In Silico Study and Pharmacological Evaluation of Eplerinone as an Anti-Alzheimer's Drug in STZ-Induced Alzheimer's Disease Model

Carvone-loaded chitosan nanoparticles alleviate joint destruction by downregulating the expression of pro, inflammatory cytokines and MMP-13 in adjuvant-induced rat model

Rheumatoid arthritis is an autoimmune illness causing deformity, edema, and joint tenderness. Its long-term treatment burdens the healthcare system and leads to toxicity, and thus, finding safe, effective, and affordable therapies is essential. The current study aimed to exhibit the anti-arthritic activity of Carvone-loaded chitosan nanoparticles to treat Freund's complete adjuvant (FCA) arthritis in rats. Healthy albino rats (n = 35) were distributed into seven groups. The 1st group worked as normal control, while the 2nd was arthritic control. The 3rd group received methotrexate (10 mg/kg/week). The 4th group received Carvone (60 mg/kg/day), while the 5th (30 mg/kg/day), 6th (45 mg/kg/day), and 7th (60 mg/kg/day) groups received Carvone-C-NPs, respectively. Nanoparticles, prepared by the ion gelation method, were characterized by zeta size, potential, scanning electron microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared microscopy. NPs have zeta size (78.82 ± 0.02 nm) and potential (19.96 ± 0.02 mV). A significant reduction was shown in paw swelling (5.52 ± 0.05 mm), arthritic score (2.81 ± 0.23), and rheumatoid factor (14.56 ± 0.68 IU/L) by Carvone-C-NPs. qRT-PCR results showed significant down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines [TNF-α (0.25 ± 0.03), IL-1β (0.21 ± 0.06), IL-17a (0.16 ± 0.12), and IL-33 (0.15 ± 0.01)] and up-regulation of anti-inflammatory cytokines [IL-4 (0.85 ± 0.06) and IL-10 (0.66 ± 0.04)] in ankle joint of Carvone-C-NPs treated group. The radiographical and histopathological findings showed reduced pannus formation, joint swelling, and synovial hyperplasia in the Carvone-C-NPs treated group. Overall, it is concluded that Carvone-C-NPs have remarkable anti-arthritic activity and promising anti-inflammatory properties.

Anti-neuroinflammatory and neuroprotective potential of Cissus tuberosa ethanol extract in Parkinson's disease model through the modulation of neuroinflammatory markers

The plant Cissus tuberosa Moc is abundant in phenolics, has been documented to have neuroprotective properties. The study seeks to determine the neuroprotective effects of C. tuberosa ethanolic extract (CTE) against Parkinson's disease by evaluating its impact on motor dysfunction, cognitive deficits, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration in paraquat-induced Parkinson's disease models. The research hypothesizes that CTE can modulate key biomarkers involved in Parkinson's pathology, including α-synuclein, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), assessed through qRT-PCR, as well as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and TNF-α, evaluated through ELISA. Parkinson disease was induced by using paraquat intraperitoneally. The study was designed by considering various groups with their respective treatments, control group treated normally, disease control receiving paraquat (1 mg/kg, i.p.), standard treated grabbed with (levodopa+carbidopa), and three treatment groups received plant extract (150, 300, 600 mg/kg) respectively for 21 days study period. Both behavioral, and biochemical analysis were performed. HPLC analysis revealed the presence of several phenolic compounds. CTE significantly improved motor function and cognitive performance in rats, showing a dose-dependent reduction in paraquat-induced neurotoxicity (150 < 300 < 600 mg/kg, P<0.001). CTE significantly restored antioxidant enzyme levels (P<0.001), contributing to the alleviation of oxidative stress. Neurotransmitter levels were significantly improved in a dose-dependent manner (P<0.001), while acetylcholinesterase (AChE) levels were significantly reduced (P<0.001). CTE treatment showed significant restoration of brain tissue, reducing neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration, thereby preserving normal brain structure. ELISA testing demonstrated a significant (P<0.001) downregulation of IL-6 and TNF-α levels in CTE-treated groups. qRT-PCR results showed significant downregulation of α-synuclein, IL-1β, and TNF-α mRNA expression in CTE-treated groups compared to the diseased group, suggesting neuroprotective effects. The study concludes that CTE has potential therapeutic effects in alleviating Parkinson's disease symptoms, primarily through its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties.

Caffeic acid differentially modulates behavior and neurochemicals in chronic unpredictable mild stress and dexamethasone induced models of depression

In the present study authors studied the effect of caffeic acid (CA) in chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) and dexamethasone (DEXA) model of depression. CUMS (21 days) and DEXA (1.5 mg/kg × 21 days) was used for the induction of depression and anxiety related behavior. Locomotor activity was determined using actophotometer. Depression related behavior was determined using tail suspension test (TST) and forced swim test (FST) whereas for the determination of anxiety related behavior elevated plus maze (EPM) test was used. Following behavioral studies, mice were sacrificed by decapitation method. Hippocampus was dissected and was used for the neurochemical assays including 5-HT (serotonin), glutamate, nitrite and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). The results obtained suggested that the CA (25-100 mg/kg, i.p.) did not affect the activity count in CUMS exposed and DEXA treated mice. CA (50 mg/kg) evoked anxiogenic reactions in CUMS model by increasing the hippocampal nitrite and glutamate level while CA (50 mg/kg) exerted anxiolysis in DEXA model by reducing the level of 5-HT. In CUMS model, CA exerted antidepressant like effect by increasing the hippocampal nitric oxide (NO) level, in DEXA model CA exerted antidepressant like effect by reducing the hippocampal glutamate level. CA failed to reverse DEXA mediated nNOS inhibition and therefore decreases hippocampal glutamate level to exert antidepressant like effect. Thus, CA modulate anxiety and depression related neurobehavioral alterations in both CUMS and DEXA models.

