparticles constructed from tumour cell membranes have gained momentum as tumour-targeting therapeutic agents. Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CCMCNPs) typically consist of a drug-loaded nanoparticle core coated with cancer cell membrane. CCMCNPs retain homologous tumour cell surface antigens, receptors and proteins, and it has been shown that the modified nanoparticles exhibit better homologous targeting, immune escape and biocompatibility. CCMCNPs are now widely used in a variety of cancer treatments, including photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic therapies, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, chemodynamical therapy or other combination therapies. This article presents different therapeutic approaches using multimodal antitumour therapy-combination of two or more therapies that treat tumours synergistically-based on tumour cell membrane systems. The advantages of CCMCNPs in different cancer treatments in recent years are summarised, thus, providing new strategies for cancer treatment research.

Surface modification strategies in translocating nano-vesicles across different barriers and the role of bio-vesicles in improving anticancer therapy

Nanovesicles and bio-vesicles (BVs) have emerged as promising tools to achieve targeted cancer therapy due to their ability to overcome many of the key challenges currently being faced with conventional chemotherapy. These challenges include the diverse and often complex pathophysiology involving the progression of cancer, as well as the various biological barriers that circumvent therapeutic molecules reaching their target site in optimum concentration. The scientific evidence suggests that surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged nano-carriers (NCs) both can bypass the established biological barriers and facilitate fourth-generation targeting for the improved regimen of treatment. In this review, we intend to emphasize the role of surface-functionalized nanovesicles and BVs camouflaged NCs through various approaches that lead to an improved internalization to achieve improved and targeted oncotherapy. We have explored various strategies that have been employed to surface-functionalize and biologically modify these vesicles, including the use of biomolecule functionalized target ligands such as peptides, antibodies, and aptamers, as well as the targeting of specific receptors on cancer cells. Further, the utility of BVs, which are made from the membranes of cells such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), white blood cells (WBCs), red blood cells (RBCs), platelets (PLTs) as well as cancer cells also been investigated. Lastly, we have discussed the translational challenges and limitations that these NCs can encounter and still need to be overcome in order to fully realize the potential of nanovesicles and BVs for targeted cancer therapy. The fundamental challenges that currently prevent successful cancer therapy and the necessity of novel delivery systems are in the offing.

Engineered therapeutic proteins for sustained-release drug delivery systems

Proteins play a vital role in diverse biological processes in the human body, and protein therapeutics have been applied to treat different diseases such as cancers, genetic disorders, autoimmunity, and inflammation. Protein therapeutics have demonstrated their advantages, such as specific pharmaceutical effects, low toxicity, and strong solubility. However, several disadvantages arise in clinical applications, including short half-life, immunogenicity, and low permeation, leading to reduced drug effectiveness. The structure of protein therapeutics can be modified to increase molecular size, leading to prolonged stability and increased plasma half-life. Notably, the controlled-release delivery systems for the sustained release of protein drugs and preserving the stability of cargo proteins are envisioned as a potential approach to overcome these challenges. In this review, we summarize recent research progress related to structural modifications (PEGylation, glycosylation, poly amino acid modification, and molecular biology-based strategies) and promising long-term delivery systems, such as polymer-based systems (injectable gel/implants, microparticles, nanoparticles, micro/nanogels, functional polymers), lipid-based systems (liposomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanostructured lipid carriers), and inorganic nanoparticles exploited for protein therapeutics. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: In this review, we highlight recent advances concerning modifying proteins directly to enhance their stability and functionality and discuss state-of-the-art methods for the delivery and controlled long-term release of active protein therapeutics to their target site. In terms of drug modifications, four widely used strategies, including PEGylation, poly amino acid modification, glycosylation, and genetic, are discussed. As for drug delivery systems, we emphasize recent progress relating to polymer-based systems, lipid-based systems developed, and inorganic nanoparticles for protein sustained-release delivery. This review points out the areas requiring focused research attention before the full potential of protein therapeutics for human health and disease can be realized.

Knowledge Gaps in Generating Cell-Based Drug Delivery Systems and a Possible Meeting with Artificial Intelligence

Cell-based drug delivery systems are new strategies in targeted delivery in which cells or cell-membrane-derived systems are used as carriers and release their cargo in a controlled manner. Recently, great attention has been directed to cells as carrier systems for treating several diseases. There are various challenges in the development of cell-based drug delivery systems. The prediction of the properties of these platforms is a prerequisite step in their development to reduce undesirable effects. Integrating nanotechnology and artificial intelligence leads to more innovative technologies. Artificial intelligence quickly mines data and makes decisions more quickly and accurately. Machine learning as a subset of the broader artificial intelligence has been used in nanomedicine to design safer nanomaterials. Here, how challenges of developing cell-based drug delivery systems can be solved with potential predictive models of artificial intelligence and machine learning is portrayed. The most famous cell-based drug delivery systems and their challenges are described. Last but not least, artificial intelligence and most of its types used in nanomedicine are highlighted. The present Review has shown the challenges of developing cells or their derivatives as carriers and how they can be used with potential predictive models of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Nanomedicine in cancer therapy

Cancer remains a highly lethal disease in the world. Currently, either conventional cancer therapies or modern immunotherapies are non-tumor-targeted therapeutic approaches that cannot accurately distinguish malignant cells from healthy ones, giving rise to multiple undesired side effects. Recent advances in nanotechnology, accompanied by our growing understanding of cancer biology and nano-bio interactions, have led to the development of a series of nanocarriers, which aim to improve the therapeutic efficacy while reducing off-target toxicity of the encapsulated anticancer agents through tumor tissue-, cell-, or organelle-specific targeting. However, the vast majority of nanocarriers do not possess hierarchical targeting capability, and their therapeutic indices are often compromised by either poor tumor accumulation, inefficient cellular internalization, or inaccurate subcellular localization. This Review outlines current and prospective strategies in the design of tumor tissue-, cell-, and organelle-targeted cancer nanomedicines, and highlights the latest progress in hierarchical targeting technologies that can dynamically integrate these three different stages of static tumor targeting to maximize therapeutic outcomes. Finally, we briefly discuss the current challenges and future opportunities for the clinical translation of cancer nanomedicines.

