Responsive theranostic systems: integration of diagnostic imaging agents and responsive controlled release drug delivery carriers

Controlled Release of Molecules to Enhance Cell Survival and Regeneration

Controlled release or controlled drug delivery comprises the set of techniques and approaches to improve bioavailability through improved safety and/or efficacy using a carrier material for the molecule of interest. The predictability and tunability of these carriers make them ideal for protection, localization, and sustained presentation of a wide range of therapeutics, including growth factors implicated in cell survival and regeneration. Here we provide a method for encapsulating epidermal growth factor in a degradable polymer matrix for delivery to the cornea. Additional notes are included to demonstrate the wide-ranging capabilities of such methods for other materials, therapeutic agents, and sites of action within the eye.

Design of Chemoresponsive Liquid Crystals Using Metal-Coordinating Polymer Surfaces

Liquid crystals (LCs), when interfaced with chemically functionalized surfaces, can amplify a range of chemical and physical transformations into optical outputs. While metal cation-binding sites on surfaces have been shown to provide a basis for the design of chemoresponsive LCs, the cations have been found to dissociate from the surfaces and dissolve slowly into LCs, resulting in time-dependent changes in the properties of LC-solid interfaces (which impacts the reliability of devices incorporating such surfaces). Here, we explore the use of surfaces comprising metal-coordinating polymers to minimize the dissolution of metal cations into LCs and characterize the impact of the interfacial environment created by the coordinating polymer on the ordering and time-dependent properties of LCs. In particular, by combining theoretical (electronic structure calculations) and experimental (polarization-modulation infrared reflection-adsorption spectroscopy) results, we determine that the pyridine groups of a thin film of poly(4-vinylpyridine-co-divinylbenzene) (P(4VP-co-DVB)) coordinate with Ni2+ when Ni(ClO4)2 is deposited onto the film. We provide evidence that the Ni2+-pyridine coordination weakens the binding of Ni2+ with 4'-n-pentyl-4-biphenylcarbonitrile (5CB), a room-temperature nematic LC, as compared to Ni(ClO4)2 supported on glass, although binding is still sufficiently strong to induce a homeotropic (perpendicular) orientation of the LC. Exposure of the 5CB films supported on Ni(ClO4)2-decorated P(4VP-co-DVB) substrates to parts-per-million vapor concentrations of dimethylmethylphosphonate (DMMP) was found to trigger orientational transitions (to planar (parallel) orientations) in the LC films. In contrast, 5CB supported on Ni(ClO4)2-decorated glass surfaces exhibited no response, even though displacement of 5CB by DMMP is predicted by computations to be thermodynamically favored in both cases. We propose that the distinct LC responses measured on glass and the coordinating polymer substrates are governed by the kinetics of displacement of 5CB by DMMP, a proposal that is supported by measurements performed with increasing temperature. Importantly, by using Ni2+ supported on P(4VP-co-DVB), we measured the ordering of 5CB to be stable and long-lived (>7 days), in contrast to unstable LC ordering (<14 h) when using Ni2+ supported on glass under dry conditions and at room temperature. We further demonstrate the stability of Ni(ClO4)2 supported on P(4VP-co-DVB) toward higher temperatures and humidity using E7 as the LC. Overall, these results demonstrate that metal-coordinating polymer films are a promising class of substrates for fabricating robust and long-lived chemoresponsive LCs.

Advancements in the Synthesis and Functionalization of Zinc Oxide-Based Nanomaterials for Enhanced Oral Cancer Therapy

The fabrication of zinc oxide-based nanomaterials (including natural and synthetic polymers like sulfated polysaccharide, chitosan, and polymethyl methacrylate) has potential to improve oral cancer treatment strategies. This comprehensive review explores the diverse synthesis methods employed to fabricate zinc oxide nanomaterials tailored for oral cancer applications. Several synthesis processes, particularly sol-gel, hydrothermal, and chemical vapor deposition approaches, are thoroughly studied, highlighting their advantages and limitations. The review also examines how synthesis parameters, such as precursor selection, the reaction temperature, and growth conditions, influence both the physicochemical attributes and biological efficacy of the resulting nanomaterials. Furthermore, recent advancements in surface functionalization and modification strategies targeted at improving the targeting specificity and pharmaceutical effectiveness of zinc oxide-based nanomaterials in oral cancer therapy are elucidated. Additionally, the review provides insights into the existing issues and prospective views in the field, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize synthesis methodologies and elucidate the mechanisms underlying the efficacy of zinc oxide-based nanoparticles in oral cancer therapy.

Revolutionizing Stroke Care: Nanotechnology-Based Brain Delivery as a Novel Paradigm for Treatment and Diagnosis

Stroke, a severe medical condition arising from abnormalities in the coagulation-fibrinolysis cycle and metabolic processes, results in brain cell impairment and injury due to blood flow obstruction within the brain. Prompt and efficient therapeutic approaches are imperative to control and preserve brain functions. Conventional stroke medications, including fibrinolytic agents, play a crucial role in facilitating reperfusion to the ischemic brain. However, their clinical efficacy is hampered by short plasma half-lives, limited brain tissue distribution attributed to the blood-brain barrier (BBB), and lack of targeted drug delivery to the ischemic region. To address these challenges, diverse nanomedicine strategies, such as vesicular systems, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, exosomes, inorganic nanoparticles, and biomimetic nanoparticles, have emerged. These platforms enhance drug pharmacokinetics by facilitating targeted drug accumulation at the ischemic site. By leveraging nanocarriers, engineered drug delivery systems hold the potential to overcome challenges associated with conventional stroke medications. This comprehensive review explores the pathophysiological mechanism underlying stroke and BBB disruption in stroke. Additionally, this review investigates the utilization of nanocarriers for current therapeutic and diagnostic interventions in stroke management. By addressing these aspects, the review aims to provide insight into potential strategies for improving stroke treatment and diagnosis through a nanomedicine approach.