Gingerol nanoparticles attenuate complete Freund adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats via targeting the RANKL/OPG signaling pathway

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is characterized by inflammatory joint pathology leading to the degradation of articular bone and cartilage, primarily triggered by synovial inflammation, resulting in joint discomfort. The metacarpophalangeal and proximal interphalangeal joints are predominantly affected. Treatment typically involves a combination of biological and synthetic disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DAMARDs) alongside steroid therapy. The application of nanomedicine has been instrumental in enhancing treatment efficacy by facilitating controlled release of pharmacologically active compounds, thus augmenting bioavailability and enabling targeted drug delivery. Gingerol, a constituent of ginger, possesses multifaceted properties. including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, antidiabetic, and antipyretic effects. In this study, gingerol-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs), coated with chitosan, were administered orally to rats over a period of 21 days to address RA induced by complete Freund adjuvant (CFA). The rats were segregated into four experimental groups. Upon completion of the treatment regimen, blood samples were collected for the assessment of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), RA factor, interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Subsequent gene expression analysis was conducted to evaluate the levels of interleukin-4 (IL-4), interleukin-17a (IL-17a), IL-6, interferon-gamma (INF-γ), TNF-α, interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), osteoprotegerin (OPG), and receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL). Statistical analyses utilizing one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey tests were applied to the data. The gene expression profiling revealed significant disparities in mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-4, IL-17a, RANKL, INF-γ, and TNF-α between the CFA-induced arthritis group and the control group. Consequently, it was inferred that gingerol-loaded PLGA NPs coated with chitosan exhibited heightened therapeutic efficacy in addressing CFA-induced arthritis in rats.

Pharmacological Assessment of Aqueous Ethanolic Extract of Thalictrum Foetidum Against Haloperidol-Induced Parkinson's Like Symptoms in Animal Model: A Dose-Dependent Study With Mechanistic Approach

Introduction: Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by dopamine deficiency in the corpus striatum due to the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Symptoms include bradykinesia, resting tremors, unstable posture, muscular rigidity, and a shuffled gait. Thalictrum foetidum is traditionally used for neurodegenerative disorders. Objectives: This study aimed to explore the therapeutic potential of aqueous ethanolic extract of Thalictrum foetidum (AETF) against Parkinson-like symptoms and to investigate its underlying mechanism. Methodology: Thirty-six albino mice were randomly divided into 6 groups (n = 6): normal control, disease control, standard treatment (levodopa/carbidopa, 100/25 mg/kg), and 3 treatment groups (AETF at 200, 400, and 600 mg/kg). One hour before treatment, haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i. p.) was administered to induce Parkinson's disease in all groups except the normal control group. Results: Behavioral analysis showed significant improvement (P < .001) in motor function, muscular coordination, and reduced muscular rigidity and tremors. AETF also reduced oxidative stress. Histological examination of the brain showed reduced Lewy bodies, neurofibrillary tangles, and plaque formation. Conclusion: AETF alleviated PD symptoms by reducing neurodegeneration, modulating oxidative stress, and inhibiting the expression of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and associated inflammatory cytokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6).

NMDA receptor modulation by Esculetin: Investigating behavioral, biochemical and neurochemical effects in schizophrenic mice model

Schizophrenia, a global mental health disorder affecting approximately 1 % of the population, is characterized by neurotransmitter dysregulation, particularly dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate. Current antipsychotic therapies, despite their efficacy, are accompanied by adverse effects, which has motivated researchers to investigate more secure substitutes. This study examines the potential antipsychotic effects of esculetin, a natural coumarin derivative recognized for its wide-ranging pharmacological activities (anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-pathogenic, anticancer, and neuroprotective), in animal model of schizophrenia induced by ketamine. In order to induce disease, acute and chronic ketamine administration was performed on Swiss albino mice, supplemented with esculetin (as the test substance) and clozapine (as the reference standard). Behavioral studies and biochemical assays were performed to evaluate positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, as well as antioxidant and oxidant levels in various brain regions. Esculetin demonstrated significant improvements in behavioral symptoms, attenuated oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, and modulated neurotransmitter levels. Afterwards, ELISA was performed to evaluate levels of schizophrenia biomarkers AChE, BDNF. Moreover, proinflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) and NF-κB were also determined. Histopathological parameters of under study brain parts i.e., hippocampus, cortex and striata were also assessed. Esculetin and clozapine significantly (***p < 0.0001) altered ketamine induced behavioral symptoms and attenuated ketamine induced oxidative stress and neuroinflammation. Additionally, esculetin significantly (***p < 0.0001) altered neurotransmitter (dopamine, serotonin, glutamate) levels. ELISA analysis depicts ketamine reduced BDNF levels in hippocampus, cortex and striata while esculetin significantly (***p < 0.0001) increased BDNF levels in under study three parts of brain. Histopathological changes were seen in test groups. The findings of this study indicate that esculetin may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of schizophrenia induced by ketamine. As a result, esculetin may have the potential to be utilized as a treatment for schizophrenia.

