Protein-Based Nanomedicine for Therapeutic Benefits of Cancer

Rationalized landscape on protein-based cancer nanomedicine: Recent progress and challenges

The clinical advancement of protein-based nanomedicine has revolutionized medical professionals' perspectives on cancer therapy. Protein-based nanoparticles have been exploited as attractive vehicles for cancer nanomedicine due to their unique properties derived from naturally biomacromolecules with superior biocompatibility and pharmaceutical features. Furthermore, the successful translation of Abraxane™ (paclitaxel-based albumin nanoparticles) into clinical application opened a new avenue for protein-based cancer nanomedicine. In this mini-review article, we demonstrate the rational design and recent progress of protein-based nanoparticles along with their applications in cancer diagnosis and therapy from recent literature. The current challenges and hurdles that hinder clinical application of protein-based nanoparticles are highlighted. Finally, future perspectives for translating protein-based nanoparticles into clinic are identified.

Nanomaterials as Microglia Modulators in the Treatment of Central Nervous System Disorders

Microglia play a pivotal role in the central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis, acting as housekeepers and defenders of the surrounding environment. These cells can elicit their functions by shifting into two main phenotypes: pro-inflammatory classical phenotype, M1, and anti-inflammatory alternative phenotype, M2. Despite their pivotal role in CNS homeostasis, microglia phenotypes can influence the development and progression of several CNS disorders such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injuries, and even brain cancer. It is thus clear that the possibility of modulating microglia activation has gained attention as a therapeutic tool against many CNS pathologies. Nanomaterials are an unprecedented tool for manipulating microglia responses, in particular, to specifically target microglia and elicit an in situ immunomodulation activity. This review focuses the discussion on two main aspects: analyzing the possibility of using nanomaterials to stimulate a pro-inflammatory response of microglia against brain cancer and introducing nanostructures able to foster an anti-inflammatory response for treating neurodegenerative disorders. The final aim is to stimulate the analysis of the development of new microglia nano-immunomodulators, paving the way for innovative and effective therapeutic approaches for the treatment of CNS disorders.

Nucleus-targeting DNase I self-assembly delivery system guided by pirarubicin for programmed multi-drugs release and combined anticancer therapy

The cell nucleus serves as the pivotal command center of living cells, and delivering therapeutic agents directly into the nucleus can result in highly efficient anti-tumor eradication of cancer cells. However, nucleus-targeting drug delivery is very difficult due to the presence of numerous biological barriers. Here, three antitumor drugs (DNase I, ICG: indocyanine green, and THP: pirarubicin) were sequentially triggered protein self-assembly to produce a nucleus-targeting and programmed responsive multi-drugs delivery system (DIT). DIT consisted of uniform spherical particles with a size of 282 ± 7.7 nm. The acidic microenvironment of tumors and near-infrared light could successively trigger DIT for the programmed release of three drugs, enabling targeted delivery to the tumor. THP served as a nucleus-guiding molecule and a chemotherapy drug. Through THP-guided DIT, DNase I was successfully delivered to the nucleus of tumor cells and killed them by degrading their DNA. Tumor acidic microenvironment had the ability to induce DIT, leading to the aggregation of sufficient ICG in the tumor tissues. This provided an opportunity for the photothermal therapy of ICG. Hence, three drugs were cleverly combined using a simple method to achieve multi-drugs targeted delivery and highly effective combined anticancer therapy.

Nanomedomics

Nanomaterials have attractive physicochemical properties. A variety of nanomaterials such as inorganic, lipid, polymers, and protein nanoparticles have been widely developed for nanomedicine via chemical conjugation or physical encapsulation of bioactive molecules. Superior to traditional drugs, nanomedicines offer high biocompatibility, good water solubility, long blood circulation times, and tumor-targeting properties. Capitalizing on this, several nanoformulations have already been clinically approved and many others are currently being studied in clinical trials. Despite their undoubtful success, the molecular mechanism of action of the vast majority of nanomedicines remains poorly understood. To tackle this limitation, herein, this review critically discusses the strategy of applying multiomics analysis to study the mechanism of action of nanomedicines, named nanomedomics, including advantages, applications, and future directions. A comprehensive understanding of the molecular mechanism could provide valuable insight and therefore foster the development and clinical translation of nanomedicines.

Biomimetic nanotechnology for cancer immunotherapy: State of the art and future perspective

Cancer continues to be a significant worldwide cause of mortality. This underscores the urgent need for novel strategies to complement and overcome the limitations of conventional therapies, such as imprecise targeting and drug resistance. Cancer Immunotherapy utilizes the body's immune system to target malignant cells, reducing harm to healthy tissue. Nevertheless, the efficacy of immunotherapy exhibits variation across individuals and has the potential to induce autoimmune responses. Biomimetic nanoparticles (bNPs) have transformative potential in cancer immunotherapy, promising improved accurate targeting, immune system activation, and resistance mechanisms, while also reducing the occurrence of systemic autoimmune side effects. This integration offers opportunities for personalized medicine and better therapeutic outcomes. Despite considerable potential, bNPs face barriers like insufficient targeting, restricted biological stability, and interactions within the tumor microenvironment. The resolution of these concerns is crucial in order to expedite the integration of bNPs from the research setting into clinical therapeutic uses. In addition, optimizing manufacturing processes and reducing bNP-related costs are essential for practical implementation. The present research introduces comprehensive classifications of bNPs as well as recent achievements in their application in cancer immunotherapies, emphasizing the need to address barriers for swift clinical integration.

Precision Sequence-Defined Polymers: From Sequencing to Biological Functions

Precise sequence-defined polymers (SDPs) with uniform chain-to-chain structure including chain length, unit sequence, and end functionalities represent the pinnacle of sophistication in the realm of polymer science. For example, the absolute control over the unit sequence of SDPs allows for the bottom-up design of polymers with hierarchical microstructures and functions. Accompanied with the development of synthetic techniques towards precision SDPs, the decoding of SDP sequences and construction of advanced functions irreplaceable by other synthetic materials is of central importance. In this Minireview, we focus on recent advances in SDP sequencing techniques including tandem mass spectrometry (MS), chemically assisted primary MS, as well as other non-destructive sequencing methods such as nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, circular dichroism (CD), and nanopore sequencing. Additionally, we delve into the promising prospects of SDP functions in the area of cutting-edge biological research. Topics of exploration include gene delivery systems, the development of hybrid materials combining SDPs and nucleic acids, protein recognition and regulation, as well as the interplay between chirality and biological functions. A brief outlook towards the future directions of SDPs is also presented.