Novel fabrication of anti-VEGF drug ranibizumab loaded PLGA/PLA co-polymeric nanomicelles for long-acting intraocular delivery in the treatment of age-related macular degeneration therapy

Age associated macular degeneration is the 3rd primary cause of blind fundus diseases globally. A reliable and long-lasting method of intraocular drug delivery is still needed. Herein, this study was aim to develop the novel fabrication of ranibizumab loaded co-polymeric nanomicelles (Rabz-CP-NMs) for AMD. The CMC of co-polymeric nanomicelles was determined to be low, at 6.2 μg/ml. The ring copolymerization method was employed to fabricate the NMs and characterize via FTIR, XRD, TEM, DLS and Zeta potential. Rabz-CP-NMs was spherical shape with 10-50 nm in size. Stable and prolonged drug release was achieved with the Rabz from CP-NMs at 48 h. D407 and ARPE19 ocular cell lines showed dose-dependent cell viability with Rabz-CP-NMs. The Rabz-CP-NMs also had less toxicity, higher uptake, lower cell death and prolonged VEGF-A inhibition, as shown by cytoviability assay. Thus, Rabz-CP-NMs were safe for ocular use, suggesting that could be used to improve intraocular AMD treatment.

Towards Clinical Development of Scandium Radioisotope Complexes for Use in Nuclear Medicine: Encouraging Prospects with the Chelator 1,4,7,10-Tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic Acid (DOTA) and Its Analogues

Scandium (Sc) isotopes have recently attracted significant attention in the search for new radionuclides with potential uses in personalized medicine, especially in the treatment of specific cancer patient categories. In particular, Sc-43 and Sc-44, as positron emitters with a satisfactory half-life (3.9 and 4.0 h, respectively), are ideal for cancer diagnosis via Positron Emission Tomography (PET). On the other hand, Sc-47, as an emitter of beta particles and low gamma radiation, may be used as a therapeutic radionuclide, which also allows Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) imaging. As these scandium isotopes follow the same biological pathway and chemical reactivity, they appear to fit perfectly into the "theranostic pair" concept. A step-by-step description, initiating from the moment of scandium isotope production and leading up to their preclinical and clinical trial applications, is presented. Recent developments related to the nuclear reactions selected and employed to produce the radionuclides Sc-43, Sc-44, and Sc-47, the chemical processing of these isotopes and the main target recovery methods are also included. Furthermore, the radiolabeling of the leading chelator, 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA), and its structural analogues with scandium is also discussed and the advantages and disadvantages of scandium complexation are evaluated. Finally, a review of the preclinical studies and clinical trials involving scandium, as well as future challenges for its clinical uses and applications, are presented.

Advancing cancer theranostics through biomimetics: A comprehensive review

Nanotheranostics, especially those employing biomimetic approaches, are of substantial interest for molecular imaging and cancer therapy. The incorporation of diagnostics and therapeutics, known as cancer theranostics, represents a promising strategy in modern oncology. Biomimetics, inspired by nature, offers a multidisciplinary avenue with potential in advancing cancer theranostics. This review comprehensively analyses recent progress in biomimetics-based cancer theranostics, emphasizing its role in overcoming current treatment challenges, with a focus on breast, prostate, and skin cancers. Biomimetic approaches have been explored to address multidrug resistance (MDR), emphasizing their role in immunotherapy and photothermal therapy. The specific areas covered include biomimetic drug delivery systems bypassing MDR mechanisms, biomimetic platforms for immune checkpoint blockade, immune cell modulation, and photothermal tumor ablation. Pretargeting techniques enhancing radiotherapeutic agent uptake are discussed, along with a comprehensive review of clinical trials of global nanotheranostics. This review delves into biomimetic materials, nanotechnology, and bioinspired strategies for cancer imaging, diagnosis, and targeted drug delivery. These include imaging probes, contrast agents, and biosensors for enhanced specificity and sensitivity. Biomimetic strategies for targeted drug delivery involve the design of nanoparticles, liposomes, and hydrogels for site-specific delivery and improved therapeutic efficacy. Overall, this current review provides valuable information for investigators, clinicians, and biomedical engineers, offering insights into the latest biomimetics applications in cancer theranostics. Leveraging biomimetics aims to revolutionize cancer diagnosis, treatment, and patient outcomes.

Theranostics: a multifaceted approach utilizing nano-biomaterials

Biomaterials play a vital role in targeting therapeutics. Over the years, several biomaterials have gained wide attention in the treatment and diagnosis of diseases. Scientists are trying to make more personalized treatments for different diseases, as well as discovering novel single agents that can be used for prognosis, medication administration, and keeping track of how a treatment works. Theranostics based on nano-biomaterials have higher sensitivity and specificity for disease management than conventional techniques. This review provides a concise overview of various biomaterials, including carbon-based materials like fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and carbon nanofibers, and their involvement in theranostics of different diseases. In addition, the involvement of imaging techniques for theranostics applications was overviewed. Theranostics is an emerging strategy that has great potential for enhancing the accuracy and efficacy of medicinal interventions. Despite the presence of obstacles such as disease heterogeneity, toxicity, reproducibility, uniformity, upscaling production, and regulatory hurdles, the field of medical research and development has great promise due to its ability to provide patients with personalised care, facilitate early identification, and enable focused treatment.

Recent Progress on Tumor Microenvironment-Activated NIR-II Phototheranostic Agents with Simultaneous Activation for Diagnosis and Treatment

Malignant tumors seriously threaten human life and well-being. Emerging Near-infrared II (NIR-II, 1000-1700 nm) phototheranostic nanotechnology integrates diagnostic and treatment modalities, offering merits including improved tissue penetration and enhanced spatiotemporal resolution. This remarkable progress has opened promising avenues for advancing tumor theranostic research. The tumor microenvironment (TME) differs from normal tissues, exhibiting distinct attributes such as hypoxia, acidosis, overexpressed hydrogen peroxide, excess glutathione, and other factors. Capitalizing on these attributes, researchers have developed TME-activatable NIR-II phototheranostic agents with diagnostic and therapeutic attributes concurrently. Therefore, developing TME-activatable NIR-II phototheranostic agents with diagnostic and therapeutic activation holds significant research importance. Currently, research on TME-activatable NIR-II phototheranostic agents is still in its preliminary stages. This review examines the recent advances in developing dual-functional NIR-II activatable phototheranostic agents over the past years. It systematically presents NIR-II phototheranostic agents activated by various TME factors such as acidity (pH), hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ), glutathione (GSH), hydrogen sulfide (H2 S), enzymes, and their hybrid. This encompasses NIR-II fluorescence and photoacoustic imaging diagnostics, along with therapeutic modalities, including photothermal, photodynamic, chemodynamic, and gas therapies triggered by these TME factors. Lastly, the difficulties and opportunities confronting NIR-II activatable phototheranostic agents in the simultaneous diagnosis and treatment field are highlighted.