Diuretic Potential of Fenchyl Acetate with Its Mechanism of Action: Toxicity Study

Hypertension has become a global threat and is one of the greatest risk factors for chronic kidney disease. Fenchyl acetate is a monoterpene that has been assessed for its various pharmacological activities in the past, but no study has evaluated its diuretic potential and the mechanism involved in the diuretic activity after prolonged administration in rats. Therefore, this study aimed to measure the safety and diuretic profile of fenchyl acetate in rats. For evaluating the acute toxicity, a single dose of 2000 mg/kg was administered as per the OECD guideline no. 425, and the rats were observed for 14 days. After 14 days, blood samples were assessed for biochemical, hematological, and oxidative stress parameters. For the acute diuretic study, fenchyl acetate was given in doses of 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, and urine samples after 8 h were assessed for sodium, potassium, creatinine, uric acid excretion, and urinary output. A single dose of fenchyl acetate (F.A) was selected for prolonged diuretic activity, and furosemide was taken as the standard drug in a repeated dose administration for 7 days. Rats' urine was assessed for pH, sodium, potassium, creatinine, and uric acid excretion along with urinary volume excretion. Furthermore, blood was withdrawn by cardiac puncture, and selected organs like the heart, liver, kidney, and spleen were analyzed for oxidative stress biomarkers. Using pharmacological antagonists or inhibitors, the involvement of L-NAME, acetylcholine, or prostaglandin in F.A.-induced diuresis was determined. Mitochondrial respiratory chain enzyme complexes were also assessed in the kidney homogenates. The acute toxicity results showed F.A to be safe as its LD50 was greater than 2000 mg/kg and there were no signs of mortality or toxicity. The acute diuretic study showed that F.A resulted in a significant and dose-dependent increase in sodium, potassium, creatinine, and uric acid excretion along with urinary output, and these results were comparable to the standard drug furosemide. Prolonged administration with F.A (400 mg/kg) resulted in a comparable excretion of sodium, potassium, creatinine, uric acid, and urine output with furosemide (15 mg/kg). The oxidative stress parameters revealed that F.A (400 mg/kg) resulted in reducing the formation of free radicals. The results from the mechanism-based studies showed the involvement of NO in inducing diuresis. Furthermore, F.A (400 mg/kg) significantly increased the mitochondrial complexes I, II, III, IV, I + III, and II + III in the kidney homogenates, thus restoring the mitochondrial enzymes and improving the renal function. The current study suggests that F.A is safe with a significant diuretic potential with the involvement of NO in its mechanism of action.

Mitochondria transfer as a potential therapeutic mechanism in Alzheimer's disease-like pathology

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by cognition decline and memory deterioration. The molecular pathogenic mechanism of AD is highly complex and still not completely clarified. While stem cell-based therapy for AD has been considered an optimal choice with specific properties however, immune rejection and risk of malignant transformation limit their therapeutic application. Growing evidence suggest that mitochondrial dysfunction has a critical role in the progression of AD. Since there have not been any effective treatment for AD, the drugs targeted to mitochondria may hold a great promise Therefore, the major objective of this study is to evaluate the therapeutic applicability of transplanting MSCderived mitochondria as a neuroprotective biomolecule in Alzheimer's disease pathology. The hallmarks of AD i.e aggregation of Aβ protein and Tau protein were generated to mimic the AD like pathology in vitro. Further, morphology analysis, cell viability assay, and immunofluorescence assay have been done for validation. Mitochondria were isolated from dental pulp stem cell (DPSC) and their effect on internalization by neural cells was demonstrated by cell proliferation analysis and uptake studies while their therapeutic potential was characterized by morphology analysis, ROS study, and immunofluorescence analysis. We observed that internalization of DPSC-derived mitochondria led to significant neuroprotective in the cellular AD. Based on our results, it may be concluded that mesenchymal stem cellderived mitochondria can emerge as a potentially safe and effective modality in Alzheimer's disease.

Stress and the risk of Alzheimer dementia: Can deconstructed engrams be rebuilt?

The exact neuropathological mechanism by which the dementia process unfolds is under intense scrutiny. The disease affects about 38 million people worldwide, 70% of which are clinically diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease (AD). If the destruction of synapses essential for learning, planning and decision-making is part of the problem, must the restoration of previously lost synapses be part of the solution? It is plausible that neuronal capacity to restitute information corresponds with the adaptive capacity of its connectivity reserve. A challenge will be to promote the functional connectivity that can compensate for the lost one. This will require better clarification of the remodeling of functional connectivity during the progression of AD dementia and its reversal upon experimental treatment. A major difficulty is to promote the neural pathways that are atrophied in AD dementia while suppressing others that are bolstered. Therapeutic strategies should aim at scaling functional connectivity to a just balance between the atrophic and hypertrophic systems. However, the exact factors that can help reach this objective are still unclear. Similarities between the effects of chronic stress and some neuropathological mechanisms underlying AD dementia support the idea that common components deserve prime attention as therapeutic targets.

In silico targeting of colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor: delineating immunotherapy in cancer

Aim

Delineate structure-based inhibition of colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF1R) by small molecule CSF1R inhibitors in clinical development for target identification and potential lead optimization in cancer therapeutics since CSF1R is a novel predictive biomarker for immunotherapy in cancer.

Methods

Compounds were in silico modelled by induced fit docking protocol in a molecular operating environment (MOE, MOE.v.2015). The 3-dimensional (3D) X-ray crystallized structure of CSF1R kinase (Protein Databank, ID 4R7H) was obtained from Research Collaboratory for Structural Bioinformatics (RSCB) Protein Databank. The 3D conformers of edicotinib, DCC-3014, ARRY-382, BLZ-945, chiauranib, dovitinib, and sorafenib were obtained from PubChem Database. These structures were modelled in Amber10:EHT molecular force field, and quick prep application was used to correct and optimize the structures for missing residues, H-counts, termini capping, and alternates. The binding site was defined within the vicinity of the co-crystallized ligand of CSF1R kinase. The compounds were docked by the triangular matcher placement method and ranked by the London dG scoring function. The docked poses were further refined by the induced fit method. The pose with the lowest binding score (ΔG) was used to model the ligand interaction profile in Discovery Studio Visualizer v17.2. The co-crystallized ligand was docked in its apo conformation, and root-mean-square deviation was computed to validate the docking protocol.

