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Ge W, Liang H, Gao P, Li Y, Song N, Wu J, Chai C. Exploring the release mechanism of micro/nanoplastics from different layers of masks in water: towards reduction of plastic contamination in masks. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:33047-33057. [PMID: 38668948 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33443-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
During the COVID-19 pandemic, a substantial quantity of disposable face masks was discarded, consisting of three layers of nonwoven fabric. However, their improper disposal led to the release of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) when they ended up in aquatic environments. To analyze the release kinetics and size characteristics of these masks, release experiments were performed on commercially available disposable masks over a period of 7 days and micro- and nanoplastic releases were detected using fiber counting and nanoparticle tracking analysis. The study's findings revealed that there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the quantity of MPs released among the layers of the masks. However, the quantity of NPs released from the middle layer of the mask was 25.9 ± 1.3 × 108 to 81.3 ± 5.3 × 108 particles/piece, significantly higher than the inner and outer layers (p < 0.05). The release process of micro/nanoplastics (M/NPs) from each layer of the mask followed the Elovich equation and the power function equation, indicating that the release was divided into two stages. MPs in the range of 1-500 µm and NPs in the range of 100-300 nm dominated the release from each layer of the mask, accounting for an average of 93.81% and 67.52%, respectively. Based on these findings, recommendations are proposed to reduce the release of M/NPs from masks during subsequent use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Ge
- School of Life Sciences, Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Applied Mycology, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Hao Liang
- School of Engineering, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Ping Gao
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Yan Li
- Institute of Agricultural Resource and Environment, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, 250100, China
| | - Ningning Song
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Juan Wu
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China
| | - Chao Chai
- School of Resources and Environment, Qingdao Engineering Research Center for Rural Environment, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, 266109, China.
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2
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Smith P, Hu J, Griffin A, Robertson M, Güillen Obando A, Bounds E, Dunn CB, Ye C, Liu L, Qiang Z. Accurate additive manufacturing of lightweight and elastic carbons using plastic precursors. Nat Commun 2024; 15:838. [PMID: 38287004 PMCID: PMC10825225 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-45211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite groundbreaking advances in the additive manufacturing of polymers, metals, and ceramics, scaled and accurate production of structured carbons remains largely underdeveloped. This work reports a simple method to produce complex carbon materials with very low dimensional shrinkage from printed to carbonized state (less than 4%), using commercially available polypropylene precursors and a fused filament fabrication-based process. The control of macrostructural retention is enabled by the inclusion of fiber fillers regardless of the crosslinking degree of the polypropylene matrix, providing a significant advantage to directly control the density, porosity, and mechanical properties of 3D printed carbons. Using the same printed plastic precursors, different mechanical responses of derived carbons can be obtained, notably from stiff to highly compressible. This report harnesses the power of additive manufacturing for producing carbons with accurately controlled structure and properties, while enabling great opportunities for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Smith
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Jiayue Hu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, 1801N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA
| | - Anthony Griffin
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Mark Robertson
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Alejandro Güillen Obando
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Ethan Bounds
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Carmen B Dunn
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Changhuai Ye
- State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Donghua University, Shanghai, 201620, China
| | - Ling Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, 1801N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
| | - Zhe Qiang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, 1801N Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA, 19122, USA.
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Saleem J, Moghal ZKB, McKay G. Designing super-fast trimodal sponges using recycled polypropylene for organics cleanup. Sci Rep 2023; 13:14163. [PMID: 37644209 PMCID: PMC10465528 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-41506-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Sorbent pads and films have been commonly used for environmental remediation purposes, but designing their internal structure to optimize access to the entire volume while ensuring cost-effectiveness, ease of fabrication, sufficient strength, and reusability remains challenging. Herein, we report a trimodal sorbent film from recycled polypropylene (PP) with micropores, macro-voids, and sponge-like 3D cavities, developed through selective dissolution, thermally induced phase separation, and annealing. The sorbent has hundreds of cavities per cm2 that are capable of swelling up to twenty-five times its thickness, allowing for super-fast saturation kinetics (within 30 s) and maximum oil sorption (97 g/g). The sorption mechanism follows a pseudo-second-order kinetic model. Moreover, the sorbent is easily compressible, and its structure is retained during oil sorption, desorption, and resorption, resulting in 96.5% reuse efficiency. The oil recovery process involves manually squeezing the film, making the cleanup process efficient with no chemical treatment required. The sorbent film possesses high porosity for effective sorption with sufficient tensile strength for practical applications. Our integrated technique results in a strengthened porous polymeric structure that can be tailored according to end-use applications. This study provides a sustainable solution for waste management that offers versatility in its functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junaid Saleem
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar.