Recent Advancements on Self-Immolative System Based on Dynamic Covalent Bonds for Delivering Heterogeneous Payloads

The precisely spatial-temporal delivery of heterogeneous payloads from a single system with the same pulse is in great demand in realizing versatile and synergistic functions. Very few molecular architectures can satisfy the strict requirements of dual-release translated from single triggers, while the self-immolative systems based on dynamic covalent bonds represent the "state-of-art" of ultimate solution strategy. Embedding heterogeneous payloads symmetrically onto the self-immolative backbone with dynamic covalent bonds as the trigger, can respond to the quasi-bio-orthogonal hallmarks which are higher at the disease's microenvironment to simultaneously yield the heterogeneous payloads (drug A/drug B or drug/reporter). In this review, the modular design principles are concentrated to illustrate the rules in tailoring useful structures, then the rational applications are enumerated on the aspects of drug codelivery and visualized drug-delivery. This review, hopefully, can give the general readers a comprehensive understanding of the self-immolative systems based on dynamic covalent bonds for delivering heterogeneous payloads.

Redox double-switch cancer theranostics through Pt(IV) functionalised manganese dioxide nanostructures

Manganese dioxide (MnO₂)-based nanostructures have emerged as promising tumour microenvironment (TME) responsive platforms. Herein, we used a one-pot reaction to prepare MnO₂ nanostructures with Pt(IV) prodrugs as redox- (and thus TME-) responsive theranostics for cancer therapy, in which the Pt(IV) complexes act as prodrugs of cisplatin (Pt(II)), a clinical chemotherapeutic drug. The cytotoxicity of these MnO₂-Pt(IV) probes was evaluated in two and three dimensional (2D and 3D) A549 cell models and found to be as effective as active drug cisplatin in 3D models. Moreover, MnO₂-Pt(IV) nanoparticles exhibited strong off/ON magnetic resonance (MR) contrast in response to reducing agents, with the longitudinal relaxivity (r₁) increasing 136-fold upon treatment with ascorbic acid. This off/ON MR switch was also observed in (2D and 3D) cells in vitro. In vivo MRI experiments revealed that the nanostructures induce a strong and long-lasting T₁ signal enhancement upon intratumoral injection in A549 tumour-bearing mice. These results show the potential of MnO₂-Pt(IV) NPs as redox responsive MR theranostics for cancer therapy.

A novel biosynthesis of MgO/PEG nanocomposite for organic pollutant removal from aqueous solutions under sunlight irradiation

The novel synthesis of MgO from Laurus nobilis L. leaves was prepared using the green synthesis method. It is using direct blending process to decorate MgO/PEG nanocomposite to enhance the photodegradation properties and examine its physical properties using diverse characterization techniques, including XRD, FTIR, SEM, EDX, and UV-Vis. X-ray diffraction reveals a cubic phase of MgO with a 37-nm grain size. SEM images confirm spherical nanoparticles with a diameter size of 22.9 nm. The optical energy gap of MgO NPs was 4.4 eV, and the MgO/PEG nanocomposite was 4.1 eV, which made it an efficient catalyst under sunlight. The photocatalytic activity of Rose Bengal (RB) and Toluidine Blue (TB) dyes at 5 × 10^-5 mol/l dye concentration indicates excellent degradation efficiencies of 98% and 95% in 120 min, respectively, under sunlight irradiation. MgO/PEG is an excellent candidate nanocomposite for applications of photodegradation and could be used for its potential capability to develop conventionally used techniques.

Recent applications of phase-change materials in tumor therapy and theranostics

Phase-change materials (PCMs) are a type of special material which can store and release a large amount of thermal energy without any significant temperature change. They are emerging in recent years as a promising functional material in tumor therapy and theranostics due to their accurate responses to the temperature variations, biocompatibility and low toxicity. In this review, we will introduce the main types of PCMs and their desirable physiochemical properties for biomedical applications, and highlight the recent progress of PCM's applications in the modulated release of antitumor drugs, with special attentions paid to various ways to initiate temperature-dependent phase change, the concomitant thermal therapy and its combination with or activation of other therapies, particularly unconventional therapies. We will also summarize PCM's recent applications in tumor theranostics, where both drugs and imaging probes are delivered by PCMs for controlled drug release and imaging-guided therapy. Finally, the future perspectives and potential limitations of harnessing PCMs in tumor therapy will be discussed.

Nanoconstructs for theranostic application in cancer: Challenges and strategies to enhance the delivery

Nanoconstructs are made up of nanoparticles and ligands, which can deliver the loaded cargo at the desired site of action. Various nanoparticulate platforms have been utilized for the preparation of nanoconstructs, which may serve both diagnostic as well as therapeutic purposes. Nanoconstructs are mostly used to overcome the limitations of cancer therapies, such as toxicity, nonspecific distribution of the drug, and uncontrolled release rate. The strategies employed during the design of nanoconstructs help improve the efficiency and specificity of loaded theranostic agents and make them a successful approach for cancer therapy. Nanoconstructs are designed with a sole purpose of targeting the requisite site, overcoming the barriers which hinders its right placement for desired benefit. Therefore, instead of classifying modes for delivery of nanoconstructs as actively or passively targeted systems, they are suitably classified as autonomous and nonautonomous types. At large, nanoconstructs offer numerous benefits, however they suffer from multiple challenges, too. Hence, to overcome such challenges computational modelling methods and artificial intelligence/machine learning processes are being explored. The current review provides an overview on attributes and applications offered by nanoconstructs as theranostic agent in cancer.