Advances of nanotechnology applied to cancer stem cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are a small proportion of the cells that exist in cancer tissues. They are considered to be the culprit of tumor genesis, development, drug resistance, metastasis and recurrence because of their self-renewal, proliferation, and differentiation potential. The elimination of CSCs is thus the key to cure cancer, and targeting CSCs provides a new method for tumor treatment. Due to the advantages of controlled sustained release, targeting and high biocompatibility, a variety of nanomaterials are used in the diagnosis and treatments targeting CSCs and promote the recognition and removal of tumor cells and CSCs. This article mainly reviews the research progress of nanotechnology in sorting CSCs and nanodrug delivery systems targeting CSCs. Furthermore, we identify the problems and future research directions of nanotechnology in CSC therapy. We hope that this review will provide guidance for the design of nanotechnology as a drug carrier so that it can be used in clinic for cancer therapy as soon as possible.

Cell membrane-coated nanomaterials for cancer therapy

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles have emerged as a delivery carrier for tumor drug therapy, which can improve the therapeutic effect by increasing the stability and solubility and prolonging the half-life of drugs. However, nanoparticles are foreign substances for humans, are easily cleared by the immune system, are less targeted to tumors, and may even be toxic to the body. As a natural biological material, cell membranes have unique biological properties, such as good biocompatibility, strong targeting ability, the ability to evade immune surveillance, and high drug-carrying capacity. In this article, we review cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) and their applications to tumor therapy. First, we briefly describe CMNP characteristics and applications. Second, we present the characteristics and advantages of different cell membranes as well as nanoparticles, provide a brief description of the process of CMNPs, discuss the current status of their application to tumor therapy, summarize their shortcomings for use in cancer therapy, and propose future research directions. This review summarizes the research progress on CMNPs in cancer therapy in recent years and assesses remaining problems, providing scholars with new ideas for future research on CMNPs in tumor therapy.

Recent Developments in Nanoparticle-Based Photo-Immunotherapy for Cancer Treatment

Phototherapy is an emerging approach for cancer treatment that is effective at controlling the growth of primary tumors. In the presence of light irradiation, photothermal and photodynamic agents that are delivered to tumor sites can induce local hyperthermia and the production of reactive oxygen species, respectively, that directly eradicate cancer cells. Nanoparticles, characterized by their small size and tunable physiochemical properties, have been widely utilized as carriers for phototherapeutic agents to improve their biocompatibility and tumor-targeted delivery. Nanocarriers can also be used to implement various codelivery strategies for further enhancing phototherapeutic efficiency. More recently, there has been considerable interest in augmenting the immunological effects of nanoparticle-based phototherapies, which can yield durable and systemic antitumor responses. This review provides an overview of recent developments in using nanoparticle technology to achieve photo-immunotherapy.

Engineering Cell Membrane-Cloaked Catalysts as Multifaceted Artificial Peroxisomes for Biomedical Applications

Artificial peroxisomes (APEXs) or peroxisome mimics have caught a lot of attention in nanomedicine and biomaterial science in the last decade, which have great potential in clinically diagnosing and treating diseases. APEXs are typically constructed from a semipermeable membrane that encloses natural enzymes or enzyme-mimetic catalysts to perform peroxisome-/enzyme-mimetic activities. The recent rapid progress regarding their biocatalytic stability, adjustable activity, and surface functionality has significantly promoted APEXs systems in real-life applications. In addition, developing a facile and versatile system that can simulate multiple biocatalytic tasks is advantageous. Here, the recent advances in engineering cell membrane-cloaked catalysts as multifaceted APEXs for diverse biomedical applications are highlighted and commented. First, various catalysts with single or multiple enzyme activities have been introduced as cores of APEXs. Subsequently, the extraction and function of cell membranes that are used as the shell are summarized. After that, the applications of these APEXs are discussed in detail, such as cancer therapy, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, and neuron protection. Finally, the future perspectives and challenges of APEXs are proposed and outlined. This progress review is anticipated to provide new and unique insights into cell membrane-cloaked catalysts and to offer significant new inspiration for designing future artificial organelles.

Current progress of mesenchymal stem cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for targeted therapy

Nanodrug delivery systems have been widely used in disease treatment. However, weak drug targeting, easy to be cleared by the immune system, and low biocompatibility are great obstacles for drug delivery. As an important part of cell information transmission and behavior regulation, cell membrane can be used as drug coating material which represents a promising strategy and can overcome these limitations. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) membrane, as a new carrier, has the characteristics of active targeting and immune escape of MSC, and has broad application potential in tumor treatment, inflammatory disease, tissue regeneration and other fields. Here, we review recent progress on the use of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles for therapy and drug delivery, aiming to provide guidance for the design and clinical application of membrane carrier in the future.