Results

All 7 CSF1R inhibitors interact with residue Met637 exhibiting selectivity except for edicotinib. The inhibitors maintain CSF1R in an auto-inhibitory conformation by interacting with Asp797 of the Asp-Phe-Gly (DFG) motif and/or hindering the conserved salt bridge formed between Glu633 and Lys616 thus stabilizing the activation loop, or interacting with tryptophan residue (Trp550) in the juxtamembrane domain. DCC-3014, ARRY-382, BLZ-945, and sorafenib bind with the lowest binding energy with CSF1R kinase.

Conclusions

Pyrimidines are potent inhibitors that interact with CSF1R residues. DCC-3014 and ARRY-382 exhibit exceptional pharmaceutical potential exhibiting great structural stability and affinity.

Diosgenin, a steroidal sapogenin, arrests arthritis through modulation of inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress biomarkers in Wistar rats

Diosgenin (DGN) is a well-known steroidal sapogenin that is obtained from the hydrolysis of dioscin. The current research aimed to explore the anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic potential of DGN alone and in combination with methotrexate (MTX). The in-vitro antioxidant, and anti-arthritic potential was assessed by protein denaturation and Human red blood cell membrane stabilization assays. The in-vivo anti-inflammatory effect was examined by carrageenan-induced paw edema and xylene-induced ear edema methods. The arthritis was induced in Wistar rats by inoculation of 0.1 ml Complete Freund's adjuvant in the left hind paw at day 1. The arthritic animals received MTX 1 mg/kg as standard, DGN at 5, 10, 20 mg/kg, and a combination treatment (DGN 20 mg/kg + MTX) was administered orally from 8 to 28^th day while normal and disease control received normal saline. DGN at 1600 μg/ml exhibited the highest in-vitro activities in contrast to other tested concentrations. DGN at 20 mg/kg exhibited the maximum (p < 0.05-0.0001) inhibition of inflammation in carrageenan and xyleneinduced edema models. Treatment with DGN and MTX alone and in combination significantly reduced the paw diameter, body weight, arthritic index, and pain. It restored altered blood parameters and oxidative stress biomarkers in contrast to the diseased control rats. DGN profoundly (P < 0.0001) downregulated mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, NF-ĸβ, and COX-2 while upregulated IL-4 and -10 in treated rats. The combination of DGN with MTX showed the highest therapeutic efficacy than individual therapy, so it can be used as an adjunct for rheumatoid arthritis treatment.

Chrysin, a 5,7-dihydroxyflavone restrains inflammatory arthritis in rats via subsiding oxidative stress biomarkers and inflammatory cytokines

This study was intended to appraise the anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic potential of Chrysin (CR), a natural dietary flavone found in several plant genera, including Passiflora and Propalis, and honey. The in vitro anti-arthritic potential was assessed by protein denaturation and membrane stabilization assays. The acute anti-inflammatory action was assessed by Carrageenan and Xylene induced oedema models in Wistar rats. For determining anti-arthritic potential, 0.1 ml Complete Freund's adjuvant was injected into the left hind paw of rats to induce adjuvant-induced arthritis, followed by initiation of treatment with individual CR at 25, 50, 100 mg/kg and in combination with methotrexate (MTX) by oral gavage for 21 days. The standard treatment group was given MTX (1 mg/kg). Treatment with MTX, chrysin and their combination exhibited a notable inhibition of paw oedema and pain, restoration of body weight and immune organ weight as evident by the histology of ankle joints. Treatment with chrysin alone and in combination significantly (p < 0.0001) restored altered blood parameters (CRP, RF, Hb, WBC, and platelets) with notable (p < 0.0001) down-regulation of interleukin (IL)-6,-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α, NF-κβ, and cyclooxygenase-2 and up-regulation (p < 0.0001) of IL-4, 10, and I-κβ in contrast to disease control rats. The treatment with the combination noticeably improved the superoxide dismutase, and catalase activities while reduced the peroxidation level in liver homogenate. It can be concluded from the findings that chrysin especially in combination with MTX ameliorated CFA-induced arthritis owing to its profound anti-oxidant, analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions.

Sarcococca saligna ameliorated D-galactose induced neurodegeneration through repression of neurodegenerative and oxidative stress biomarkers

Sarcococca saligna is a valuable source of bioactive secondary metabolites exhibiting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activities. The study was intended to explore the therapeutic pursuits of S. saligna in amelioration of cognitive and motor dysfunctions induced by D-galactose and linked mechanistic pathways. Alzheimer's disease model was prepared by administration of D-galactose subcutaneous injection100 mg/kg and it was treated with rivastigmine (100 mg/kg, orally) and plant extract for 42 days. Cognitive and motor functions were evaluated by behavioral tasks and oxidative stress biomarkers. Level of acetylcholinesterase, reduced level of glutathione, protein and nitrite level, and brain neurotransmitters were analyzed in brain homogenate. The level of apoptosis regulator Bcl-2, Caspases 3 and heat shock protein HSP-70 in brain homogenates were analyzed by ELISA and colorimetric method, respectively. AChE, IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-1α and β secretase expressions were analyzed by RT-PCR. S. saligna dose dependently suppressed the neurodegenerative effects of D-galactose induced behavioral and biochemical impairments through modulation of antioxidant enzymes and acetylcholinesterase inhibition. S. saligna markedly (P < 0.05) ameliorated the level of brain neurotransmitters, Bcl-2, HSP-70 and Caspases-3 level. S. saligna at 500-1000 mg/kg considerably recovered the mRNA expression of neurodegenerative and neuro-inflammatory biomarkers, also evident from histopathological analysis. These findings suggest that S. saligna could be applicable in cure of Alzheimer's disease.