Novel manganese and polyester dendrimer-based theranostic nanoparticles for MRI and breast cancer therapy

Therapeutic nanoplatforms are widely used in the diagnosis and treatment of breast cancer due to the merits of enabling high soft-tissue resolution and the availability of numerous therapeutic nanoparticles. It is thus vital to develop multifunctional theranostic nanoparticles for the visualization and dynamic monitoring of tumor therapy. In this study, we designed a manganese-based and hypericin-loaded polyester dendrimer nanoparticle (MHD) for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and hypericin-based photodynamic therapy (PDT) enhancement. We found that MHD could greatly enhance MRI contrast with a longitudinal relaxivity of 5.8 mM^-1 s^-1 due to the Mn-based paramagnetic dendrimer carrier. Meanwhile, the MRI-guided PDT inhibition of breast tumors could be achieved by the hypericin-carrying MHD and further improved by Mn²⁺-mediated alleviation of the hypoxic microenvironment and the enhancement of cellular ROS. Besides, MHD showed excellent biocompatibility and biosafety with liver and kidney clearance mechanisms. Thus, the high efficiency in MRI contrast enhancement and excellent tumor-inhibiting effects indicate MHD's potential as a novel, stable, and multifunctional nanotheranostic agent for breast cancer.

Nanomaterials-Functionalized Hydrogels for the Treatment of Cutaneous Wounds

Hydrogels have been utilized extensively in the field of cutaneous wound treatment. The introduction of nanomaterials (NMs), which are a big category of materials with diverse functionalities, can endow the hydrogels with additional and multiple functions to meet the demand for a comprehensive performance in wound dressings. Therefore, NMs-functionalized hydrogels (NMFHs) as wound dressings have drawn intensive attention recently. Herein, an overview of reports about NMFHs for the treatment of cutaneous wounds in the past five years is provided. Firstly, fabrication strategies, which are mainly divided into physical embedding and chemical synthesis of the NMFHs, are summarized and illustrated. Then, functions of the NMFHs brought by the NMs are reviewed, including hemostasis, antimicrobial activity, conductivity, regulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) level, and stimulus responsiveness (pH responsiveness, photo-responsiveness, and magnetic responsiveness). Finally, current challenges and future perspectives in this field are discussed with the hope of inspiring additional ideas.

Janus USPION modular platform (JUMP) for theranostic ultrasound-mediated targeted intratumoral microvascular imaging and DNA/miRNA delivery

Rationale: High mortality in pancreatic cancer (PDAC) and triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) highlight the need to capitalize on nanoscale-design advantages for multifunctional diagnostics and therapies. DNA/RNA-therapies can provide potential breakthroughs, however, to date, there is no FDA-approved systemic delivery system to solid tumors. Methods: Here, we report a Janus-nanoparticle (jNP)-system with modular targeting, payload-delivery, and targeted-imaging capabilities. Our jNP-system consists of 10 nm ultrasmall superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (USPION) with opposing antibody-targeting and DNA/RNA payload-protecting faces, directionally self-assembled with commercially available zwitterionic microbubbles (MBs) and DNA/RNA payloads. Results: Sonoporation of targeted jNP-payload-MBs delivers functional reporter-DNA imparting tumor-fluorescence, and micro-RNA126 reducing non-druggable KRAS in PDAC-Panc1 and TNBC-MB231 xenografted tumors. The targeting jNP-system enhances ultrasound-imaging of intra-tumoral microvasculature using less MBs/body weight (BW). The jNP-design enhances USPION's T2*-magnetic resonance (MR) and MR-imaging of PDAC-peritoneal metastases using less Fe/BW. Conclusion: Altogether, data advance the asymmetric jNP-design as a potential theranostic Janus-USPION Modular Platform - a JUMP forward.

Influence of sugar concentration on the vesicle compactness, deformation and membrane poration induced by anionic nanoparticles

Sugar plays a vital role in the structural and functional characteristics of cells. Hence, the interaction of NPs with cell membranes in the presence of sugar concentrations is important for medicinal and pharmacological innovations. This study integrated three tools: giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs), anionic magnetite nanoparticles (NPs), and sugar concentrations, to understand a simplified mechanism for interactions between the vesicle membranes and NPs under various sugar concentrations. We focused on changing the sugar concentration in aqueous solution; more precisely, sucrose inside the GUVs and glucose outside with equal osmolarity. 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1′-rac-glycerol) (sodium salt) (DOPG) and 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DOPC) were used to prepare the charged membranes of 40mole%DOPG/60mole%DOPC-GUVs, whereas only DOPC was used to prepare the neutral membranes. Phase contrast fluorescence microscopy shows that the adherence of 18 nm magnetite NPs with anionic charge depends on the sugar concentration. The alterations of GUVs induced by the NPs are characterized in terms of i) vesicle compactness, ii) deformation, and iii) membrane poration. The presence of sugar provides additional structural stability to the GUVs and reduces the effects of the NPs with respect to these parameters; more precisely, the higher the sugar concentration, the smaller the alteration induced by the NPs. The differences in NPs effects are explained by the change in the type of interaction between sugar molecules and lipid membranes, namely enthalpy and entropy-driven interaction, respectively. In addition, such alterations are influenced by the surface charge density of the lipid bilayer. The surface pressure of membranes due to the adsorption of NPs is responsible for inducing the poration in membranes. The differences in deformation and poration in charged and neutral GUVs under various sugar concentrations are discussed based on the structure of the head of lipid molecules.