Recent advancements to engineer mesenchymal stem cells and their extracellular vesicles for targeting and destroying tumors

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have the ability to migrate into tumor sites and release growth factors to modulate the tumor microenvironment. MSC therapy have shown a dual role in cancers, promoting or inhibiting. However, MSCs could be used as a carrier of anticancer agents for targeted tumor therapy. Recent technical improvements also allow engineering MSCs to improve tumor-targeting properties, protect anticancer agents, and decrease the cytotoxicity of drugs. While some of MSC functions are mediated through their secretome, MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles (EVs) are also proposed as a possible viechle for cancer therapy. EVs allow efficient loading of anticancer agents and have an intrinsic ability to target tumor cells, making them suitable for targeted therapy of tumors. In addition, the specificity and selectivity of EVs to the tumor sites could be enhanced by surface modification. In this review, we addressed the current approaches used for engineering MSCs and EVs to effectively target tumor sites and deliver anticancer agents.

Nucleus-Targeting Manganese Dioxide Nanoparticles Coated with the Human Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell Membrane for Cancer Cell Therapy

Recently, development of drug delivery systems for accurate delivery of antitumor drugs to tumor sites to improve their antitumor efficacy has attracted great interest in the area of cancer immunotherapy. In this report, an intelligent biodegradable hollow manganese dioxide (HMnO₂) nanoparticle (NP) with a human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell (hUC-MSC) membrane coating was designed to exert efficient chemo-immunotherapy for cancer treatment. A TAT peptide-modified membrane structure was constructed for nuclear targeting. Our findings showed that this new nanoreactor inherited the active targeting capability of MSCs and exhibited tumoritropic accumulation significantly at the cancerous parts. Compared with other formulations, intravenous injection of the NPs markedly inhibited tumor growth, relapse, and metastasis. Moreover, we found that the NPs effectively boosted dendritic cell maturation and recruited effector T cells into tumors. Overall, this work demonstrates the great potential of applying MSC membrane-coated manganese dioxide NPs as nucleus-targeting nanocarriers in cancer chemo-immunotherapy.

Hierarchy of hybrid materials. Part-II: The place of organics-on-inorganics in it, their composition and applications

Hybrid materials or hybrids incorporating organic and inorganic constituents are emerging as a very potent and promising class of materials due to the diverse but complementary nature of their properties. This complementarity leads to a perfect synergy of properties of the desired materials and products as well as to an extensive range of their application areas. Recently, we have overviewed and classified hybrid materials describing inorganics-in-organics in Part-I (Saveleva, et al., Front. Chem., 2019, 7, 179). Here, we extend that work in Part-II describing organics-on-inorganics, i.e., inorganic materials modified by organic moieties, their structure and functionalities. Inorganic constituents comprise of colloids/nanoparticles and flat surfaces/matrices comprise of metallic (noble metal, metal oxide, metal-organic framework, magnetic nanoparticles, alloy) and non-metallic (minerals, clays, carbons, and ceramics) materials; while organic additives can include molecules (polymers, fluorescence dyes, surfactants), biomolecules (proteins, carbohydtrates, antibodies and nucleic acids) and even higher-level organisms such as cells, bacteria, and microorganisms. Similarly to what was described in Part-I, we look at similar and dissimilar properties of organic-inorganic materials summarizing those bringing complementarity and composition. A broad range of applications of these hybrid materials is also presented whose development is spurred by engaging different scientific research communities.

Sequential targeting biomimetic nano platform for enhanced mild photothermal therapy and chemotherapy of tumor

Tumor targeting drug delivery is of significant importance for the treatment of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) considering the presence of appreciable amount of tumor matrix and the absence of effective targets on the tumor cells. Hence in this study, a new therapeutic multifunctional nanoplatform with improved TNBC targeting ability and efficacy was constructed and used for therapy of TNBC. Specifically, curcumin loaded mesoporous polydopamine (mPDA/Cur) nanoparticles were synthesized. Thereafter, manganese dioxide (MnO₂) and a hybrid of cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs) membranes as well as cancer cell membranes were sequentially coated on the surface of mPDA/Cur to obtain mPDA/Cur@M/CM. It was found that two distinct kinds of cell membranes were able to endow the nano platform with homologous targeting ability, thereby achieving accurate delivery of drugs. Nanoparticles gathered in the tumor matrix can loosen the tumor matrix via the photothermal effect mediated by mPDA to rupture the physical barrier of tumor, which is conducive to the penetration and targeting of drugs to tumor cells in the deep tissues. Moreover, the existence of curcumin, MnO₂ and mPDA was able to promote the apoptosis of cancer cells by promoting increased cytotoxicity, enhanced Fenton-like reaction, and thermal damage, respectively. Overall, both in vitro and in vivo results showed that the designed biomimetic nanoplatform could significantly inhibit the tumor growth and thus provide an efficient novel therapeutic strategy for TNBC.

Targeting inorganic nanoparticles to tumors using biological membrane-coated technology

Inorganic nanoparticles have extensively revolutionized the effectiveness of cancer therapeutics due to their distinct physicochemical properties. However, the therapeutic efficiency of inorganic nanoparticles is greatly hampered by the complex tumor microenvironment, patient heterogeneity, and systemic nonspecific toxicity. The biomimetic technology based on biological membranes (cell- or bacteria-derived membranes) is a promising strategy to confer unique characteristics to inorganic nanoparticles, such as superior biocompatibility, prolonged circulation time, immunogenicity, homologous tumor targeting, and flexible engineering approaches on the surface, resulting in the enhanced therapeutic efficacy of inorganic nanoparticles against cancer. Therefore, a greater push toward developing biomimetic-based nanotechnology could increase the specificity and potency of inorganic nanoparticles for effective cancer treatment. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in biological membrane-coated inorganic nanoparticles in cancer precise therapy and highlight the different types of engineered approaches, applications, mechanisms, and future perspectives. The surface engineering of biological membrane can greatly enhance their targeting, intelligence, and functionality, thereby realizing stronger tumor therapy effects. Further advances in materials science, biomedicine, and oncology can facilitate the clinical translation of biological membrane-coated inorganic nanoparticles.