Engineered Recombinant EGFP-Azurin Theranostic Nanosystem for Targeted Therapy of Prostate Cancer

Erythropoietin-producing hepatocellular (Eph) receptors and their ligands, ephrins, are the largest subfamily of receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) that have emerged as a new class of cancer biomarkers due to their aberrant expression in cancer progression. The activation of Eph receptors either due to their hyperexpression or via high affinity binding with their respective ephrin ligands initiates a cascade of signals that impacts cancer development and progression. In prostate cancer, the overexpression of the EphA6 receptor has been correlated with increased metastatic potential. Azurin, a small redox protein, is known to prevent tumor progression by binding to cell surface Eph receptors, inhibiting its autophosphorylation in the kinase domain and thereby disrupting Eph-ephrin signaling. Hence, a self-assembled, theranostic nanosystem of recombinant fusion protein his6EGFP-azu (80-128) was designed by conjugating enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) with the C-terminal region of azurin. This design was inspired by the in silico binding study, where the analogue of ephrinA, his6EGFP-azu (80-128) showed higher binding affinity for the EphA6 receptor than the ephrinA ligands. The his6EGFP-azu (80-128) nanosystem which assembled as nanoparticles was tested for its ability to simultaneously detect and kill the prostate cancer cells, LNCaP. This was achieved by specifically targeting EphA6 receptors overexpressed on the cancer cell surface via C-terminal peptide, azu (80-128). Herein, we report antiproliferative, apoptotic, antimigratory, and anti-invasive effects of this nanosystem on LNCaP cells, while having no similar effects on EphA6 negative human normal lung cells, WI-38.

Protein-based Nanoparticles: From Drug Delivery to Imaging, Nanocatalysis and Protein Therapy

Proteins and enzymes are versatile biomaterials for a wide range of medical applications due to their high specificity for receptors and substrates, high degradability, low toxicity, and overall good biocompatibility. Protein nanoparticles are formed by the arrangement of several native or modified proteins into nanometer-sized assemblies. In this review, we will focus on artificial nanoparticle systems, where proteins are the main structural element and not just an encapsulated payload. While under natural conditions, only certain proteins form defined aggregates and nanoparticles, chemical modifications or a change in the physical environment can further extend the pool of available building blocks. This allows the assembly of many globular proteins and even enzymes. These advances in preparation methods led to the emergence of new generations of nanosystems that extend beyond transport vehicles to diverse applications, from multifunctional drug delivery to imaging, nanocatalysis and protein therapy.

Recent advances and future directions in etiopathogenesis and mechanisms of reactive oxygen species in cancer treatment

A class of exceptionally bioactive molecules known as reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been widely studied in the context of cancer. They play a significant role in the etiopathogenesis for cancer. Implication of ROS in cancer biology is an evolving area, considering the recent advances; insights into their generation, role of genomic and epigenetic regulators for ROS, earlier thought to be a chemical process, with interrelations with cell death pathways- Apoptosis, ferroptosis, necroptosis and autophagy has been explored for newer targets that shift the balance of ROS towards cancer cell death. ROS are signal transducers that induce angiogenesis, invasion, cell migration, and proliferation at low to moderate concentrations and are considered normal by-products of a range of biological activities. Although ROS is known to exist in the oncology domain since time immemorial, its excessive quantities are known to damage organelles, membranes, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, resulting in cell death. In the last two decades, numerous studies have demonstrated immunotherapies and other anticancer treatments that modulate ROS levels have promising in vitro and in vivo effects. This review also explores recent targets for therapeutic interventions in cancer that are based on ROS generation or inhibition to disrupt the cell oxidative stress balance. Examples include-metabolic targets, targeted therapy with biomarkers, natural extracts and nutraceuticals and targets developed in the area of nano medicine. In this review, we present the molecular pathways which can be used to create therapy plans that target cancer by regulating ROS levels, particularly current developments and potential prospects for the effective implementation of ROS-mediated therapies in clinical settings. The recent advances in complex interaction with apoptosis especially ferroptosis and its role in epigenomics and modifications are a new paradigm, to just mechanical action of ROS, as highlighted in this review. Their inhibition by nutraceuticals and natural extracts has been a scientific challenging avenue that is explored. Also, the inhibition of generation of ROS by inhibitors, immune modulators and inhibitors of apoptosis and ferroptosis is explored in this review.

Gold Nanomaterial System That Enables Dual Photothermal and Chemotherapy for Breast Cancer

This study involves the fabrication and characterization of a multifunctional therapeutic nanocomposite system, as well as an assessment of its in vitro efficacy for breast cancer treatment. The nanocomposite system combines gold nanorods (GNRs) and gold nanoclusters (GNCs) to enable a combination of photothermal therapy and doxorubicin-based chemotherapy. GNRs of various sizes but exhibiting similar absorbance spectra were synthesized and screened for photothermal efficiency. GNRs exhibiting the highest photothermal efficiency were selected for further experiments. GNCs were synthesized in bovine serum albumin (BSA) and integrated into citrate-capped GNRs using layer-by-layer assembly. Glutaraldehyde crosslinking with the lysine residues in BSA was employed to immobilize the GNCs onto the GNRs, forming a stable "soft gel-like" structure. This structure provided binding sites for doxorubicin through electrostatic interactions and enhanced the overall structural stability of the nanocomposite. Additionally, the presence of GNCs allowed the nanocomposite system to emit robust fluorescence in the range of ~520 nm to 700 nm for self-detection. Hyaluronic acid was functionalized on the exterior surface of the nanocomposite as a targeting moiety for CD44 to improve the cellular internalization and specificity for breast cancer cells. The developed nanocomposite system demonstrated good stability in vitro and exhibited a pH- and near-infrared-responsive drug release behavior. In vitro studies showed the efficient internalization of the nanocomposite system and reduced cellular viability following NIR irradiation in MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. Together, these results highlight the potential of this nanocomposite system for targeted breast cancer therapy.