Nanotechnology: A Promising Approach for Cancer Diagnosis, Therapeutics and Theragnosis

Cancer remains the most devastating disease and the major cause of mortality worldwide. Although early diagnosis and treatment are the key approach in fighting against cancer, the available conventional diagnostic and therapeutic methods are not efficient. Besides, ineffective cancer cell selectivity and toxicity of traditional chemotherapy remain the most significant challenge. These limitations entail the need for the development of both safe and effective cancer diagnosis and treatment options. Due to its robust application, nanotechnology could be a promising method for in-vivo imaging and detection of cancer cells and cancer biomarkers. Nanotechnology could provide a quick, safe, cost-effective, and efficient method for cancer management. It also provides simultaneous diagnosis and treatment of cancer using nano-theragnostic particles that facilitate early detection and selective destruction of cancer cells. Updated and recent discussions are important for selecting the best cancer diagnosis, treatment, and management options, and new insights on designing effective protocols are utmost important. This review discusses the application of nanotechnology in cancer diagnosis, therapeutics, and theragnosis and provides future perspectives in the field.

Micro/Nanosystems for Magnetic Targeted Delivery of Bioagents

Targeted delivery of pharmaceuticals is promising for efficient disease treatment and reduction in adverse effects. Nano or microstructured magnetic materials with strong magnetic momentum can be noninvasively controlled via magnetic forces within living beings. These magnetic carriers open perspectives in controlling the delivery of different types of bioagents in humans, including small molecules, nucleic acids, and cells. In the present review, we describe different types of magnetic carriers that can serve as drug delivery platforms, and we show different ways to apply them to magnetic targeted delivery of bioagents. We discuss the magnetic guidance of nano/microsystems or labeled cells upon injection into the systemic circulation or in the tissue; we then highlight emergent applications in tissue engineering, and finally, we show how magnetic targeting can integrate with imaging technologies that serve to assist drug delivery.

Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Physicochemical Characteristics and Historical Developments to Commercialization for Potential Technological Applications

Iron oxide nanoparticles (IONPs) have gained increasing attention in various biomedical and industrial sectors due to their physicochemical and magnetic properties. In the biomedical field, IONPs are being developed for enzyme/protein immobilization, magnetofection, cell labeling, DNA detection, and tissue engineering. However, in some established areas, such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), magnetic drug targeting (MDT), magnetic fluid hyperthermia (MFH), immunomagnetic separation (IMS), and magnetic particle imaging (MPI), IONPs have crossed from the research bench, received clinical approval, and have been commercialized. Additionally, in industrial sectors IONP-based fluids (ferrofluids) have been marketed in electronic and mechanical devices for some time. This review explores the historical evolution of IONPs to their current state in biomedical and industrial applications.

Smart magnetic resonance imaging-based theranostics for cancer

Smart theranostics are dynamic platforms that integrate multiple functions, including at least imaging, therapy, and responsiveness, in a single agent. This review showcases a variety of responsive theranostic agents developed specifically for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), due to the privileged position this non-invasive, non-ionising imaging modality continues to hold within the clinical imaging field. Different MRI smart theranostic designs have been devised in the search for more efficient cancer therapy, and improved diagnostic efficiency, through the increase of the local concentration of therapeutic effectors and MRI signal intensity in pathological tissues. This review explores novel small-molecule and nanosized MRI theranostic agents for cancer that exhibit responsiveness to endogenous (change in pH, redox environment, or enzymes) or exogenous (temperature, ultrasound, or light) stimuli. The challenges and obstacles in the design and in vivo application of responsive theranostics are also discussed to guide future research in this interdisciplinary field towards more controllable, efficient, and diagnostically relevant smart theranostics agents.

Theranostic Applications of Nanomaterials in the Field of Cardiovascular Diseases

A large percentage of people are being exposed to mortality due to cardiovascular diseases. Convention approaches have not provided satisfactory outcomes in the management of these diseases. To overcome the limitations of conventional approaches, nanomaterials like nanoparticles, nanotubes, micelles, lipid based nanocarriers, dendrimers, carbon based nano-formulations represent the new aspect of diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases. The unique inherent properties of the nanomaterials are the major reasons for their rapidly growing demand in the field of medicine. Profound knowledge in the field of nanotechnology and biomedicine is needed for the notable translation of nanomaterials into theranostic cardiovascular applications. In this review, the authors have summarized different nanomaterials which are being extensively used to diagnose and treat the diseases such as coronary heart disease, myocardial infarction, atherosclerosis, stroke and thrombosis.

Stimuli-Responsive Polymeric Nanoplatforms for Cancer Therapy

Polymeric nanoparticles have been widely used as carriers of drugs and bioimaging agents due to their excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, and structural versatility. The principal application of polymeric nanoparticles in medicine is for cancer therapy, with increased tumor accumulation, precision delivery of anticancer drugs to target sites, higher solubility of pharmaceutical properties and lower systemic toxicity. Recently, the stimuli-responsive polymeric nanoplatforms attracted more and more attention because they can change their physicochemical properties responding to the stimuli conditions, such as low pH, enzyme, redox agents, hypoxia, light, temperature, magnetic field, ultrasound, and so on. Moreover, the unique properties of stimuli-responsive polymeric nanocarriers in target tissues may significantly improve the bioactivity of delivered agents for cancer treatment. This review introduces stimuli-responsive polymeric nanoparticles and their applications in tumor theranostics with the loading of chemical drugs, nucleic drugs and imaging molecules. In addition, we discuss the strategy for designing multifunctional polymeric nanocarriers and provide the perspective for the clinical applications of these stimuli-responsive polymeric nanoplatforms.

Distributed sensor and actuator networks for closed-loop bioelectronic medicine

Designing implantable bioelectronic systems that continuously monitor physiological functions and simultaneously provide personalized therapeutic solutions for patients remains a persistent challenge across many applications ranging from neural systems to bioelectronic organs. Closed-loop systems typically consist of three functional blocks, namely, sensors, signal processors and actuators. An effective system, that can provide the necessary therapeutics, tailored to individual physiological factors requires a distributed network of sensors and actuators. While significant progress has been made, closed-loop systems still face many challenges before they can truly be considered as long-term solutions for many diseases. In this review, we consider three important criteria where materials play a critical role to enable implantable closed-loop systems: Specificity, Biocompatibility and Connectivity. We look at the progress made in each of these fields with respect to a specific application and outline the challenges in creating bioelectronic technologies for the future.