| | | | - Gordon McKay
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
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4
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Wang L, Li S, Ahmad IM, Zhang G, Sun Y, Wang Y, Sun C, Jiang C, Cui P, Li D. Global face mask pollution: threats to the environment and wildlife, and potential solutions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 887:164055. [PMID: 37178835 PMCID: PMC10174332 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.164055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Face masks are an indispensable low-cost public healthcare necessity for containing viral transmission. After the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) became a pandemic, there was an unprecedented demand for, and subsequent increase in face mask production and use, leading to global ecological challenges, including excessive resource consumption and significant environmental pollution. Here, we review the global demand volume for face masks and the associated energy consumption and pollution potential throughout their life cycle. First, the production and distribution processes consume petroleum-based raw materials and other energy sources and release greenhouse gases. Second, most methods of mask waste disposal result in secondary microplastic pollution and the release of toxic gases and organic substances. Third, face masks discarded in outdoor environments represent a new plastic pollutant and pose significant challenges to the environment and wildlife in various ecosystems. Therefore, the long-term impacts on environmental and wildlife health aspects related to the production, use, and disposal of face masks should be considered and urgently investigated. Here, we propose five reasonable countermeasures to alleviate these global-scale ecological crises induced by mask use during and following the COVID-19 pandemic era: increasing public awareness; improving mask waste management; innovating waste disposal methods; developing biodegradable masks; and formulating relevant policies and regulations. Implementation of these measures will help address the pollution caused by face masks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limin Wang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Shengxuan Li
- School of Languages and Culture, Hebei GEO University; Shijiazhuang 050031, China
| | - Ibrahim M Ahmad
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Guiying Zhang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Yanfeng Sun
- Ocean College of Hebei Agricultural University, Qinhuangdao 066003, China
| | - Yang Wang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Congnan Sun
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Chuan Jiang
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China
| | - Peng Cui
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Ecology and Environment, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Dongming Li
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Animal Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, College of Life Sciences, Hebei Normal University; Shijiazhuang 050024, China; Hebei Collaborative Innovation Center for Eco-Environment, Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang 050024, China..
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Smith P, Obando AG, Griffin A, Robertson M, Bounds E, Qiang Z. Additive Manufacturing of Carbon Using Commodity Polypropylene. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023; 35:e2208029. [PMID: 36763617 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202208029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Carbon materials are essential to the development of modern society with indispensable use in various applications, such as energy storage and high-performance composites. Despite great progress, on-demand carbon manufacturing with control over 3D macroscopic configuration is still an intractable challenge, hindering their direct use in many areas requiring structured materials and products. This work introduces a simple and scalable method to generate complex, large-scale carbon structures using easily accessible materials and technologies. 3D-printed, commercial polypropylene (PP) parts can be thermally stabilized through cracking-facilitated diffusion and crosslinking. The newly elucidated mechanism from this work allows thick PP parts to yield carbonaceous products with complex structures through a subsequent pyrolysis step. The approach for enabling PP-to-carbon conversion has consistent product yield and controlled dimensional shrinkage. Under optimized processing conditions, these PP-derived carbons exhibit robust mechanical properties and excellent joule heating performance, demonstrated by their versatile use as heating elements. Furthermore, this process can be extended to recycled PP, enabling the conversion of waste plastic materials to value-added products. This work provides an innovative approach to create structured carbon materials with direct access to complex geometry, which can be transformative to, and broadly benefit, many important technological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Smith
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Alejandro Guillen Obando
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Anthony Griffin
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Mark Robertson
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Ethan Bounds
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
| | - Zhe Qiang
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, The University of Southern Mississippi, 118 College Drive, Hattiesburg, MS, 39406, USA
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6
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Robertson M, Guillen-Obando A, Barbour A, Smith P, Griffin A, Qiang Z. Direct synthesis of ordered mesoporous materials from thermoplastic elastomers. Nat Commun 2023; 14:639. [PMID: 36746971 PMCID: PMC9902477 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-36362-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The ability to manufacture ordered mesoporous materials using low-cost precursors and scalable processes is essential for unlocking their enormous potential to enable advancement in nanotechnology. While templating-based methods play a central role in the development of mesoporous materials, several limitations exist in conventional system design, including cost, volatile solvent consumption, and attainable pore sizes from commercial templating agents. This work pioneers a new manufacturing platform for producing ordered mesoporous materials through direct pyrolysis of crosslinked thermoplastic elastomer-based block copolymers. Specifically, olefinic majority phases are selectively crosslinked through sulfonation reactions and subsequently converted to carbon, while the minority block can be decomposed to form ordered mesopores. We demonstrate that this process can be extended to different polymer precursors for synthesizing mesoporous polymer, carbon, and silica. Furthermore, the obtained carbons possess large mesopores, sulfur-doped carbon framework, with tailorable pore textures upon varying the precursor identities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Robertson
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406 MS USA
| | - Alejandro Guillen-Obando
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406 MS USA
| | - Andrew Barbour
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406 MS USA
| | - Paul Smith
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406 MS USA
| | - Anthony Griffin
- grid.267193.80000 0001 2295 628XSchool of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406 MS USA
| | - Zhe Qiang
- School of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, 39406, MS, USA.