Design and fabrication of intracellular therapeutic cargo delivery systems based on nanomaterials: current status and future perspectives

Intracellular cargo delivery, the introduction of small molecules, proteins, and nucleic acids into a specific targeted site in a biological system, is an important strategy for deciphering cell function, directing cell fate, and reprogramming cell behavior. With the advancement of nanotechnology, many researchers use nanoparticles (NPs) to break through biological barriers to achieving efficient targeted delivery in biological systems, bringing a new way to realize efficient targeted drug delivery in biological systems. With a similar size to many biomolecules, NPs possess excellent physical and chemical properties and a certain targeting ability after functional modification on the surface of NPs. Currently, intracellular cargo delivery based on NPs has emerged as an important strategy for genome editing regimens and cell therapy. Although researchers can successfully deliver NPs into biological systems, many of them are delivered very inefficiently and are not specifically targeted. Hence, the development of efficient, target-capable, and safe nanoscale drug delivery systems to deliver therapeutic substances to cells or organs is a major challenge today. In this review, on the basis of describing the research overview and classification of NPs, we focused on the current research status of intracellular cargo delivery based on NPs in biological systems, and discuss the current problems and challenges in the delivery process of NPs in biological systems.

Biomaterial-enabled therapeutic modulation of cGAS-STING signaling for enhancing antitumor immunity

cGAS-STING signaling is a central component in the therapeutic action of most existing cancer therapies. The accumulated knowledge of tumor immunoregulatory network in recent years has spurred the development of cGAS-STING agonists for tumor treatment as an effective immunotherapeutic strategy. However, the clinical translation of these agonists is thus far unsatisfactory because of the low immunostimulatory efficacy and unrestricted side effects under clinically relevant conditions. Interestingly, the rational integration of biomaterial technology offers a promising approach to overcome these limitations for more effective and safer cGAS-STING-mediated tumor therapy. Herein, we first outline the cGAS-STING signaling axis and generally discuss its association with tumors. We then symmetrically summarize the recent progress in those biomaterial-based cGAS-STING agonism strategies to generate robust antitumor immunity, categorized by the chemical nature of those cGAS-STING stimulants and carrier substrates. Finally, a perspective is provided to discuss the existing challenges and potential opportunities in cGAS-STING modulation for tumor therapy.

Drug-Grafted DNA for Cancer Therapy

With the development of solid-phase synthesis and DNA nanotechnology, DNA-based drug delivery systems have seen large advancements over the past decades. By combining various drugs (small-molecular drugs, oligonucleotides, peptides, and proteins) with DNA technology, drug-grafted DNA has demonstrated great potential as a promising platform in recent years, in which complementary properties of both components have been discovered; for instance, the synthesis of amphiphilic drug-grafted DNA has enabled the production of DNA nanomedicines for gene therapy and chemotherapy. Through the design of linkages between drug and DNA parts, stimuli-responsiveness can be instilled, which has boosted the application of drug-grafted DNA in various biomedical applications such as cancer therapy. This review discusses the progress of various drug-grafted DNA therapeutic agents, exploring the synthetic techniques and anticancer applications afforded through the combination of drug and nucleic acids.

Fundamental concepts of protein therapeutics and spacing in oncology: an updated comprehensive review

Current treatment regimens in cancer cases cause significant side effects and cannot effectively eradicate the advanced disease. Hence, much effort has been expended over the past years to understand how cancer grows and responds to therapies. Meanwhile, proteins as a type of biopolymers have been under commercial development for over three decades and have been proven to improve the healthcare system as effective medicines for treating many types of progressive disease, such as cancer. Following approving the first recombinant protein therapeutics by FDA (Humulin), there have been a revolution for drawing attention toward protein-based therapeutics (PTs). Since then, the ability to tailor proteins with ideal pharmacokinetics has provided the pharmaceutical industry with an important noble path to discuss the clinical potential of proteins in oncology research. Unlike traditional chemotherapy molecules, PTs actively target cancerous cells by binding to their surface receptors and the other biomarkers particularly associated with tumorous or healthy tissue. This review analyzes the potential and limitations of protein therapeutics (PTs) in the treatment of cancer as well as highlighting the evolving strategies by addressing all possible factors, including pharmacology profile and targeted therapy approaches. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of PTs in oncology, including their pharmacology profile, targeted therapy approaches, and prospects. The reviewed data show that several current and future challenges remain to make PTs a promising and effective anticancer drug, such as safety, immunogenicity, protein stability/degradation, and protein-adjuvant interactions.

Microfluidic Formulation of Curcumin-Loaded Multiresponsive Gelatin Nanoparticles for Anticancer Therapy

Current anticancer research shows that a combination of multiple treatment methods can greatly improve the killing of tumor cells. Using the latest microfluidic swirl mixer technology, combined with chemotherapy and photothermal-ablation therapy, we developed multiresponsive targeted antitumor nanoparticles (NPs) made of folate-functionalized gelatin NPs under 200 nm in size and with encapsulated CuS NPs, Fe₃O₄ NPs, and curcumin (Cur). By exploring gelatin's structure, adjusting its concentration and pH, and fine-tuning the fluid dynamics in the microfluidic device, the best preparation conditions were obtained for gelatin NPs with an average particle size of 90 ± 7 nm. The comparative targeting of the drug delivery system (DDS) was demonstrated on lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells (low level of folate receptors) and breast adenocarcinoma MCF-7 cells (high level of folate receptors). Folic acid helps achieve targeting and accurate delivery of NPs to the MCF-7 tumor cells. The synergistic photothermal ablation and curcumin's anticancer activity are achieved through infrared light irradiation (980 nm), while Fe₃O₄ is guided with an external magnetic field to target gelatin NPs and accelerate the uptake of drugs, thus efficiently killing tumor cells. The method described in this work is simple, easy to repeat, and has great potential to be scaled up for industrial production and subsequent clinical use.