Stimuli-Responsive Iron Oxide Nanotheranostics: A Versatile and Powerful Approach for Cancer Therapy

Recent advancements in unravelling elements of cancer biology involved in disease progression and treatment resistance have highlighted the need for a holistic approach to effectively tackle cancer. Stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics based on iron oxide nanoparticles are an emerging class of versatile nanomedicines with powerful capabilities to "seek, sense, and attack" multiple components of solid tumors. In this work, the rationale for using iron oxide nanoparticles and the basic physical principles that impact their function in biomedical applications are reviewed. Subsequently, recent advances in the integration of iron oxide nanoparticles with various stimulus mechanisms to facilitate the development of stimuli-responsive nanotheranostics for application in cancer therapy are summarized. The integration of an iron oxide core with various surface coating mechanisms results in the generation of hybrid nanoconstructs with capabilities to codeliver a wide variety of highly potent anticancer therapeutics and immune modulators. Finally, emerging future directions and considerations for their clinical translation are touched upon.

Design of Chemoresponsive Soft Matter Using Hydrogen-Bonded Liquid Crystals

Soft matter that undergoes programmed macroscopic responses to molecular analytes has potential utility in a range of health and safety-related contexts. In this study, we report the design of a nematic liquid crystal (LC) composition that forms through dimerization of carboxylic acids and responds to the presence of vapors of organoamines by undergoing a visually distinct phase transition to an isotropic phase. Specifically, we screened mixtures of two carboxylic acids, 4-butylbenzoic acid and trans-4-pentylcyclohexanecarboxylic acid, and found select compositions that exhibited a nematic phase from 30.6 to 111.7 °C during heating and 110.6 to 3.1 °C during cooling. The metastable nematic phase formed at ambient temperatures was found to be long-lived (>5 days), thus enabling the use of the LC as a chemoresponsive optical material. By comparing experimental infrared (IR) spectra of the LC phase with vibrational frequencies calculated using density functional theory (DFT), we show that it is possible to distinguish between the presence of monomers, homodimers and heterodimers in the mixture, leading us to conclude that a one-to-one heterodimer is the dominant species within this LC composition. Further support for this conclusion is obtained by using differential scanning calorimetry. Exposure of the LC to 12 ppm triethylamine (TEA) triggers a phase transition to an isotropic phase, which we show by IR spectroscopy to be driven by an acid-base reaction, leading to the formation of ammonium carboxylate salts. We characterized the dynamics of the phase transition and found that it proceeds via a characteristic spatiotemporal pathway involving the nucleation, growth, and coalescence of isotropic domains, thus amplifying the atomic-scale acid-base reaction into an information-rich optical output. In contrast to TEA, we determined via both experiment and computation that neither hydrogen bonding donor or acceptor molecules, such as water, dimethyl methylphosphonate, ethylene oxide or formaldehyde, disrupt the heterodimers formed in the LC, hinting that the phase transition (including spatial-temporal characteristics of the pathway) induced in this class of hydrogen bonded LC may offer the basis of a facile and chemically selective way of reporting the presence of volatile amines. This proposal is supported by exploratory experiments in which we show that it is possible to trigger a phase transition in the LC by exposure to volatile amines emitted from rotting fish. Overall, these results provide new principles for the design of chemoresponsive soft matter based on hydrogen bonded LCs that may find use as the basis of low-cost visual indicators of chemical environments.

Solvent Sorption-Induced Actuation of Composites Based on a Polymer of Intrinsic Microporosity

Materials that are capable of actuation in response to a variety of external stimuli are of significant interest for applications in sensors, soft robotics, and biomedical devices. Here, we present a class of actuators using composites based on a polymer of intrinsic microporosity (PIM). By adding an activated carbon (AX21) filler to a PIM, the composite exhibits repeatable actuation upon solvent evaporation and wetting and it is possible to achieve highly controlled three-dimensional actuation. Curled composite actuators are shown to open upon exposure to a solvent and close as a result of solvent evaporation. The degree of curling and actuation is controlled by adjusting the amount of filler and evaporation rate of the solvent casting process, while the actuation speed is controlled by adjusting the type of solvent. The range of forces and actuation speed produced by the composite is demonstrated using acetone, ethanol, and dimethyl sulfoxide as the solvent. The maximum contractile stress produced upon solvent desorption in the pure PIM polymer reached 12 MPa, with an ultimate force over 20 000 times the weight of a sample. This form of the composite actuator is insensitive to humidity and water, which makes it applicable in an aqueous environment, and can survive a wide range of temperatures. These characteristics make it a promising actuator for the diverse range of operating conditions in robotic and medical applications. The mechanism of actuation is discussed, which is based on the asymmetric distribution of the carbon filler particles that leads to a bilayer structure and the individual layers expand and contract differently in response to solvent wetting and evaporation, respectively. Finally, we demonstrate the application of the actuator as a potential drug delivery vehicle, with capacity for encapsulating two kinds of drugs and reduced drug leakage in comparison to existing technologies.

Exosome-based photoacoustic imaging guided photodynamic and immunotherapy for the treatment of pancreatic cancer

Exosomes, which are released from all cells and take part in cell-to-cell communication, have been utilized as drug delivery vehicles in many recent studies. Immunotherapy is an emerging technology which uses patients' innate immune systems. In immunotherapy, immune cells are stimulated through antibodies, the other immune cells and genetic modifications for the purposes of, for instance, cancer therapy. In this study, tumor-derived re-assembled exosome (R-Exo) was simultaneously utilized as both a drug delivery carrier and an immunostimulatory agent. A chlorin e6 photosensitizer was loaded into tumor-derived exosomes during exosomal re-assembly. After this modification, R-Exo retains its original average size and has the same membrane proteins, which allows for targeting of tumor cells. Chlorin e6-loaded R-Exo (Ce6-R-Exo) can be visualized by photoacoustic imaging and can efficiently generate reactive oxygen species inside tumor cells under laser irradiation. In addition, Ce6-R-Exo increased the release of cytokines from immune cells, which indicates that these modified exosomes can be used as an immunotherapeutic agent. In conclusion, we developed a novel strategy that enables photoacoustic imaging-guided photodynamic and immune-combination therapy for the treatment of cancer with tumor-derived Ce6-R-Exo.