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7
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Lekshmi GS, Bazaka K, Ramakrishna S, Kumaravel V. Microbial electrosynthesis: carbonaceous electrode materials for CO 2 conversion. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023; 10:292-312. [PMID: 36524420 DOI: 10.1039/d2mh01178f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Microbial electrosynthesis (MES) is a sustainable approach to address greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions using anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) as a building block to create clean fuels and highly valuable chemicals. The efficiency of MES-based CO2 conversion is closely related to the performance of electrode material and, in particular, the cathode for which carbonaceous materials are frequently used. Compared to expensive metal electrodes, carbonaceous materials are biocompatible with a high specific surface area, wide range of possible morphologies, and excellent chemical stability, and their use can maximize the growth of bacteria and enhance electron transfer rates. Examples include MES cathodes based on carbon nanotubes, graphene, graphene oxide, graphite, graphite felt, graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4), activated carbon, carbon felt, carbon dots, carbon fibers, carbon brushes, carbon cloth, reticulated vitreous carbon foam, MXenes, and biochar. Herein, we review the state-of-the-art MES, including thermodynamic and kinetic processes that underpin MES-based CO2 conversion, as well as the impact of reactor type and configuration, selection of biocompatible electrolytes, product selectivity, and the use of novel methods for stimulating biomass accumulation. Specific emphasis is placed on carbonaceous electrode materials, their 3D bioprinting and surface features, and the use of waste-derived carbon or biochar as an outstanding material for further improving the environmental conditions of CO2 conversion using carbon-hungry microbes and as a step toward the circular economy. MES would be an outstanding technique to develop rocket fuels and bioderived products using CO2 in the atmosphere for the Mars mission.
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Affiliation(s)
- G S Lekshmi
- International Centre for Research on Innovative Biobased Materials (ICRI-BioM)-International Research Agenda, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz 90-924, Poland.
| | - Kateryna Bazaka
- School of Engineering, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Seeram Ramakrishna
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Centre for Nanofibers and Nanotechnology, National University of Singapore, 119077, Singapore
| | - Vignesh Kumaravel
- International Centre for Research on Innovative Biobased Materials (ICRI-BioM)-International Research Agenda, Lodz University of Technology, Lodz 90-924, Poland.
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Cui J, Qi M, Zhang Z, Gao S, Xu N, Wang X, Li N, Chen G. Disposal and resource utilization of waste masks: a review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:19683-19704. [PMID: 36653687 PMCID: PMC9848032 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-25353-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Waste masks pose a serious threat to the environment, including marine plastic pollution and soil pollution risks caused by landfills since the outbreak of COVID-19. Currently, numerous effective methods regarding disposal and resource utilization of waste masks have been reported, containing physical, thermochemical, and solvent-based technologies. As for physical technologies, the mechanical properties of the mask-based materials could be enhanced and the conductivity or antibacterial activity was endowed by adding natural fibers or inorganic nanoparticles. Regarding thermochemical technologies, catalytic pyrolysis could yield considerable hydrogen, which is an eco-friendly resource, and would mitigate the energy crisis. Noticeably, the solvent-based technology, as a more convenient and efficient method, was also considered in this paper. In this way, soaking the mask directly in a specific chemical reagent changes the original structure of polypropylene and obtains multi-functional materials. The solvent-based technology is promising in the future with the researches of sustainable and universally applicable reagents. This review could provide guidance for utilizing resources of waste masks and address the issues of plastic pollution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiale Cui
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Mo Qi
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Ziyi Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Shibo Gao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Nuo Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Xiaohua Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tianjin, 300134, China
| | - Ning Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
| | - Guanyi Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin Key Lab of Biomass Wastes Utilization, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Tianjin University of Commerce, Tianjin, 300134, China
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Kang SH, Lee HM, Kim KW, Kim BJ. Preparation and Characterization of Polyethylene-Based Activated Carbon Fibers Stabilized at Low Temperatures. J IND ENG CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2023.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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10
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Pourebrahimi S. Upcycling face mask wastes generated during COVID-19 into value-added engineering materials: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 851:158396. [PMID: 36055514 PMCID: PMC9424124 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Billions of disposable face masks (i.e., single-use masks) are used and discarded worldwide monthly due to the COVID-19 outbreak. The immethodical disposal of these polymer-based wastes containing non-biodegradable constituents (e.g., polypropylene) has provoked marked and severe damage to the ecosystem. Meanwhile, their ever-growing usage significantly strains the present-day waste management measures such as landfilling and incineration, resulting in large quantities of used face-covering masks landing in the environment as importunate contaminants. Hence, alternative waste management strategies are crucially demanded to decrease the negative impacts of face mask contamination. In this venue, developing high-yield, effective, and green routes toward recycling or upcycling face mask wastes (FMWs) into value-added materials is of great importance. While existing recycling processes assist the traditional waste management, they typically end up in materials with downgraded physicochemical, structural, mechanical, and thermal characteristics with reduced values. Therefore, pursuing potential economic upcycling processes would be more beneficial than waste disposal and/or recycling processes. This paper reviews recent advances in the FMWs upcycling methods. In particular, we focus on producing value-added materials via various waste conversion methods, including carbonization (i.e., extreme pyrolysis), pyrolysis (i.e., rapid carbonization), catalytic conversion, chemical treatment, and mechanical reprocessing. Generally, the upcycling methods are promising, firming the vital role of managing FMWs' fate and shedding light on the road of state-of-the-art materials design and synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sina Pourebrahimi
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke Street West, Montréal, Quebec H4B 1R6, Canada.
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