Phosphocholine-Functionalized Zwitterionic Highly Branched Poly(β-amino ester)s for Cytoplasmic Protein Delivery

Proteins have tremendous potential for vaccine development and disease treatment, but multiple extracellular and intracellular biological barriers must be overcome before they can exert specific biological functions in the target tissue. The use of polymers as carriers would greatly improve their bioavailability and therapeutic efficiency. Nevertheless, effective protein packaging and cell membrane penetration without causing cytotoxicity is particularly challenging, due largely to the simultaneous distribution of positive and negative charges on protein surface. Here, phosphocholine-functionalized zwitterionic poly(β-amino ester)s, HPAE-D-(±), are developed for cytoplasmic protein delivery. The zwitterionic phosphocholine is capable of binding to both proteins and the cell membrane to facilitate protein packaging and nanoparticle cellular uptake. Compared to amine-functionalized HPAE-E-(+) and carboxylic acid-functionalized HPAE-C-(-), HPAE-D-(±) exhibits much higher cytoplasmic protein delivery efficiency and lower cytotoxicity. In addition, HPAE-D-(±) are readily degraded in aqueous solution. This strategy may be extended to other zwitterions and polymers, thus having profound implications for the development of safe and efficient protein delivery systems.

Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly for Efficient Fabrication of Biomedical Nanoplatforms

Amphiphilic copolymers can self-assemble into nano-objects in aqueous solution. However, the self-assembly process is usually performed in a diluted solution (<1 wt%), which greatly limits scale-up production and further biomedical applications. With recent development of controlled polymerization techniques, polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) has emerged as an efficient approach for facile fabrication of nano-sized structures with a high concentration as high as 50 wt%. In this review, after the introduction, various polymerization method-mediated PISAs that include nitroxide-mediated polymerization-mediated PISA (NMP-PISA), reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization-mediated PISA (RAFT-PISA), atom transfer radical polymerization-mediated PISA (ATRP-PISA), and ring-opening polymerization-mediated PISA (ROP-PISA) are discussed carefully. Afterward, recent biomedical applications of PISA are illustrated from the following aspects, i.e., bioimaging, disease treatment, biocatalysis, and antimicrobial. In the end, current achievements and future perspectives of PISA are given. It is envisioned that PISA strategy can bring great chance for future design and construction of functional nano-vehicles.

BSA-templated synthesis of Ir/Gd bimetallic oxide nanotheranostics for MR/CT imaging-guided photothermal and photodynamic synergistic therapy

Precision medicine urges the development of theranostics which can efficiently integrate precise diagnosis and effective therapy. In this study, a facile synthesis of Ir/Gd bimetallic oxide nanotheranostics (termed BSA@Gd₂O₃/IrO₂ NPs) with good biocompatibility was demonstrated using a biomineralization method where bovine serum albumin (BSA) served as a versatile template. BSA@Gd₂O₃/IrO₂ NPs exhibited high longitudinal relaxivity (5.2 mM^-1 s^-1) and X-ray absorption capability (14.5 Hu mM^-1), illustrating them to be a good contrast agent for magnetic resonance (MR) and computed tomography (CT) dual-modal imaging. Moreover, BSA@Gd₂O₃/IrO₂ NPs can act as not only a photothermal conversion agent with ultrahigh efficiency (66.7%) as well as a good photosensitizer, but also an effective catalase to decompose endogenous H₂O₂ to produce O₂, thus relieving hypoxia and enhancing the phototherapeutic effect. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated the high effectiveness of BSA@Gd₂O₃/IrO₂ NPs in MR/CT dual-modal imaging and photothermal and photodynamic synergistic tumor treatments. This work sheds new light on the development of versatile nanotheranostic systems using mild and robust biomineralization methods.

Proteins and their functionalization for finding therapeutic avenues in cancer: Current status and future prospective

Despite the remarkable advancement in the health care sector, cancer remains the second most fatal disease globally. The existing conventional cancer treatments primarily include chemotherapy, which has been associated with little to severe side effects, and radiotherapy, which is usually expensive. To overcome these problems, target-specific nanocarriers have been explored for delivering chemo drugs. However, recent reports on using a few proteins having anticancer activity and further use of them as drug carriers have generated tremendous attention for furthering the research towards cancer therapy. Biomolecules, especially proteins, have emerged as suitable alternatives in cancer treatment due to multiple favourable properties including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural flexibility for easy surface functionalization. Several in vitro and in vivo studies have reported that various proteins derived from animal, plant, and bacterial species, demonstrated strong cytotoxic and antiproliferative properties against malignant cells in native and their different structural conformations. Moreover, surface tunable properties of these proteins help to bind a range of anticancer drugs and target ligands, thus making them efficient delivery agents in cancer therapy. Here, we discuss various proteins obtained from common exogenous sources and how they transform into effective anticancer agents. We also comprehensively discuss the tumor-killing mechanisms of different dietary proteins such as bovine α-lactalbumin, hen egg-white lysozyme, and their conjugates. We also articulate how protein nanostructures can be used as carriers for delivering cancer drugs and theranostics, and strategies to be adopted for improving their in vivo delivery and targeting. We further discuss the FDA-approved protein-based anticancer formulations along with those in different phases of clinical trials.

Tumor microenvironment (TME)-modulating nanoreactor for multiply enhanced chemodynamic therapy synergized with chemotherapy, starvation, and photothermal therapy

The combination of chemotherapy (CT) and chemodynamic therapy (CDT) via nanoscale drug delivery systems has great potential for tumor therapy. Nevertheless, the low intracellular H₂O₂ and high reductive glutathione (GSH) levels, as well as the mildly acidic conditions (pH 5.8-6.8) of the tumor microenvironment (TME) still limit their further applications. To tackle these problems, a TME-modulating nanoreactor (denoted as Fe₃O₄-DOX@PDA-GOx@HA, FDPGH) was developed through a simple and practicable method to achieve multiply enhanced CDT synergized with CT, starvation therapy (ST), and photothermal therapy (PTT). Upon cellular uptake, the hyaluronic acid (HA) and PDA shells rapidly collapsed to release Fe₃O₄, glucose oxidase (GOx) and doxorubicin (DOX), and the overexpressed GSH could promote the reduction of Fe³⁺ to Fe²⁺, resulting in CDT activation. GOx-driven oxidation reaction not only produced H₂O₂ for enhanced CDT, but also killed tumor cells by initiating ST. In addition, the acid amplification caused by gluconic acid production in turn accelerated the degradation of FDPGH, promoting the Fenton reaction to enhance CDT. Most importantly, the nanoreactor had excellent photothermal performance to achieve PTT and PTT-enhanced CDT with the release of DOX into tumor tissue to achieve enhanced CT. This novel cascade nanoreactor with TME-modulating capability is intended to provide further inspiration for multimodal treatment paradigms.