Nanobottles for Controlled Release and Drug Delivery

Nanobottles refer to colloidal particles with a hollow interior and a single opening in the wall. These unique features make them ideal carriers for the loading, encapsulation, release, and delivery of various types of theranostic agents in an array of biomedical applications. The hollow interior gives them a high loading capacity while the opening enables quick loading and controlled release of the payload(s). More significantly, on-demand release can be readily achieved by adding a stimuli-responsive material as the inner matrix or cork stopper. This progress report begins with an introduction to the general structures and properties of nanobottles, followed by a brief discussion on the methods developed for their fabrication. The use of nanobottles for loading different types of payloads is then showcased, including small-molecule drugs, biomacromolecules, imaging contrast agents, and functional nanoparticles. The strategies explored for controlling the release by varying the size of the opening and/or integrating with a stimuli-responsive material are also highlighted. This paper concludes with some perspectives on future directions for this class of nanomaterials in terms of fabrication, functionalization, and application.

Two-Dimensional Theranostic Nanomaterials in Cancer Treatment: State of the Art and Perspectives

As the combination of therapies enhances the performance of biocompatible materials in cancer treatment, theranostic therapies are attracting increasing attention rather than individual approaches. In this review, we describe a variety of two-dimensional (2D) theranostic nanomaterials and their efficacy in ablating tumors. Though many literature reports are available to demonstrate the potential application of 2D nanomaterials, we have reviewed here cancer-treating therapies based on such multifunctional nanomaterials abstracting the content from literature works which explain both the in vitro and in vivo level of applications. In addition, we have included a discussion about the future direction of 2D nanomaterials in the field of theranostic cancer treatment.

Biodegradable photoresponsive nanoparticles for chemo-, photothermal- and photodynamic therapy of ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer (OC) is the deadliest gynecological cancer. Standard treatment of OC is based on cytoreductive surgery followed by chemotherapy with platinum drugs and taxanes; however, innate and acquired drug-resistance is frequently observed followed by a relapse after treatment, thus, more efficient therapeutic approaches are required. Combination therapies involving phototherapies and chemotherapy (the so-called chemophototherapy) may have enhanced efficacy against cancer, by attacking cancer cells through different mechanisms, including DNA-damage and thermally driven cell membrane and cytoskeleton damage. We have designed and synthesized poly(lactic-co-glycolic) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) containing the chemo-drug carboplatin (CP), and the near infrared (NIR) photosensitizer indocyanine green (ICG). We have evaluated the drug release profile, the photodynamic ROS generation and photothermal capacities of the NPs. Also, the antitumoral efficiency of the NPs was evaluated using the SKOV-3 cell line as an in vitro OC model, observing an enhanced cytotoxic effect when irradiating cells with an 800 nm laser. Evidence here shown supports the potential application of the biodegradable photoresponsive NPs in the clinical stage due to the biocompatibility of the materials used, the spatiotemporal control of the therapy and, also, the less likely development of resistance against the combinatorial therapy.

Rational design of semiconducting polymer brushes as cancer theranostics

Photonic theranostics (PTs) generally contain optical agents for the optical sensing of biomolecules and therapeutic components for converting light into heat or chemical energy. Semiconducting polymer nanoparticles (SPNs) as advanced PTs possessing good biocompatibility, stable photophysical properties, and sensitive and tunable optical responses from the ultraviolet to near-infrared (NIR) II window (300-1700 nm) have recently aroused great interest. Although semiconducting polymers (SPs) with various building blocks have been synthesized and developed to meet the demands of biophotonic applications, most of the SPNs were made by a nanoprecipitation method that used amphiphilic surfactants to encapsulate SPs. Such binary SP micelles usually exhibit weakened photophysical properties of SPs and undergo dissociation in vivo. SP brushes (SPBs) are products of functional post-modification of SP backbones, which endows unique features to SPNs (e.g. enhanced optical properties and multiple chemical reaction sites for the conjunction of organic/inorganic imaging agents and therapeutics). Furthermore, the SPB-based SPNs can be highly stable due to supramolecular self-assembly and/or chemical crosslinking. In this review, we highlight the recent progress in the development of SPBs for advanced theranostics.

Dendrimer grafted persistent luminescent nanoplatform for aptamer guided tumor imaging and acid-responsive drug delivery

Theranostic nano-drug delivery systems are promising candidates for early diagnosis and treatment of tumors. However, it is a great challenge to achieve accurate intracellular delivery and stimuli-responsive drug release with the enhanced anti-tumor effects and reduced side effects. Herein we report the fabrication of polyamide-amine (PAMAM) dendrimer grafted persistent luminescence nanoparticles (PLNPs) via in situ growth of PAMAM on the surface of PLNPs and its application in targeted bioimaging and drug delivery. The developed PLNPs-PAMAM possesses strong renewable near-infrared persistent luminescence for imaging and gives abundant terminal groups for further functionalization. Aptamer AS1411 coupled to the PLNPs-PAMAM surface can specifically bind to the over-expressed nucleolin on the membrane of tumor cells and improve the intracellular accumulation of the nanoparticles. Doxorubicin (DOX) is loaded on PLNPs-PAMAM by a pH-sensitive hydrazine, can be specifically released in the intracellular acid environment, leading to apoptosis of HeLa tumor cells and inhibition of tumor growth. The as-prepared smart drug delivery nanoplatform with persistent luminescence, PLNPs-PAMAM-AS1411/DOX, shows a good application prospect for precise cancer theranostics.