Inhibition of Oxidative Stress and the NF-κB Pathway by a Vitamin E Derivative: Pharmacological Approach against Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. In this study, PD was induced via (ip) injection of haloperidol (1 mg/kg/day). Animals were divided into seven groups (n = 70). Group I received the vehicle carboxymethylcellulose (CMC; 0.5%), group II was treated with designated 1 mg/kg haloperidol, and group III received the standard drug Sinemet (100 mg/kg), while groups IV-VII received a tocopherol derivative (Toco-D) at dose levels of 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg, respectively, via the oral route. All groups received haloperidol for 23 consecutive days after their treatments except the control group. The improvement in locomotor activity and motor coordination was evaluated by using behavioral tests. Oxidative stress markers, neurotransmitters, and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) as well as NF-κB levels in the whole brain were measured. mRNA expression analysis of α-synuclein was carried out using the PCR technique. Toco-D at 20 mg/kg showed the maximum improvement in locomotor activity. The levels of antioxidant enzymes and neurotransmitters were also increased by the treatment with Toco-D. Inflammatory cytokine levels and mRNA expression of α-synuclein were decreased by Toco-D in treated animals. This study concluded that Toco-D might be effective in the improvement of locomotor activity and motor coordination in haloperidol-induced PD.

The curative and mechanistic acumen of curcuminoids formulations against haloperidol induced Parkinson's disease animal model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is slowly developing neurodegenerative disorder associated with gradual decline in cerebration and laboriousness to perform routine piece of work. PD imposed a social burden on society through higher medical cost and by loss of social productivity in current era. The available treatment options are expensive and associated with serious adverse effect after long term use. Therefore, there is a critical clinical need to develop alternative pharmacotherapies from natural sources to prevent and cure the pathological hall marks of PD with minimal cost. Our study aimed to scrutinize the antiparkinsonian potential of curcuminoids-rich extract and its binary and ternary inclusion complexes. In healthy rats, 1 mg/kg haloperidol daily intraperitoneally, for 3 weeks was used to provoke Parkinsonism like symptoms except control group. Curcuminoids rich extract, binary and ternary inclusion complexes formulations 15-30 mg/kg, L-dopa and carbidopa (100 + 25 mg/kg) were orally administered on each day for 3 weeks. Biochemical, histopathological and RT-qPCR analyses were conducted after neurobehavioral observations. Findings of current study indicated that all curcuminoids formulations markedly mitigated the behavioral abnormalities, recovered the level of antioxidant enzymes, acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity and neurotransmitters. Histological analysis revealed that curcuminoids supplements stabilized the neuronal loss, pigmentation and Lewy bodies' formation. The mRNA expressions of neuro-inflammatory and specific PD pathological biomarkers were downregulated by treatment with curcuminoids formulations. Therefore, it is suggested that these curcuminoids rich extract, binary and ternary supplements should be considered as promising therapeutic agents in development of modern anti-Parkinson's disease medications.

Pharmacological Potential of the Standardized Methanolic Extract of Prunus armeniaca L. in the Haloperidol-Induced Parkinsonism Rat Model

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a complex, age-related neurodegenerative disease that causes neuronal loss and dysfunction over time. An imbalance of redox potential of oxidative stress in the cell causes neurodegenerative diseases and dysfunction of neurons. Plants are a rich source of bioactive substances that attenuate oxidative stress in a variety of neurological disorders. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the Prunus armeniaca L. methanolic extract (PAME) for anti-Parkinson activity in rats. PD was induced with haloperidol (1 mg/kg, IP). The PAME was administered orally at 100, 300, and 800 mg/kg dose levels for 21 days. Behavioral studies (catalepsy test, hang test, open-field test, narrow beam walk, and hole-board test), oxidative stress biomarkers (SOD, CAT, GSH, and MDA) levels, neurotransmitters (dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline) levels, and acetylcholinesterase activity were quantified in the brain homogenate. Liver function tests (LFTs), renal function tests (RFTs), complete blood count (CBC), and lipid profiles were measured in the blood/serum samples to note the side effects of PAME at the selected doses. Histopathological analysis was performed on the brain (anti-PD study), liver, heart, and kidney (to check the toxicity of PAME on these vital organs). Motor functions were improved in the behavioral studies. Dopamine, serotonin, and noradrenaline levels were significantly increased (P < 0.001), whereas the level of acetylcholinesterase was decreased significantly (P < 0.001). The levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and reduced glutathione (GSH) were increased, while malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitrite levels were decreased in the PAME-treated groups significantly compared with the disease control group, hence reducing oxidative stress. The incidence of toxicity was determined by biochemical analysis of LFT and RFT biomarkers testing. The histopathological analysis indicated that neurofibrillary tangles and plaques decreased in a dose-dependent manner in the PAME-treated groups. Based on the data, it is concluded that PAME possessed good anti-Parkinson activity, rationalizing the plant's traditional use as a neuroprotective agent.

Pterostilbene improves CFA-induced arthritis and peripheral neuropathy through modulation of oxidative stress, inflammatory cytokines and neurotransmitters in Wistar rats

Pterostilbene is a stilbene flavonoid that occurs naturally in various plants as well as produced by genetic engineering. It exhibits anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anti-oxidant and neuroprotective activities. This research was aimed to determine the potential of pterostilbene against arthritis and peripheral neuropathy in Complete Freund's Adjuvant (CFA) induced arthritis. Rat hind paw was injected with 0.1 ml CFA to induce arthritis. Standard control animals received oral methotrexate (3 mg/kg/week). Pterostilbene at 12.5, 25 and 50 mg/kg was given orally to different groups of arthritic rats from day 7-28 for 21 days. Pterostilbene significantly reduced paw diameter and retarded the decrease in body weight of arthritic rats. It profoundly (p < 0.05-0.0001) reduced lipid peroxidation and nitrites, while increased superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the liver tissue. Pterostilbene treatment significantly (p < 0.0001) reduced TNF-α and IL-6 levels. Pterostilbene markedly improved (p < 0.05-0.001) motor activity and showed analgesic effect in arthritic rats at 25 and 50 mg/kg as compared to disease control rats. Furthermore, it notably (p < 0.05-0.0001) increased SOD activity, nitrites, noradrenaline and serotonin levels in the sciatic nerve of arthritic rats. Treatment with pterostilbene also ameliorated the CFA-induced pannus formation, cartilage damage and synovial hyperplasia in the arthritic rat paws. It is determined from the current study that pterostilbene was effective in reducing CFA-induced arthritis in rats through amelioration of oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. It was also effective to treat peripheral neuropathy through modulation of oxidative stress and neurotransmitters in sciatic nerves.