A cooperative nano-CRISPR scaffold potentiates immunotherapy via activation of tumour-intrinsic pyroptosis

Efficient cancer immunotherapy depends on selective targeting of high bioactivity therapeutic agents to the tumours. However, delivering exogenous medication might prove difficult in clinical practice. Here we report a cooperative Nano-CRISPR scaffold (Nano-CD) that utilizes a specific sgRNA, selected from a functional screen for triggering endogenous GDSME expression, while releasing cisplatin to initiate immunologic cell death. Mechanistically, cascade-amplification of the antitumor immune response is prompted by the adjuvantic properties of the lytic intracellular content and enhanced by the heightened GDSME expression, resulting in pyroptosis and the release of tumor associated antigens. Neither of the single components provide efficient tumour control, while tumor growth is efficiently inhibited in primary and recurrent melanomas due to the combinatorial effect of cisplatin and self-supplied GSDME. Moreover, Nano-CD in combination with checkpoint blockade creates durable immune memory and strong systemic anti-tumor immune response, leading to disease relapse prevention, lung metastasis inhibition and increased survival in mouse melanomas. Taken together, our therapeutic approach utilizes CRISPR-technology to enable cell-intrinsic protein expression for immunotherapy, using GDSME as prototypic immune modulator. This nanoplatform thus can be applied to modulate further immunological processes for therapeutic benefit.

Hemoglobin Nanocrystals for Drugs Free, Synergistic Theranostics of Colon Tumor

The conventional approach in cancer nanomedicine involves advanced drug nanocarriers delivering preloaded therapeutics to targeted tumor sites to maximize drug efficiency. However, both cancer drugs and nanocarriers inevitably produce side effects and systemic toxicity. Herein, hemoglobin nanocrystals (HbC) as drug-free theranostic nanoformulations with the tumor microenvironment (TME) activated diagnostic and therapeutic abilities towards colon tumors are introduced. HbC can release Fe²⁺ oxidized to Fe³⁺ in the Fenton reaction with tumor endogenous H₂ O₂ , concurrently with the generation of cytotoxic hydroxyl radicals (•OH) that allow for chemodynamic therapy (CDT). Furthermore, in situ-produced Fe³⁺ reacts with colon tumor-abundant H₂ S, resulting in the production of Fe_{1- x} S, which provides magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast and allows for NIR light-inducible photothermal therapy (PTT). In vitro and in vivo studies revealed that HbC produced CDT towards 4T1 tumors, and MRI-guided, synergistically enhanced combination of CDT and PTT against H₂ S abundant colon tumors (CT26), with negligible toxicity towards normal tissues, enlightening HbC as highly efficient and biocompatible TME activated theranostic nanoplatform specific against colon cancer without any traditional drugs and drug carriers.

Supramolecular Phenylalanine-Derived Hydrogels for the Sustained Release of Functional Proteins

Protein-based therapeutics have emerged as next-generation pharmaceutical agents for oncology, bone regeneration, autoimmune disorders, viral infections, and other diseases. The clinical application of protein therapeutics has been impeded by pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic challenges including off-target toxicity, rapid clearance, and drug stability. Strategies for the localized and sustained delivery of protein therapeutics have shown promise in addressing these challenges. Hydrogels are critical materials that enable these delivery strategies. Supramolecular hydrogels composed of self-assembled materials have demonstrated biocompatibility advantages over polymer hydrogels, with peptide and protein-based gels showing strong potential. However, cost is a significant drawback of peptide-based supramolecular hydrogels. Supramolecular hydrogels composed of inexpensive low-molecular-weight (LMW) gelators, including modified amino acid derivatives, have been reported as viable alternatives to peptide-based materials. Herein, we report the encapsulation and release of proteins from supramolecular hydrogels composed of perfluorinated fluorenylmethyloxcarbonyl-modified phenylalanine (Fmoc-F₅-Phe-DAP). Specifically, we demonstrate release of four model proteins (ribonuclease A (RNase A), trypsin inhibitor (TI), bovine serum albumin (BSA), and human immunoglobulin G (IgG)) from these hydrogels. The emergent viscoelastic properties of these materials are characterized, and the functional and time-dependent release of proteins from the hydrogels is demonstrated. In addition, it is shown that the properties of the aqueous solution used for hydrogel formulation have a significant influence on the in vitro release profiles, as a function of the isoelectric point and molecular weight of the protein payloads. These studies collectively validate that this class of supramolecular LMW hydrogel possesses the requisite properties for the sustained and localized release of protein therapeutics.

Nanomedicine embraces cancer radio-immunotherapy: mechanism, design, recent advances, and clinical translation

Cancer radio-immunotherapy, integrating external/internal radiation therapy with immuno-oncology treatments, emerges in the current management of cancer. A growing number of pre-clinical studies and clinical trials have recently validated the synergistic antitumor effect of radio-immunotherapy, far beyond the "abscopal effect", but it suffers from a low response rate and toxicity issues. To this end, nanomedicines with an optimized design have been introduced to improve cancer radio-immunotherapy. Specifically, these nanomedicines are elegantly prepared by incorporating tumor antigens, immuno- or radio-regulators, or biomarker-specific imaging agents into the corresponding optimized nanoformulations. Moreover, they contribute to inducing various biological effects, such as generating in situ vaccination, promoting immunogenic cell death, overcoming radiation resistance, reversing immunosuppression, as well as pre-stratifying patients and assessing therapeutic response or therapy-induced toxicity. Overall, this review aims to provide a comprehensive landscape of nanomedicine-assisted radio-immunotherapy. The underlying working principles and the corresponding design strategies for these nanomedicines are elaborated by following the concept of "from bench to clinic". Their state-of-the-art applications, concerns over their clinical translation, along with perspectives are covered.