Biomimetic CuS nanoparticles for radiosensitization with mild photothermal therapy and GSH-depletion

Due to its non-invasive and highly effective characteristics, radiotherapy has attracted significant interest in cancer treatment. However, radioresistance of solid tumors caused by a unique tumor microenvironment diminishes the therapeutic effect of cancer radiotherapy. To address this issue, we developed a nanoplatform for tumor-specific targeting to improve radiotherapy. Specifically, hollow CuS nanoparticles were decorated with the platelet cell membrane (PC), endowing this nanoplatform with the therapeutic property of navigating to the tumor region for glutathione (GSH)-depletion photothermal therapy. It was discovered that mild photothermal therapy mediated by PC ameliorated hypoxia in the tumor microenvironment. Meanwhile, GSH, which contributes to repairing radiotherapy-induced DNA double-strand breaks, was depleted by PC in an acidic microenvironment. Therefore, radioresistance could be diminished while cancer cell self-repair was prevented. At therapeutic doses, PC nanoparticles have negligible toxic effects on normal tissues. PC demonstrates promise for both in vivo and in vitro radiosensitization due to its GSH-depletion, photothermal efficiency, and tumor-specific properties.

Stem cell membrane-coated abiotic nanomaterials for biomedical applications

Nanoscale materials have been extensively employed for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. However, the developed nanosystems still suffer from some limitations, namely the rapid elimination by the immune system, lack of targeting to specific cells, and insufficient biocompatibility. Therefore, novel strategies based upon a biomimetic approach have received attention to improving the pharmacokinetics and safety profile of nanosystems. One promising strategy is the application of a biomimetic coating consisting of cell membranes derived from different cell types onto nanoparticle cores. Stem cells have been investigated to develop targeted nanodevices owing to their excellent intrinsic tissue-specific homing features, protecting them from the immune system to reach the sites of inflammation. This targeting ability is conferred by a surface repertoire of stem cell-associated biomolecules. Such nanoscopical materials offer sustained circulation and boosted drug accumulation at target sites, augmenting therapeutic efficacy and safety. Additionally, the coating of nanoparticles with cell membranes acts as a camouflage mechanism to increase their circulation time. The current review explores the particular features of stem cell membrane coating as multifunctional biomimetic surface functionalization agents to camouflage nanoparticle cores. Biomedical applications of engineered stem cell membrane-coated nanoparticles, challenges in clinical translation, and their future prospects are addressed.

Membrane-wrapped nanoparticles for nucleic acid delivery

There is an unmet need for carriers that can deliver nucleic acids (NAs) to cancer cells and tumors to perpetuate gene regulation and manage disease progression. Membrane-wrapped nanoparticles (NPs) can be loaded with exogenously designed nucleic acid cargoes, such as plasmid deoxyribonucleic acid (pDNA), messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), small interfering RNA (siRNA), microRNA (miRNA), and immunostimulatory CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG ODNs), to mitigate challenges presented by NAs' undesirable negative charge, hydrophilicity, and relatively large size. By conjugating or encapsulating NAs within membrane-wrapped NPs, various physiological barriers can be overcome so that NAs experience increased blood circulation half-lives and enhanced accumulation in intended sites. This review discusses the status of membrane-wrapped NPs as NA delivery vehicles and their advancement in gene regulation for cancer management in vitro and in vivo. With continued development, membrane-wrapped NPs have great potential as future clinical tools to treat cancer and other diseases with a known genetic basis.

Applications of upconversion nanoparticles in analytical and biomedical sciences: a review

Lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) have gained more attention from researchers due to their unique properties of photon conversion from an excitation/incident wavelength to a more suitable emission wavelength at a designated site, thus improving the scope in the life sciences field. Due to their fascinating and unique optical properties, UCNPs offer attractive opportunities in theranostics for early diagnostics and treatment of deadly diseases such as cancer. Also, several efforts have been made on emerging approaches for the fabrication and surface functionalization of luminescent UCNPs in optical biosensing applications using various infrared excitation wavelengths. In this review, we discussed the recent advancements of UCNP-based analytical chemistry approaches for sensing and theranostics using a 980 nm laser as the excitation source. The key analytical merits of UNCP-integrated fluorescence analytical approaches for assaying a wide variety of target analytes are discussed. We have described the mechanisms of the upconversion (UC) process, and the application of surface-modified UCNPs for in vitro/in vivo bioimaging, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and photothermal therapy (PTT). Based on the latest scientific achievements, the advantages and disadvantages of UCNPs in biomedical and optical applications are also discussed to overcome the shortcomings and to improve the future study directions. This review delivers beneficial practical information of UCNPs in the past few years, and insights into their research in various fields are also discussed precisely.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic nanosystems for advanced drug delivery in cancer therapy: A comprehensive review

Natural types of cells display distinct characteristics with homotypic targeting and extended circulation in the blood, which are worthy of being explored as promising drug delivery systems (DDSs) for cancer therapy. To enhance their delivery efficiency, these cells can be combined with therapeutic agents and artificial nanocarriers to construct the next generation of DDSs in the form of biomimetic nanomedicines. In this review, we present the recent advances in cell membrane-based DDSs (CDDSs) and their applications for efficient cancer therapy. Different sources of cell membranes are discussed, mainly including red blood cells (RBC), leukocytes, cancer cells, stem cells and hybrid cells. Moreover, the extraction methods used for obtaining such cells and the mechanism contributing to the functional action of these biomimetic CDDSs are explained. Finally, a future perspective is proposed to highlight the limitations of CDDSs and the possible resolutions toward clinical transformation of currently developed biomimetic chemotherapies.