Parkinsonism Attenuation by Antihistamines via Downregulating the Oxidative Stress, Histamine, and Inflammation

Parkinson disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder of the motor activity of the brain, regulated by dopaminergic neurons of substantia nigra, resulting in an increased density of histaminergic fibers. This study was aimed to evaluate the effects of H1 antagonist's ebastine and levocetirizine in PD per se and in combination. Animals were divided into 9 groups (n = 10). Group 1 received carboxymethyl cellulose CMC (1 mL/kg). Group II was treated with haloperidol (1 mg/kg) (diseased group). Group III was treated with levodopa/carbidopa (levo 20 mg/kg). Groups IV and V were treated with ebastine at dose levels of 2 and 4 mg/kg, respectively. Groups VI and VII were treated with levocetirizine at dose levels of 0.5 and 1 mg/kg, respectively. Group VIII was treated with ebastine (4 mg/kg) + levo (20 mg/kg) in combination. Group IX was treated with levocetirizine (1 mg/kg) + levo (20 mg/kg). PD was induced with haloperidol (1 mg/kg iv, once daily for 23 days) for a duration of 30 min. Behavioral tests like rotarod, block and triple horizontal bars, actophotometer, and open field were performed. Biochemical markers of oxidative stress, i.e., SOD, CAT, GSH, MDA, dopamine, serotonin, and nor-adrenaline and nitrite, were determined. Histamine, mRNA expression of α-synuclein, and TNF-α level in the serum and brain of mice were analyzed. Endogenous biochemical markers were increased except mRNA expression of α-synuclein, which was reduced. In combination therapy with the standard drug, ebastine (4 mg/kg) significantly improved the cataleptic state and dopamine levels, but no significant difference in the renal and liver functioning tests was observed. This study concluded that ebastine (4 mg/kg) might work in the treatment of PD as it improves the cataleptic state in haloperidol-induced catalepsy.

Acute Oral, Subacute, and Developmental Toxicity Profiling of Naphthalene 2-Yl, 2-Chloro, 5-Nitrobenzoate: Assessment Based on Stress Response, Toxicity, and Adverse Outcome Pathways

The U.S. National Research Council (NRC) introduced new approaches to report toxicity studies. The NRC vision is to explore the toxicity pathways leading to the adverse effects in intact organisms by the exposure of the chemicals. This study examines the toxicity profiling of the naphthalene-2-yl 2-chloro-5-dinitrobenzoate (SF5) by adopting the vision of NRC that moves from traditional animal studies to the cellular pathways. Acute, subacute, and developmental toxicity studies were assayed according to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines. The stress response pathway, toxicity pathway, and adverse effects outcome parameters were analyzed by using their standard protocols. The results showed that the acute toxicity study increases the liver enzyme levels. In a subacute toxicity study, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels were raised in both male and female animals. SF5 significantly increases the normal sperm count in the male animals corresponding to a decrease in the abnormality count. Developmental toxicity showed the normal skeletal and morphological parameters, except little hydrocephalus was observed in developmental toxicity. Doses of 20 mg/kg in males and 4 mg/kg in females showed decreased glutathione (GSH) levels in the kidney and liver. MDA levels were also increased in the kidney and liver. However, histopathological studies did not show any cellular change in these organs. No statistical difference was observed in histamine levels, testosterone, nuclear factor erythroid two-related factor-2 (Nrf2), and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), which showed no initiation of the stress response, toxicity, and adverse effect pathways. Immunomodulation was observed at low doses in subacute toxicity studies. It was concluded that SF5 did not produce abrupt and high-toxicity levels in organs and biochemical parameters. So, it is safe for further studies.

The anti-cancer potential of 2,4,6 tris-methyphenylamino1,3,5-triazine compound against mammary glands cancer: Via down-regulating the hormonal, inflammatory mediators, and oxidative stress

AIM OF THE STUDY

Breast cancer is caused by abnormal growth of the cells and progressed due to the over-expression of estrogen (ER) and progesterone (PR). The current study was designed to evaluate the anti-tumor activity of 2,4,6 tris-methyphenylamino1,3,5-triazine compound (MPAT) in N-nitroso, N-methyl urea (NMU)-induced mammary gland cancer.

METHODS

Molecular docking and in-vitro studies were conducted before the in-vivo analysis. Female Albino rats were divided into 5 groups (n = 6). Group I received Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) (1 mL/100 g). Group II (diseased group) received NMU 50 mg/kg. Group III (standard group) received tamoxifen (5 mg/kg). Group IV-V received MPAT at doses of 30 and 60 mg/kg respectively. All groups received NMU intraperitoneally except the control group at 3 weeks intervals for 12 weeks. After 12 weeks of NMU dosing, MPAT was given for 15 consecutive days. Biochemical, oxidative stress markers, hormonal profile, and inflammatory mediators were analyzed.

KEY FINDINGS

MPAT showed significant interaction with the selected targets in docking studies. An over-expression of ER and PR was observed in NMU-treated rats which were restored significantly after MPAT administration. Nitrite and MDA levels were high in the diseased group and MPAT treatment attenuated the oxidative damage after treatment. Antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), total sulfhydryl (TSH), glutathione (GSH), and Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) values were low in NMU-treated rats.

SIGNIFICANCE

This study concluded that MPAT can be used as an anticancer agent due to its significant effects on down-regulating the hormonal profile and oxidative stress markers.