Fluorescently-tagged magnetic protein nanoparticles for high-resolution optical and ultra-high field magnetic resonance dual-modal cerebral angiography

Extremely small paramagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (FeMNPs) (<5 nm) can enhance positive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast by shortening the longitudinal relaxation time of water (T₁), but these nanoparticles experience rapid renal clearance. Here, magnetic protein nanoparticles (MPNPs) are synthesized from protein-conjugated citric acid coated FeMNPs (c-FeMNPs) without loss of the T₁ MRI properties and tagged with fluorescent dye (f-MPNPs) for optical cerebrovascular imaging. The c-FeMNPs shows average size 3.8 ± 0.7 nm with T₁ relaxivity (r₁) of 1.86 mM^-1 s^-1 and transverse/longitudinal relaxivity ratio (r₂/r₁) of 2.53 at 11.7 T. The f-MPNPs show a higher r₁ value of 2.18 mM^-1 s^-1 and r₂/r₁ ratio of 2.88 at 11.7 T, which generates excellent positive MRI contrast. In vivo cerebral angiography with f-MPNPs enables detailed microvascular contrast enhancement for differentiation of major blood vessels of murine brain, which corresponds well with whole brain three-dimensional time-of-flight MRI angiograms (17 min imaging time with 60 ms repetition time and 40 μm isotropic voxels). The real-time fluorescence angiography enables unambiguous detection of brain capillaries with diameter < 40 μm. Biodistribution examination revealed that f-MPNPs were safely cleared by the organs like the liver, spleen, and kidneys within a day after injection. Blood biochemical assays demonstrated no risk of iron overload in both rats and mice. With hybrid neuroimaging technologies (e.g., MRI-optical) on the rise, f-MPNPs built on this platform can generate exciting neuroscience applications.

Miniature NIR-II Nanoprobes for Active-Targeted Phototheranostics of Brain Tumors

Nanoprobes (NPs) in the second near-infrared biowindow (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) are developed and widely used in cancer phototheranostics. However, most NIR-II NPs exhibit low phototheranostic efficiency due to their tedious synthetic routes, large particle sizes (>20 nm), and lack of active targeting properties. Here, miniature NIR-II NPs, named HSA-ICG-iRGD, for active-targeted NIR-II phototheranostics of brain tumors are reported. The HSA-ICG-iRGD probes are designed based on hydrophobic interactions as well as hydrogen bonds between albumin and indocyanine green derivatives (ICG-iRGD) via molecular docking. The as-prepared NPs have a compact size of 10 nm and show tumor-targeting ability by specifically binding to α_v β₃ integrin receptors which are highly expressed on the surface of brain tumor cells via iRGD peptides. The HSA-ICG-iRGD NPs are then applied to perform active-targeted NIR-II fluorescence imaging, resulting in a signal-to-background ratio of 6.85 in orthotopic glioma mouse models. Under the selected laser irradiation of 808 nm, the photothermal effect of HSA-ICG-iRGD extends the survival of the tumor-bearing mice to 55 days, significantly longer than that of the control group (30 days). These results highlight the potential of miniature NPs for active-targeted NIR-II fluorescence imaging and phototherapy of brain tumors.

Platinum-Coordinated Dual-Responsive Nanogels for Universal Drug Delivery and Combination Cancer Therapy

Developing a universal nanoplatform for efficient delivery of various drugs to target sites is urgent for overcoming various biological barriers and realizing combinational cancer treatment. Nanogels, with the advantages of both hydrogels and nanoparticles, may hold potential for addressing the above issue. Here, a dual-responsive nanogel platform (HPC nanogel) is constructed using β-cyclodextrin-conjugated hyaluronic acid (HA-βCD), polyethyleneimine (PEI), and cisplatin. HA-βCD and PEI compose the skeleton of the nanogel, and cisplatin molecules provide the junctions inside the skeleton, thus affording a multiple interactions-based nanogel. Besides, HA endows the nanogel with hyaluronidase (HAase)-responsiveness, and cisplatin guarantees the glutathione (GSH)-responsive ability, which make the nanogel a dual-responsive platform that can degrade and release the loaded drugs when encountering HAase or GSH. Additionally, the HPC nanogel possesses excellent small-molecule drug and protein loading and intracellular delivery capabilities. Especially, for proteins, their intracellular delivery via nanogels is not hindered by serum proteins, and the enzymes delivered into cells still maintain their catalytic activities. Furthermore, the nanogel can codeliver different cargoes to achieve "cocktail" chemotherapeutic efficacy and realize combination cancer therapy. Overall, the HPC nanogel can serve as a multifunctional platform capable of delivering desired drugs to treat cancer or other diseases.

Nanozymes for Regenerative Medicine

Nanozymes refer to nanomaterials that catalyze enzyme substrates into products under relevant physiological conditions following enzyme kinetics. Compared to natural enzymes, nanozymes possess the characteristics of higher stability, easier preparation, and lower cost. Importantly, nanozymes possess the magnetic, fluorescent, and electrical properties of nanomaterials, making them promising replacements for natural enzymes in industrial, biological, and medical fields. On account of the rapid development of nanozymes recently, their application potentials in regeneration medicine are gradually being explored. To highlight the achievements in the regeneration medicine field, this review summarizes the catalytic mechanism of four types of representative nanozymes. Then, the strategies to improve the biocompatibility of nanozymes are discussed. Importantly, this review covers the recent advances in nanozymes in tissue regeneration medicine including wound healing, nerve defect repair, bone regeneration, and cardiovascular disease treatment. In addition, challenges and prospects of nanozyme researches in regeneration medicine are summarized.

Combination of an autophagy inhibitor with immunoadjuvants and an anti-PD-L1 antibody in multifunctional nanoparticles for enhanced breast cancer immunotherapy

BACKGROUND

The application of combination therapy for cancer treatment is limited due to poor tumor-specific drug delivery and the abscopal effect.

METHODS

Here, PD-L1- and CD44-responsive multifunctional nanoparticles were developed using a polymer complex of polyethyleneimine and oleic acid (PEI-OA) and loaded with two chemotherapeutic drugs (paclitaxel and chloroquine), an antigen (ovalbumin), an immunopotentiator (CpG), and an immune checkpoint inhibitor (anti-PD-L1 antibody).

RESULTS

PEI-OA greatly improved the drug loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency of the nanoplatform, while the anti-PD-L1 antibody significantly increased its cellular uptake compared to other treatment formulations. Pharmacodynamic experiments confirmed that the anti-PD-L1 antibody can strongly inhibit primary breast cancer and increase levels of CD4+ and CD8+ T cell at the tumor site. In addition, chloroquine reversed the "immune-cold" environment and improved the anti-tumor effect of both chemotherapeutics and immune checkpoint inhibitors, while it induced strong immune memory and prevented lung metastasis.