Cell membrane-camouflaged inorganic nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Inorganic nanoparticles (INPs) have been paid great attention in the field of oncology in recent past years since they have enormous potential in drug delivery, gene delivery, photodynamic therapy (PDT), photothermal therapy (PTT), bio-imaging, driven motion, etc. To overcome the innate limitations of the conventional INPs, such as fast elimination by the immune system, low accumulation in tumor sites, and severe toxicity to the organism, great efforts have recently been made to modify naked INPs, facilitating their clinical application. Taking inspiration from nature, considerable researchers have exploited cell membrane-camouflaged INPs (CMCINPs) by coating various cell membranes onto INPs. CMCINPs naturally inherit the surface adhesive molecules, receptors, and functional proteins from the original cell membrane, making them versatile as the natural cells. In order to give a timely and representative review on this rapidly developing research subject, we highlighted recent advances in CMCINPs with superior unique merits of various INPs and natural cell membranes for cancer therapy applications. The opportunity and obstacles of CMCINPs for clinical translation were also discussed. The review is expected to assist researchers in better eliciting the effect of CMCINPs for the management of tumors and may catalyze breakthroughs in this area.

The strategy of precise targeting and in situ oxygenating for enhanced triple-negative breast cancer chemophototherapy

The absence of effective therapeutic targets and tumor hypoxia are the main causes of failure in the treatment of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). Biomimetic nanotechnology and tumor microenvironment (TME) responsiveness bring hope and opportunity to address this problem. Here, we develop a core membrane nanoplatform (HM/D-I-BL) using hollow mesoporous manganese dioxide (HM) coated with a biomimetic cancer cell membrane for enhanced chemotherapy/phototherapy via the strategy of precise drug delivery and hypoxia amelioration. Cancer cell membrane modification endows HM/D-I-BL with excellent homologous targeting and immune escape performance. Cellular uptake and fluorescence imaging studies confirmed that HM/D-I-BL can be accurately delivered to tumor sites. HM/D-I-BL also features efficient in situ O₂ generation in tumors upon laser irradiation, and subsequently enhanced chemotherapy/phototherapy, pointing to its usefulness as a TME-responsive nanozyme to alleviate tumor hypoxia in the presence of H₂O₂. In addition, HM/D-I-BL showed good fluorescence and magnetic resonance imaging performances, which offers a reliable multimodal image-guided combination tumor therapy for precision theranostics in the future. In general, this intelligent biomimetic nanoplatform with its homotypic tumor targeting, in situ alleviation of tumor hypoxia and synergetic chemophototherapy would open up a new dimension for the precision treatment of TNBC.

Hybrid Mesoporous MnO2-Upconversion Nanoparticles for Image-Guided Lung Cancer Spinal Metastasis Therapy

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and MnO₂ composite materials have broad prospects in biological applications due to their near-infrared (NIR) imaging capability and tumor microenvironment-responsive features. Nevertheless, the synthesis of such composite nanoplatforms still faces many hurdles such as redundant processing and uneven coatings. Here, we explored a simple, rapid, and universal method for precisely controlled coating of mesoporous MnO₂ (mMnO₂) using poly(ethylene imine) as a reducing agent and potassium permanganate as a manganese source. Using this strategy, a mMnO₂ shell was successfully coated on UCNPs. We further modified the mMnO₂-coated UCNPs (UCNP@mMnO₂) with a photosensitizer (Ce6), cisplatin drug (DSP), and tumor targeting pentapeptide (TFA) to obtain a nanoplatform UCNP/Ce6@mMnO₂/DSP-TFA for treating spinal metastasis of nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC-SM). The utilization of both upconversion and downconversion luminescence of UCNPs with different NIR wavelengths can avoid the simultaneous initiation of NIR-II in vivo imaging and tumor photodynamic therapy, thus reducing damage to normal tissues. This platform achieved a high synergistic effect of photodynamic therapy and chemotherapy. This leads to beneficial antitumor effects on the therapy of NSCLC-SM.

Recent Advances in Near Infrared Upconverting Nanomaterials for Targeted Photodynamic Therapy of Cancer

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a well-established treatment of cancer that uses the toxic reactive oxygen species, including singlet oxygen (1O2), generated by photosensitiser drugs following irradiation of a specific wavelength to destroy the cancerous cells and tumours. Visible light is commonly used as the excitation source in PDT, which is not ideal for cancer treatment due to its reduced tissue penetration, and thus inefficiency to treat deep-lying tumours. Additionally, these wavelengths exhibit elevated autofluorescence background from the biological tissues which hinders optical biomedical imaging. An alternative to UV-Vis irradiation is the use of near infrared (NIR) excitation for PDT. This can be achieved using upconverting nanoparticles (UCNPs) functionalised with photosensitiser (PS) drugs where UCNPs can be used as an indirect excitation source for the activation of PS drugs yielding to the production of singlet 1O2 following NIR excitation. The use of nanoparticles for PDT is also beneficial due to their tumour targeting capability, either passively via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect or actively via stimuli-responsive targeting and ligand-mediated targeting (ie. using recognition units that can bind specific receptors only present or overexpressed on tumour cells). Here, we review recent advances in NIR upconverting nanomaterials for PDT of cancer with a clear distinction between those reported nanoparticles that could potentially target the tumour due to accumulation via the EPR effect (passive targeting) and nanoparticle-based systems that contain targeting agents with the aim of actively target the tumour via a molecular recognition process.