Pharmacological Screening of Viola odorata L. for Memory-Enhancing Effect via Modulation of Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Biomarkers

Purpose: Alzheimer disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder that is caused by neuroinflammation and oxidative stress. The present study aimed to characterize and then investigate the memory-enhancing potential of Viola odorata methanolic extract in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)–treated mice.

Methods:V. odorata characterization was done by using the GCMS technique. Neuroinflammation was induced by the intracerebroventricular administration of LPS at a dose of 12 µg. Animals were divided randomly into six groups (n = 10). Group I was normal control, which was given vehicle. Group II was disease control, which received LPS (12 µg) via the intracerebroventricular route. Group III was standard, which was administered with donepezil (3 µg) orally for 21 days. Groups IV–VI were the treatment groups, which were administered with the extract at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg dose levels orally respectively for 21 days. Groups III–VI received LPS (12 µg) on the first day along with their treatments. During the treatment, the animals were assessed for memory retention by employing different behavioral paradigms namely elevated plus maze, passive avoidance, foot shock and open field. Various mediators [endogenous antioxidants, neurotransmitters, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE)] involved in the pathogenesis of AD were quantified by using the UV spectrophotometric method.

Results: Extract-treated groups showed a remarkable improvement in cognitive impairment in all behavioral paradigms. Oxidative stress biomarkers, that is, superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione were raised dose-dependently in the treatment groups with a dose-dependent decrease in the malonaldehyde and AChE levels in the brains of the treated animals. The treatment groups showed decreased levels of inflammatory biomarkers, that is, tumor necrosis factor–alpha, nuclear factor kappa light-chain enhancer of activated β-cells, and cyclo-oxygenase, which supports the therapeutic effectiveness of the treatment.

Conclusion: Based on behavioral, oxidative stress biomarker, and neuroinflammatory data, it is concluded that V. odorata possesses memory-enhancing activity and may prove a beneficial role in the management of AD.

Microbiome-Metabolomics Reveals Endogenous Alterations of Energy Metabolism by the Dushen Tang to Attenuate D-Galactose-Induced Memory Impairment in Rats

Aging affects the brain function in elderly individuals, and Dushen Tang (DST) is widely used for the treatment of senile diseases. In this study, the protective effect of DST against memory impairment was evaluated through the Morris water maze (MWM) test and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). A joint analysis was also performed using LC-MS metabolomics and the microbiome. The MWM test showed that DST could significantly improve the spatial memory and learning abilities of rats with memory impairment, and the TEM analysis showed that DST could reduce neuronal damage in the hippocampus of rats with memory impairment. Ten potential biomarkers involving pyruvate metabolism, the synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies, and other metabolic pathways were identified by the metabolomic analysis, and it was found that 3-hydroxybutyric acid and lactic acid were involved in the activation of cAMP signaling pathways. The 16S rDNA sequencing results showed that DST could regulate the structure of the gut microbiota in rats with memory impairment, and these effects were manifested as changes in energy metabolism. These findings suggest that DST exerts a good therapeutic effect on rats with memory impairment and that this effect might be mainly achieved by improving energy metabolism. These findings might lead to the potential development of DST as a drug for the treatment of rats with memory impairment.

Toxicity Evaluation of the Naphthalen-2-yl 3,5-Dinitrobenzoate: A Drug Candidate for Alzheimer Disease

The presented study was designed to probe the toxicity potential of newly identified compound naphthalen-2-yl 3,5-dinitrobenzoate (SF1). Acute, subacute toxicity and teratogenicity studies were performed as per Organization of economic cooperation and development (OECD) 425, 407, and 414 test guidelines, respectively. An oral dose of 2000 mg/kg to rats for acute toxicity. Furthermore, 5, 10, 20, and 40 mg/kg doses were administered once daily for 28 days in subacute toxicity study. Teratogenicity study was performed with 40 mg/kg due to its excellent anti-Alzheimer results at this dose. SF1 induced a significant rise in Alkaline Phosphatases (ALP), bilirubin, white blood cells (WBC), and lymphocyte levels with a decrease in platelet count. Furthermore, the reduction in urea, uric acid, and aspartate transaminase (AST) levels and an increase in total protein levels were measured in subacute toxicity. SF1 increased spermatogenesis at 5 and 10 mg/kg doses. Teratogenicity study depicted no resorptions, early abortions, cleft palate, spina bifida and any skeletal abnormalities in the fetuses. Oxidative stress markers (Superoxide dismutase (SOD), Catalase (CAT), and glutathione (GSH) were increased in all the experiments, whereas the effect on melanoaldehyde Malondialdehyde (MDA) levels was variable. Histopathology further corroborated these results with no change in the architectures of selected organs. Consequently, a 2000 mg/kg dose of SF1 tends to induce minor liver dysfunction along with immunomodulation, and it is well below its LD ₅₀ . Moreover, it can be safely used in pregnancy owing to its no detectable teratogenicity.

Toxicological Screening of 4-Phenyl-3,4-dihydrobenzo[h]quinolin-2(1H)-one: A New Potential Candidate for Alzheimer's Treatment

Toxicity studies are necessary for the development of a new drug. Naphthalene is a bicyclic molecule and is easy to derivatize. In our previous study, a derivative of naphthalene (4-phenyl,3,4-dihydrobenzoquinoline-2(H)one) was synthesized and reported its in vitro activity on different enzymes. This study was a probe to investigate the toxicity potential of that compound (SF3). Acute oral (425), subacute (407), and teratogenicity (414) studies were planned according to their respective guidelines given by organization of economic cooperation and development (OECD). Acute oral, subacute, and teratogenicity studies were carried out on 2000, 5-40, and 40 mg/kg doses. Blood samples were collected for hematological and biochemical analyses. Vital organs were excised for oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione, and malondialdehyde) and histopathological analysis. LD 50 of SF3 was higher than 2000 mg/kg. In acute and subacute studies, levels of alkaline phosphates and aspartate transaminase were increased. Teratogenicity showed no resorptions, no skeletal or soft tissue abnormalities, and no cleft pallet. Oxidative stress biomarkers were close to the normal, and no increase in the malondialdehyde level was seen. Histopathological studies revealed normal tissue architecture of the selected organs, except kidney, in acute oral and subacute toxicity studies at 40 mg/kg. The study concluded that SF3 is safer if used as a drug.