Nanomaterials for Nanotheranostics: Tuning Their Properties According to Disease Needs

Nanotheranostics is one of the biggest scientific breakthroughs in nanomedicine. Most of the currently available diagnosis and therapies are invasive, time-consuming, and associated with severe toxic side effects. Nanotheranostics, on the other hand, has the potential to bridge this gap by harnessing the capabilities of nanotechnology and nanomaterials for combined therapeutics and diagnostics with markedly enhanced efficacy. However, nanomaterial applications in nanotheranostics are still in its infancy. This is due to the fact that each disease has a particular microenvironment with well-defined characteristics, which promotes deeper selection criteria of nanomaterials to meet the disease needs. In this review, we have outlined how nanomaterials are designed and tailored for nanotheranostics of cancer and other diseases such as neurodegenerative, autoimmune (particularly on rheumatoid arthritis), and cardiovascular diseases. The penetrability and retention of a nanomaterial in the biological system, the therapeutic strategy used, and the imaging mode selected are some of the aspects discussed for each disease. The specific properties of the nanomaterials in terms of feasibility, physicochemical challenges, progress in clinical trials, its toxicity, and their future application on translational medicine are addressed. Our review meticulously and critically examines the applications of nanotheranostics with various nanomaterials, including graphene, across several diseases, offering a broader perspective of this emerging field.

Mannosylated nanocarriers mediated site-specific drug delivery for the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases: A state of the art review

The non-modified nanocarriers-based therapies for the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases enhanced the chemical stability of therapeutically active agents, protected them from enzymatic degradation and extended their blood circulation time. However, the lack of specificity and off-target effects limit their applications. Mannose receptors overexpressed on antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells and macrophages are one of the most desirable targets for treating cancer and other infectious diseases. Therefore, the development of mannosylated nanocarrier formulation is one of the most extensively explored approaches for targeting these mannose receptors. The present manuscript gives readers the background information on C-type lectin receptors followed by the roles, expression, and distribution of the mannose receptors. It further provides a detailed account of different mannosylated nanocarrier formulations. It also gives the tabular information on most relevant and recently granted patents on mannosylated systems. The overview of mannosylated nanocarrier formulations depicted site-specific targeting, enhanced pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic profiles, and improved transfection efficiency of the therapeutically active agents. This suggests the bright future ahead for mannosylated nanocarriers in the treatment of cancer and other infectious diseases. Nevertheless, the mechanism behind the enhanced immune response by mannosylated nanocarriers and their thorough clinical and preclinical evaluation need to explore further.

Cancer Nanotechnology: A New Revolution for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology is gaining significant attention worldwide for cancer treatment. Nanobiotechnology encourages the combination of diagnostics with therapeutics, which is a vital component of a customized way to deal with the malignancy. Nanoparticles are being used as Nanomedicine which participates in diagnosis and treatment of various diseases including cancer. The unique characteristic of Nanomedicine i.e. their high surface to volume ratio enables them to tie, absorb, and convey small biomolecule like DNA, RNA, drugs, proteins, and other molecules to targeted site and thus enhances the efficacy of therapeutic agents.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present article is to provide an insight of several aspect of nanotechnology in cancer therapeutics such as various nanomaterials as drug vehicle, drug release strategies and role of nanotechnology in cancer therapy.

METHODS

We performed an extensive search on bibliographic database for research article on nanotechnology and cancer therapeutics and further compiled the necessary information from various articles into the present article.

RESULTS

Cancer nanotechnology confers a unique technology against cancer through early diagnosis, prevention, personalized therapy by utilizing nanoparticles and quantum dots.Nano-biotechnology plays an important role in the discovery of cancer biomarkers. Quantum dots, gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, gold nanowires etc. have been developed as a carrier of biomolecules that can detect cancer biomarkers. Nanoparticle assisted cancer detection and monitoring involves biomolecules like proteins, antibody fragments, DNA fragments, and RNA fragments as the base of cancer biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights various approaches of cancer nanotechnology in the advancement of cancer therapy.

Modular Fabrication of Intelligent Material-Tissue Interfaces for Bioinspired and Biomimetic Devices

One of the goals of biomaterials science is to reverse engineer aspects of human and nonhuman physiology. Similar to the body's regulatory mechanisms, such devices must transduce changes in the physiological environment or the presence of an external stimulus into a detectable or therapeutic response. This review is a comprehensive evaluation and critical analysis of the design and fabrication of environmentally responsive cell-material constructs for bioinspired machinery and biomimetic devices. In a bottom-up analysis, we begin by reviewing fundamental principles that explain materials' responses to chemical gradients, biomarkers, electromagnetic fields, light, and temperature. Strategies for fabricating highly ordered assemblies of material components at the nano to macro-scales via directed assembly, lithography, 3D printing and 4D printing are also presented. We conclude with an account of contemporary material-tissue interfaces within bioinspired and biomimetic devices for peptide delivery, cancer theranostics, biomonitoring, neuroprosthetics, soft robotics, and biological machines.

Oral adjuvant therapy for colorectal cancer: recent developments and future targets

Colorectal cancer is considered the third most frequent malignant neoplasm occurring in both men and women worldwide. Most approaches that have been used to fight and treat this type of malignancy are either invasive or nonselective. Noninvasive therapy using oral route can increase patient compliance and reduce treatment costs. Innovative measures such as use of nanotechnology and theranostic systems have been initiated in the oral therapy, which has been proven to be greatly advantageous in decreasing side effects, improving detection and diagnoses. This manuscript investigates recent innovative and novel therapeutic approaches through oral route and potential targets in the treatment of colorectal cancer.

Structural transformation caused by pyridine carboxylate in rosebengal-modified metal framework: Synthesis and spectral analysis

In this paper, luminescent metal-organic framework was modified with a rosebengal dye. This resulting composite structure was confirmed with XRD, IR, TGA/DTG and photophysical spectroscopy. Detailed analysis suggested that it was responsive towards pyridine carboxylate (PC), a bio-indicator. Two responsive modes were found, which are absorption-based sensing (named colorimetric one) and emission-based sensing (named fluorescent ratiometric one), respectively. The sensing nature was explored as rosebengal structural transformation triggered by PC and energy transfer between metal framework and PC. These two responsive modes both obey linear performance against PC concentration, showing detection limit of 2.4 μM. Especially, fluorescent ratiometric sensing rendered high selectivity. Their practical sensing performance was discussed as well.