Nanodelivery of STING agonists against cancer and infectious diseases

Vaccination is a modality that has been widely explored for the treatment of various diseases. To increase the potency of vaccine formulations, immunostimulatory adjuvants have been regularly exploited, and the stimulator of interferon genes (STING) signaling pathway has recently emerged as a remarkable therapeutic target. STING is an endogenous protein on the endoplasmic reticulum that is a downstream sensor to cytosolic DNA. Upon activation, STING initiates a series of intracellular signaling cascades that ultimately generate potent type I interferon-mediated immune responses. Both natural and synthetic agonists have been used to stimulate the STING pathway, but they are usually administered locally due to low bioavailability, instability, and difficulty in bypassing the plasma membrane. With excellent pharmacokinetic profiles and versatility, nanocarriers can address many of these challenges and broaden the application of STING vaccines. Along these lines, STING-inducing nanovaccines are being developed to address a wide range of diseases. In this review, we discuss the recent advances in STING nanovaccines for anticancer, antiviral, and antibacterial applications.

Homotypic Cancer Cell Membranes Camouflaged Nanoparticles for Targeting Drug Delivery and Enhanced Chemo-Photothermal Therapy of Glioma

Glioma is among the deadliest types of brain cancer, for which there currently is no effective treatment. Chemotherapy is mainstay in the treatment of glioma. However, drug tolerance, non-targeting, and poor blood–brain barrier penetrance severely inhibits the efficacy of chemotherapeutics. An improved treatment method is thus urgently needed. Herein, a multifunctional biomimetic nanoplatform was developed by encapsulating graphene quantum dots (GQDs) and doxorubicin (DOX) inside a homotypic cancer cell membrane (CCM) for targeted chemo-photothermal therapy of glioma. The GQDs with stable fluorescence and a superior light-to-heat conversion property were synthesized as photothermal therapeutic agents and co-encapsulated with DOX in CCM. The as-prepared nanoplatform exhibited a high DOX loading efficiency. The cell membrane coating protected drugs from leakage. Upon an external laser stimuli, the membrane could be destroyed, resulting in rapid DOX release. By taking advantage of the homologous targeting of the cancer cell membrane, the GQDs/DOX@CCM were found to actively target tumor cells, resulting in significantly enhanced cellular uptake. Moreover, a superior suppression efficiency of GQDs/DOX@CCM to cancer cells through chemo-photothermal treatment was also observed. The results suggest that this biomimetic nanoplatform holds potential for efficient targeting of drug delivery and synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy of glioma.

Stem Cell Mimicking Nanoencapsulation for Targeting Arthritis

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are considered a promising regenerative therapy due to their ability to migrate toward damaged tissues. The homing ability of MSCs is unique compared with that of non-migrating cells and MSCs are considered promising therapeutic vectors for targeting major cells in many pathophysiological sites. MSCs have many advantages in the treatment of malignant diseases, particularly rheumatoid arthritis (RA). RA is a representative autoimmune disease that primarily affects joints, and secreted chemokines in the joints are well recognized by MSCs following their migration to the joints. Furthermore, MSCs can regulate the inflammatory process and repair damaged cells in the joints. However, the functionality and migration ability of MSCs injected in vivo still show insufficient. The targeting ability and migration efficiency of MSCs can be enhanced by genetic engineering or modification, eg, overexpressing chemokine receptors or migration-related genes, thus maximizing their therapeutic effect. However, there are concerns about genetic changes due to the increased probability of oncogenesis resulting from genome integration of the viral vector, and thus, clinical application is limited. Furthermore, it is suspected that administering MSCs can promote tumor growth and metastasis in xenograft and orthotopic models. For this reason, MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are an alternative strategy that does not involve using MSCs or bioengineered MSCs. MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations consist of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles, MSC-derived exosomes and artificial ectosomes, and MSC membrane-fused liposomes with natural or genetically engineered MSC membranes. MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations not only retain the targeting ability of MSCs but also have many advantages in terms of targeted drug delivery. Specifically, MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are capable of encapsulating drugs with various components, including chemotherapeutic agents, nucleic acids, and proteins. Furthermore, there are fewer concerns over safety issues on MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations associated with mutagenesis even when using genetically engineered MSCs, because MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations use only the membrane fraction of MSCs. Genetic engineering is a promising route in clinical settings, where nano-encapsulated technology strategies are combined. In this review, the mechanism underlying MSC homing and the advantages of MSC mimicking nanoencapsulations are discussed. In addition, genetic engineering of MSCs and MSC mimicking nanoencapsulation is described as a promising strategy for the treatment of immune-related diseases.

Surface functionalized biomimetic bioreactors enable the targeted starvation-chemotherapy to glioma

Altering the glucose supply and the metabolic pathways would be an intriguing strategy in starvation therapy toward cancers. Nevertheless, starvation therapy alone could be inadequate to eliminate tumor cells completely. Herein, a multifunctional bioreactor was fabricated for synergistic starvation-chemotherapy through embedding glucose oxidase (GOx) and doxorubicin (DOX) in the tumor targeting ligands (RGD) modified red blood cell membrane camouflaged metal-organic framework (MOF) nanoparticle (denoted as RGD-mGZD). Owing to the remarkable biointerfacing property, the designed RGD-mGZD could not only possess enhanced blood retention time inherited from red blood cells, but also preferentially target the tumor site after the modification with RGD peptide. Once the bioreactor reached the desired region, GOx promptly consumed the intratumoral glucose and oxygen to starve cancer cells for robust starvation therapy. More importantly, the aggravated acidic microenvironment at the tumor region was found to induce the decomposition of the MOF structure, thus triggering the release of DOX for reinforced chemotherapy. This bioreactor would further prompt the development of synergistic patterns toward cancer treatment in a spatiotemporally controlled manner.