CONCLUSIONS

Our strategy serves as a promising approach to the rational design of nanodelivery systems for simultaneous active targeting, autophagy inhibition, and chemotherapy that can be combined with immune-checkpoint inhibitors for enhanced breast cancer treatment.

Exploring the role of nanomedicines for the therapeutic approach of central nervous system dysfunction: At a glance

In recent decades, research scientists, molecular biologists, and pharmacologists have placed a strong emphasis on cutting-edge nanostructured materials technologies to increase medicine delivery to the central nervous system (CNS). The application of nanoscience for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), multiple sclerosis (MS), Huntington’s disease (HD), brain cancer, and hemorrhage has the potential to transform care. Multiple studies have indicated that nanomaterials can be used to successfully treat CNS disorders in the case of neurodegeneration. Nanomedicine development for the cure of degenerative and inflammatory diseases of the nervous system is critical. Nanoparticles may act as a drug transporter that can precisely target sick brain sub-regions, boosting therapy success. It is important to develop strategies that can penetrate the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and improve the effectiveness of medications. One of the probable tactics is the use of different nanoscale materials. These nano-based pharmaceuticals offer low toxicity, tailored delivery, high stability, and drug loading capacity. They may also increase therapeutic effectiveness. A few examples of the many different kinds and forms of nanomaterials that have been widely employed to treat neurological diseases include quantum dots, dendrimers, metallic nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, liposomes, and micelles. These unique qualities, including sensitivity, selectivity, and ability to traverse the BBB when employed in nano-sized particles, make these nanoparticles useful for imaging studies and treatment of NDs. Multifunctional nanoparticles carrying pharmacological medications serve two purposes: they improve medication distribution while also enabling cell dynamics imaging and pharmacokinetic study. However, because of the potential for wide-ranging clinical implications, safety concerns persist, limiting any potential for translation. The evidence for using nanotechnology to create drug delivery systems that could pass across the BBB and deliver therapeutic chemicals to CNS was examined in this study.

Myocardium-Targeted Micelle Nanomedicine That Salvages the Heart from Ischemia/Reperfusion Injury

Cardioprotective medication is the common treatment to relieve myocardial ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. However, limited by the low bioavailability of therapeutic drugs, the therapeutic outcome is barely satisfactory. Because the I/R injury can enhance the permeability of the vasculature and allow the extravasation of nanoparticles into the surrounding tissue, herein we formulate the cardiotonic drug olprinone (Olp) in cross-linked micelles as the nanomedicine to achieve myocardium-targeted delivery after systematic administration. As a result, the local concentration of Olp in the injured myocardium is raised by orders of magnitude with prolonged drug duration time. The treatment successfully preserves the pumping efficiency of the heart, alleviates ventricular remodeling, and thus stops the positive feedback loop for the deteriorated cardiac function. Consequently, the myocardium-targeted nanomedicine significantly salvages the heart from I/R injury before irreversible pathological changes take place.

Bioengineered nanogels for cancer immunotherapy

Recent years have witnessed increasingly rapid advances in nanocarrier-based biomedicine aimed at improving treatment paradigms for cancer. Nanogels serve as multipurpose and constructed vectors formed via intramolecular cross-linking to generate drug delivery systems, which is attributed predominantly to their satisfactory biocompatibility, bio-responsiveness, high stability, and low toxicity. Recently, immunotherapy has experienced unprecedented growth and has become the preferred strategy for cancer treatment, and mainly involves the mobilisation of the immune system and an enhanced anti-tumour immunity of the tumour microenvironment. Despite the inspiring success, immunotherapeutic strategies are limited due to the low response rates and immune-related adverse events. Like other nanomedicines, nanogels are comparably limited by lower focal enrichment rates upon introduction into the organism via injection. Because nanogels are three-dimensional cross-linked aqueous materials that exhibit similar properties to natural tissues and are structurally stable, they can comfortably cope with shear forces and serum proteins in the bloodstream, and the longer circulation life increases the chance of nanogel accumulation in the tumour, conferring deep tumour penetration. The large specific surface area can reduce or eliminate off-target effects by introducing stimuli-responsive functional groups, allowing multiple physical and chemical modifications for specific purposes to improve targeting to specific immune cell subpopulations or immune organs, increasing the bioavailability of the drug, and conferring a low immune-related adverse events on nanogel therapies. The slow release upon reaching the tumour site facilitates long-term awakening of the host's immune system, ultimately achieving enhanced therapeutic effects. As an effective candidate for cancer immunotherapy, nanogel-based immunotherapy has been widely used. In this review, we mainly summarize the recent advances of nanogel-based immunotherapy to deliver immunomodulatory small molecule drugs, antibodies, genes and cytokines, to target antigen presenting cells, form cancer vaccines, and enable chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell therapy. Future challenges as well as expected and feasible prospects for clinical treatment are also highlighted.

Disruption of dual homeostasis by a metal-organic framework nanoreactor for ferroptosis-based immunotherapy of tumor

Ferroptosis, a newfound non-apoptotic cell death pathway that is iron- and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent, has shown a promise for tumor treatment. However, engineering ferroptosis inducers with sufficient hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) and iron supplying capacity remains a great challenge. To address this issue, herein, we report a powerful nanoreactor by modifying MnO₂, glucose oxidase, and polyethylene glycol on iron-based metal-organic framework nanoparticles for disrupting redox and iron metabolism homeostasis, directly providing the Fenton reaction-independent downstream ferroptosis for tumor therapy. By consuming glutathione and oxidizing glucose to increase the H₂O₂ level in cancer cells and downregulating ferroportin 1 to accumulate intracellular iron ions, the homeostasis disruptor could effectively enhance the ferroptosis. Subsequently, the ferroptosis cells release tumor immune-associated antigens, which combine with in situ injected aptamer-PD-L1 to further strengthen the tumor treatment efficiency. This work not only paves a way to enhance the efficacy of ferroptosis-based cancer therapy by associating intracellular redox homeostasis with the iron metabolism system in tumor cells but also offers an engineered nanoreactor as a promising mimetic antigen for activating immunotherapy.