Appraisal of anti-Parkinson activity of rhinacanthin-C in haloperidol-induced parkinsonism in mice: A mechanistic approach

This study aimed to appraise the anti-Parkinson's potential of rhinacanthin-C (RC). RC (5, 10, and 20 mg/kg) was orally administered for 25 days in albino mice to treat haloperidol-induced parkinsonism (1 mg/kg). RC significantly (p < .05) improved the motor symptoms in block, bar, rotarod, and balance beam walking tests in treated mice. RC reduced the cataleptic effect dose-dependently. The RC therapy notably (p < .001) enhanced reduced glutathione, catalase, and superoxide dismutase levels while decreased malondialdehyde and nitrite levels in the tissue homogenates of the treated mice. The RC therapy significantly (p < .01-.001) restored the dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin levels in the brain tissue of treated mice as co-evidenced from brain histology. RC did not adversely affect complete blood count, and liver and kidney function tests. Taken together, these results have shown that RC is effective in treating motor and non-motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Rhinacanthus nasutus is a medicinally rich plant that has folklore use in several ailments. The plant possessed multiple pharmacological activities due to the presence of naphthoquinones. The major compound of this plant rhinacanthin-C was used in the present study to evaluate it's anti-Parkinson's activity. The results provide scientific evidence of the anti-Parkinson's potential of rhinacanthin-C that support the use of R. nasutus leaves in the prevention and treatment of Parkinson's disorder.

Screening of Synthetic Isoxazolone Derivative Role in Alzheimer's Disease: Computational and Pharmacological Approach

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is age-dependent neurological disorder with progressive loss of cognition and memory. This multifactorial disease is characterized by intracellular neurofibrillary tangles, beta amyloid plaques, neuroinflammation, and increased oxidative stress. The increased cellular manifestations of these markers play a critical role in neurodegeneration and pathogenesis of AD. Therefore, reducing neurodegeneration by decreasing one or more of these markers may provide a potential therapeutic roadmap for the treatment of AD. AD causes a devastating loss of cognition with no conclusive and effective treatment. Many synthetic compound containing isoxazolone nucleus have been reported as neuroprotective agents. The aim of this study was to explore the anti-Alzheimer's potential of a newly synthesized 3,4,5-trimethoxy isoxazolone derivative (TMI) that attenuated the beta amyloid (Aβ1-42) and tau protein levels in streptozotocin (STZ) induced Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Molecular analysis revealed increased beta amyloid (Aβ1-42) protein levels, increased tau protein levels, increased cellular oxidative stress and reduced antioxidant enzymes in STZ exposed mice brains. Furthermore, ELISA and PCR were used to validate the expression of Aβ1-42. Pre-treatment with TMI significantly improved the memory and cognitive behavior along with ameliorated levels of Aβ1-42 proteins. TMI treated mice further showed marked increase in GSH, CAT, SOD levels while decreased levels of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors (AChEI's) and MDA intermediate. The multidimensional nature of isoxazolone derivatives and its versatile affinity towards various targets highpoint its multistep targeting nature. These results indicated the neuroprotective potential of TMI which may be considered for the treatment of neurodegenerative disease specifically in AD.

Chemical characterization and anti-arthritic appraisal of Monotheca buxifolia methanolic extract in Complete Freund's Adjuvant-induced arthritis in Wistar rats

The current study was designed to evaluate the anti-oxidant and anti-arthritic potential of a traditionally used herb, Monotheca buxifolia. The M. buxifolia methanolic extract (MBME) was prepared from the aerial parts of the plant followed by chemical characterization with GC-MS. The anti-oxidant potential of the MBME was demonstrated by DPPH scavenging activity. The effects of MBME on protein denaturation and membrane stabilization were determined by inhibition of egg albumin denaturation and RBC membrane stabilization assays, respectively. The in vivo anti-arthritic potential of the MBME at 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg/day was evaluated in Complete Freund's Adjuvant-induced polyarthritis in Wistar rats treated for 21 days. Phytochemicals, such as linolenic acid methyl ester, n-hexadecanoic acid, vitamin E, α-amyrin, and β-amyrin were detected in the GC-MS analysis. The plant extract exhibited a 55.20 ± 0.69% scavenging of free radicals at 100 µg/ml concentration. It significantly (p < 0.05) stabilized human RBC membrane (65.06 ± 0.22%) and inhibited protein denaturation (70.53 ± 0.34%) at 100 mg/ml concentration. The diclofenac sodium (DS) and MBME at 150,100, and 50 mg/kg reduced the paw edema, restored the body weight, and altered blood parameters including CRP. The MBME significantly reduced the MDA and increased the SOD, CAT, and GSH levels in liver tissue homogenate in treated rats. The serum concentration of TNF-α and PGE2 was remarkably (p < 0.01-< 0.0001) restored by the DS and MBME dose dependently. The histopathological study showed that MBME 150 mg/kg commendably restored the ankle joint inflammation, bone erosion, and cartilage damage in polyarthritic rats. It was concluded that the anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic effects of MBME might be attributed to phenols, flavonoids, triterpenoids, vitamin E, phytol, and other fatty acids. This study showed the anti-arthritic potential of Monotheca buxifolia and thus validates its traditional claim.