Polymeric Nanoparticles Properties and Brain Delivery

Safe and reliable entry to the brain is essential for successful diagnosis and treatment of diseases, but it still poses major challenges. As a result, many therapeutic approaches to treating disorders associated with the central nervous system (CNS) still only show limited success. Nano-sized systems are being explored as drug carriers and show great improvements in the delivery of many therapeutics. The systemic delivery of nanoparticles (NPs) or nanocarriers (NCs) to the brain involves reaching the neurovascular unit (NVU), being transported across the blood-brain barrier, (BBB) and accumulating in the brain. Each of these steps can benefit from specifically controlled properties of NPs. Here, we discuss how brain delivery by NPs can benefit from careful design of the NP properties. Properties such as size, charge, shape, and ligand functionalization are commonly addressed in the literature; however, properties such as ligand density, linker length, avidity, protein corona, and stiffness are insufficiently discussed. This is unfortunate since they present great value against multiple barriers encountered by the NPs before reaching the brain, particularly the BBB. We further highlight important examples utilizing targeting ligands and how functionalization parameters, e.g., ligand density and ligand properties, can affect the success of the nano-based delivery system.

Cell Membrane-Coated Mimics: A Methodological Approach for Fabrication, Characterization for Therapeutic Applications, and Challenges for Clinical Translation

Cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics are micro/nanosystems that combine an isolated cell membrane and a template of choice to mimic the functions of a cell. The design exploits its physicochemical and biological properties for therapeutic applications. The mimics demonstrate excellent biological compatibility, enhanced biointerfacing capabilities, physical, chemical, and biological tunability, ability to retain cellular properties, immune escape, prolonged circulation time, and protect the encapsulated drug from degradation and active targeting. These properties and the ease of adapting them for personalized clinical medicine have generated a significant research interest over the past decade. This review presents a detailed overview of the recent advances in the development of cell membrane-coated (CMC) mimics. The primary focus is to collate and discuss components, fabrication methodologies, and the significance of physiochemical and biological characterization techniques for validating a CMC mimic. We present a critical analysis of the two main components of CMC mimics: the template and the cell membrane and mapped their use in therapeutic scenarios. In addition, we have emphasized on the challenges associated with CMC mimics in their clinical translation. Overall, this review is an up to date toolbox that researchers can benefit from while designing and characterizing CMC mimics.

Multifunctional Biomedical Materials Derived from Biological Membranes

The delicate structure and fantastic functions of biological membranes are the successful evolutionary results of a long-term natural selection process. Their excellent biocompatibility and biofunctionality are widely utilized to construct multifunctional biomedical materials mainly by directly camouflaging materials with single or mixed biological membranes, decorating or incorporating materials with membrane-derived vesicles (e.g., exosomes), and designing multifunctional materials with the structure/functions of biological membranes. Here, the structure-function relationship of some important biological membranes and biomimetic membranes are discussed, such as various cell membranes, extracellular vesicles, and membranes from bacteria and organelles. Selected literature examples of multifunctional biomaterials derived from biological membranes for biomedical applications, such as drug- and gene-delivery systems, tissue-repair scaffolds, bioimaging, biosensors, and biological detection, are also highlighted. These designed materials show excellent properties, such as long circulation time, disease-targeted therapy, excellent biocompatibility, and selective recognition. Finally, perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical applications of biological-membrane-derived materials are discussed.

Optimization of Nanoparticles for Smart Drug Delivery: A Review

Nanoparticle delivery systems have good application prospects in the treatment of various diseases, especially in cancer treatment. The effect of drug delivery is regulated by the properties of nanoparticles. There have been many studies focusing on optimizing the structure of nanoparticles in recent years, and a series of achievements have been made. This review summarizes the optimization strategies of nanoparticles from three aspects-improving biocompatibility, increasing the targeting efficiency of nanoparticles, and improving the drug loading rate of nanoparticles-aiming to provide some theoretical reference for the subsequent drug delivery of nanoparticles.

Electrophoresis of Liquid-Layer Coated Particles: Impact of Ion Partitioning and Ion Steric Effects

The biomimetic core-shell nanoparticles coated with membranes of various biological cells have attracted significant research interest, because of their extensive applications in targeted drug delivery systems. The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, which can be regarded as a two-dimensional oriented viscous liquid with low dielectric permittivity, compared to a bulk aqueous medium. Such a liquid layer comprised of cell membrane may bear additional mobile charges, because of the presence of free lipid molecules or charged surfactant molecules, which further results in nonzero charge along the surface of the peripheral layer. In this article, we present an analytical theory for electrophoresis of such cell membrane coated functionalized nanoparticles in the extent of electrolyte solution, considering the combined effects of finite ion size and of ion partitioning. Going beyond the Debye-Huckel approximations, we propose an analytical theory for Donnan potential and electrophoretic mobility. The derived expressions are applicable for moderate to highly charged undertaken core-shell particles when the thickness of the peripheral liquid layer greatly exceeds the electric double layer thickness. The impact of pertinent parameters on the electrophoretic response of such a particle is further discussed.