Triggering the nanophase separation of albumin through multivalent binding to glycogen for drug delivery in 2D and 3D multicellular constructs

Engineered nanoparticles for the encapsulation of bioactive agents hold promise to improve disease diagnosis, prevention and therapy. To advance this field and enable clinical translation, the rational design of nanoparticles with controlled functionalities and a robust understanding of nanoparticle-cell interactions in the complex biological milieu are of paramount importance. Herein, a simple platform obtained through the nanocomplexation of glycogen nanoparticles and albumin is introduced for the delivery of chemotherapeutics in complex multicellular 2D and 3D systems. We found that the dendrimer-like structure of aminated glycogen nanoparticles is key to controlling the multivalent coordination and phase separation of albumin molecules to form stable glycogen-albumin nanocomplexes. The pH-responsive glycogen scaffold conferred the nanocomplexes the ability to undergo partial endosomal escape in tumour, stromal and immune cells while albumin enabled nanocomplexes to cross endothelial cells and carry therapeutic agents. Limited interactions of nanocomplexes with T cells, B cells and natural killer cells derived from human blood were observed. The nanocomplexes can accommodate chemotherapeutic drugs and release them in multicellular 2D and 3D constructs. The drugs loaded on the nanocomplexes retained their cytotoxic activity, which is comparable with the activity of the free drugs. Cancer cells were found to be more sensitive to the drugs in the presence of stromal and immune cells. Penetration and cytotoxicity of the drug-loaded nanocomplexes in tumour mimicking tissues were validated using a 3D multicellular-collagen construct in a perfusion bioreactor. The results highlight a simple and potentially scalable strategy for engineering nanocomplexes made entirely of biological macromolecules with potential use for drug delivery.

Intelligent Nanomedicine Approaches Using Medical Gas-Mediated Multi-Therapeutic Modalities Against Cancer

The emerging area of gas-mediated cancer treatment has received widespread attention in the medical community. Featuring unique physical, chemical, and biological properties, nanomaterials can facilitate the delivery and controllable release of medicinal gases at tumor sites, and also serve as ideal platforms for the integration of other therapeutic modalities with gas therapy to augment cancer therapeutic efficacy. This review presents an overview of anti-cancer mechanisms of several therapeutic gases: nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), carbon monoxide (CO), oxygen (O₂), and hydrogen (H₂). Controlled release behaviors of gases under different endogenous and exogenous stimuli are also briefly discussed, followed by their synergistic effects with different therapeutic modes. Moreover, the potential challenges and future prospects regarding gas therapy based on nanomaterials are also described, aiming to facilitate the advancement of gas therapeutic nanomedicine in new frontiers for highly efficient cancer treatment.

Poly(disulfide)s: From Synthesis to Drug Delivery

Bioresponsive polymers have been widely used in drug delivery because of their degradability. For example, poly(disulfide)s with repeating disulfide bonds in the main chain have attracted considerable research attention. The characteristics of the disulfide bonds, including their dynamic and reversible properties and their responsiveness to stimuli such as reductants, light, heat, and mechanical force, make them ideal platforms for on-demand drug delivery. This review introduces the synthesis methods and applications of poly(disulfide)s. Furthermore, the synthesis methods of poly(disulfide)s are classified on the basis of the monomers used: oxidative step-growth polymerization with dithiols, ring-opening polymerization with cyclic disulfides, and polymerization with linear disulfides. In addition, recent advances in poly(disulfide)s for the delivery of small-molecule or biomacromolecular drugs are discussed. Quantum-dot-loaded poly(disulfide) delivery systems for imaging are also included. This review provides an overview of the various design strategies employed in the construction of poly(disulfide) platforms to inspire new applications in the field of drug delivery.

Ferroptosis in cancer therapeutics: a materials chemistry perspective

Ferroptosis, distinct from apoptosis, is a regulated form of cell death caused by lipid peroxidation that has attracted extensive research interest since it was first defined in 2012. Over the past five years, an increasing number of studies have revealed the close relationship between ferroptosis and materials chemistry, in particular nanobiotechnology, and have concluded that nanotechnology-triggered ferroptosis is an efficient and promising antitumor strategy that provides an alternative therapeutic approach, especially for apoptosis-resistant tumors. In this review, we summarize recent advances in ferroptosis-induced tumor therapy at the intersection of materials chemistry, redox biology, and tumor biology. The biological features and molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis are first outlined, followed by a summary of the feasible strategies to induce ferroptosis using nanomaterials and the applications of ferroptosis in combined tumor therapy. Finally, the existing challenges and future development directions in this emerging field are discussed, with the aim of promoting the progress of ferroptosis-based oncotherapy in materials science and nanoscience and enriching the antitumor arsenal.

Protein-, (Poly)peptide-, and Amino Acid-Based Nanostructures Prepared via Polymerization-Induced Self-Assembly

Proteins and peptides, built from precisely defined amino acid sequences, are an important class of biomolecules that play a vital role in most biological functions. Preparation of nanostructures through functionalization of natural, hydrophilic proteins/peptides with synthetic polymers or upon self-assembly of all-synthetic amphiphilic copolypept(o)ides and amino acid-containing polymers enables access to novel protein-mimicking biomaterials with superior physicochemical properties and immense biorelevant scope. In recent years, polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) has been established as an efficient and versatile alternative method to existing self-assembly procedures for the reproducible development of block copolymer nano-objects in situ at high concentrations and, thus, provides an ideal platform for engineering protein-inspired nanomaterials. In this review article, the different strategies employed for direct construction of protein-, (poly)peptide-, and amino acid-based nanostructures via PISA are described with particular focus on the characteristics of the developed block copolymer assemblies, as well as their utilization in various pharmaceutical and biomedical applications.

Importance and Considerations of Antibody Engineering in Antibody-Drug Conjugates Development from a Clinical Pharmacologist's Perspective

Antibody-drug conjugates (ADCs) appear to be in a developmental boom, with five FDA approvals in the last two years and a projected market value of over $4 billion by 2024. Major advancements in the engineering of these novel cytotoxic drug carriers have provided a few early success stories. Although the use of these immunoconjugate agents are still in their infancy, valuable lessons in the engineering of these agents have been learned from both preclinical and clinical failures. It is essential to appreciate how the various mechanisms used to engineer changes in ADCs can alter the complex pharmacology of these agents and allow the ADCs to navigate the modern-day therapeutic challenges within oncology. This review provides a global overview of ADC characteristics which can be engineered to alter the interaction with the immune system, pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles, and therapeutic index of ADCs. In addition, this review will highlight some of the engineering approaches being explored in the creation of the next generation of ADCs.