Application of lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles for cancer treatment: a review

With the excellent ability to transform near-infrared light to localized visible or UV light, thereby achieving deep tissue penetration, lanthanide ion-doped upconversion nanoparticles (UCNP) have emerged as one of the most striking nanoscale materials for more effective and safer cancer treatment. Up to now, UCNPs combined with photosensitive components have been widely used in the delivery of chemotherapy drugs, photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy. Applications in these directions are reviewed in this article. We also highlight microenvironmental tumor monitoring and precise targeted therapies. Then we briefly summarize some new trends and the existing challenges for UCNPs. We hope this review can provide new ideas for future cancer treatment based on UCNPs.

Biomimetic Black Phosphorus Nanosheet-Based Drug Delivery System for Targeted Photothermal-Chemo Cancer Therapy

As a biodegradable material, black phosphorus (BP) has been considered as an efficient agent for cancer photothermal therapy. However, its systemic delivery faces several hurdles, including rapid degradation in blood circulation, quick clearance by the immune system, and low delivery sufficiency to the tumor site. Here, we developed a biomimetic nanoparticle platform for in vivo tumor-targeted delivery of BP nanosheets (BP NSs). Through a biomimetic strategy, BP NSs were utilized to coordinate with the active species of oxaliplatin (1,2-diaminocyclohexane) platinum (II) (DACHPt) complexions, and the nanoparticles were further camouflaged with mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)–derived membranes. We showed that the incorporation of DACHPt not only decelerated the BP degradation but also enhanced the antitumor effect by combining the photothermal effect with chemotoxicity. Furthermore, MSC membrane coating increased the stability, dispersibility, and tumor-targeting properties of BP/DACHPt, significantly improving the antitumor efficacy. In short, our work not only provided a new strategy for in vivo tumor-targeted delivery of BP NSs but also obtained an enhanced antitumor effect by combining photothermal therapy with chemotherapy.

Hybrid Membrane-Coated Biomimetic Nanoparticles (HM@BNPs): A Multifunctional Nanomaterial for Biomedical Applications

The application of nanoparticles in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases has undergone different developmental stages, but phagocytosis and nonspecific distribution have been the main factors restricting the transformation of nanobased drugs into clinical practice. In the past decade, the design of membrane-coated nanoparticles has gained increasing attention. It is hoped that the combination of the cell membrane's natural biological properties and the functional integration of synthetic nanoparticle systems can compensate for the shortage of traditional nanoparticles. The membrane coating gives the nanoparticles unique biological functions such as immune evasion and targeting capability. However, when the encapsulation of monotypic membranes does not meet the diverse demands of biomedicine, the combination of different cell membranes may offer more possibilities. In this review, the composition, preparation, and advantages of biomimetic nanoparticles coated with hybrid cell membranes are summarized, and the applications of hybrid membrane-coated biomimetic nanoparticles (HM@BNPs) in drug delivery, phototherapy, liquid biopsy, tumor vaccines, immune therapy, and detoxification are reviewed. Finally, the current challenges and opportunities with regard to HM@BNPs are discussed.

Effect of Extracellular Matrix Coating on Cancer Cell Membrane-Encapsulated Polyethyleneimine/DNA Complexes for Efficient and Targeted DNA Delivery In Vitro

Polyethyleneimine (PEI) has a good spongy proton effect and is an excellent nonviral gene vector, but its high charge density leads to the instability and toxicity of PEI/DNA complexes. Cell membrane (CM) capsules provide a universal and natural solution for this problem. Here, CM-coated PEI/DNA capsules (CPDcs) were prepared through extrusion, and the extracellular matrix was coated on CPDcs (ECM-CPDcs) for improved targeting. The results showed that compared with PEI/DNA complexes, CPDcs had core-shell structures (PEI/DNA complexes were coated by a 6-10 nm layer), lower cytotoxicity, and obvious homologous targeting. The internalization and transfection efficiency of 293T-CM-coated PEI70k/DNA capsules (293T-CP70Dcs) were 91.8 and 74.5%, respectively, which were higher than those of PEI70k/DNA complexes. Then, the internalization and transfection efficiency of 293T-CP70Dcs were further improved by ECM coating, which were 94.7 and 78.9%, respectively. Then, the internalization and transfection efficiency of 293T-CP70Dcs were further improved by ECM coating, which were 94.7 and 78.9%, respectively. Moreover, the homologous targeting of various CPDcs was improved by ECM coating, and other CPDcs also showed similar effects as 293T-CP70Dcs after ECM coating. These findings suggest that tumor-targeted CPDcs may have considerable advantages in gene delivery.

The Fate of Nanoparticles In Vivo and the Strategy of Designing Stealth Nanoparticle for Drug Delivery

Nano-drug delivery systems (Nano-DDS) offer powerful advantages in drug delivery and targeted therapy for diseases. Compared to the traditional drug formulations, Nano-DDS can increase solubility, biocompatibility, and reduce off-targeted side effects of free drugs. However, they still have some disadvantages that pose a limitation in reaching their full potential in clinical use. Protein adsorption in blood, activation of the complement system, and subsequent sequestration by the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) consequently result in nanoparticles (NPs) to be rapidly cleared from circulation. Therefore, NPs have low drug delivery efficiency. So, it is important to develop stealth NPs for reducing bio-nano interaction. In this review, we first conclude the interaction between NPs and biological environments, such as blood proteins and MPS, and factors influencing each other. Next, we will summarize the new strategies to reduce NPs protein adsorption and uptake by the MPS based on current knowledge of the bio-nano interaction. Further directions will also be highlighted for the development of biomimetic stealth nano-delivery systems by combining targeted strategies for a better therapeutic effect.