Interfacial properties of model membranes and plasma lipoproteins containing ether lipids

The Synergy of Membranotropic Effect of the Two Pla2 Fractions of Macrovipera lebetina obtusa Venom on the Model Membranes

It is known that snake venoms are a complex of enzymes and proteins and the interaction of different venom components with the membranes could be significantly enhanced in course of their action in an orchestra. The aim of the proposed investigation is to obtain detailed information about the mechanism and topology of two snake venom PLA2 isoforms from the Macrovipera lebetina obtusa venom in the membrane-binding process. We investigated the impact of the interaction on the properties of the model membrane (namely, GUVs and erythrocytes ghost) for each of these isoforms, as well as their synergetic action if they act simultaneously. The 6-lauroyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene and 6-propionyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene fluorescence probes were used to allow us to determine the membrane polarity more accurately via a generalized polarization function. Our results show that two types of PLA2 bring viscosity reduction in GUVs membrane and the effect became more potent when these PLA2 acts together. Intriguingly, we have not observed any significant difference in the case of the erythrocytes ghost membrane.

Free cholesterol determines reassembled high-density lipoprotein phospholipid phase structure and stability

Reassembled high-density lipoproteins (rHDL) of various sizes and compositions containing apo A-I or apo A-II as their sole protein, dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC), and various amounts of free cholesterol (FC) have been isolated and analyzed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and by circular dichroism to determine their stability and the temperature dependence of their helical content. Our data show that the multiple rHDL species obtained at each FC mole percent usually do not have the same FC mole percent as the starting mixture and that the size of the multiple species increases in a quantized way with their respective FC mole percent. DSC studies reveal multiple phases or domains that can be classified as virtual DMPC, which contains a small amount of DMPC that slightly reduces the melting temperature (Tm), a boundary phase that is adjacent to the apo A-I or apo A-II that circumscribes the discoidal rHDL, and a mixed FC/DMPC phase that has a Tm that increases with FC mole percent. Only the large rHDL contain virtual DMPC, whereas all contain boundary phase and various amounts of the mixed FC/DMPC phase according to increasing size and FC mole percent. As reported by others, FC stabilizes the rHDL. For rHDL (apo A-II) compared to rHDL (apo A-I), this occurs in spite of the reduced number of helical regions that mediate binding to the DMPC surface. This effect is attributed to the very high lipophilicity of apo A-II and the reduction in the polarity of the interface between DMPC and the aqueous phase with an increasing FC mole percent, an effect that is expected to increase the strength of the hydrophobic associations with the nonpolar face of the amphipathic helices of apo A-II. These data are relevant to the differential effects of FC and apolipoprotein species on intracellular and plasma membrane nascent HDL assembly and subsequent remodeling by plasma proteins.

Polarity-sensitive fluorescent probes in lipid bilayers: bridging spectroscopic behavior and microenvironment properties

We have studied the emission features of the fluorescent polarity-sensitive probes known as Prodan and Laurdan in a liquid-crystalline DPPC bilayer. To this purpose, we have combined high-level quantum mechanical electronic structure calculations with a molecular field theory for the positional-orientational-conformational distribution of the probes, in their ground and excited states, inside of the lipid bilayer, taking into account at both levels the nonuniformity and anisotropy of the environment. Thus, we can interpret the features of the fluorescence spectra of Prodan and Laurdan in relation to the position and orientation of their chromophore in the bilayer. We have found that the environment polarity is not sufficient to explain the large red shifts experimentally observed and that specific effects due to hydrogen bonding must be considered. We show that the orientation of the probe is important in determining the accessibility to water of the H-bond-acceptor group; in the case of Laurdan interesting conformational effects are highlighted.

Organization and dynamics of membrane probes and proteins utilizing the red edge excitation shift

Dynamics of confined water has interesting implications in the organization and function of molecular assemblies such as membranes. A direct consequence of this type of organization is the restriction imposed on the mobility of the constituent structural units. Interestingly, this restriction (confinement) of mobility couples the motion of solvent (water) molecules with the slow moving molecules in the assembly. It is in this context that the red edge excitation shift (REES) represents a sensitive approach to monitor the environment and dynamics around a fluorophore in such organized assemblies. A shift in the wavelength of maximum fluorescence emission toward higher wavelengths, caused by a shift in the excitation wavelength toward the red edge of the absorption band, is termed REES. REES relies on slow solvent reorientation in the excited state of a fluorophore that can be used to monitor the environment and dynamics around a fluorophore in a host assembly. In this article, we focus on the application of REES to monitor organization and dynamics of membrane probes and proteins.

Fast diffusion of very long chain saturated fatty acids across a bilayer membrane and their rapid extraction by cyclodextrins: implications for adrenoleukodystrophy

Abnormalities in the transport of saturated very long chain fatty acids (VLCFA; >C18:0) contribute to their toxic levels in peroxisomal disorders of fatty acid metabolism, such as adrenoleukodystrophy and adrenomyeloneuropathy. We previously showed that VLCFA desorb much slower than normal dietary fatty acids from both albumin and protein-free lipid bilayers. The important step of transbilayer movement (flip-flop) was not measured directly as a consequence of this very slow desorption from donors, and the extremely low aqueous solubility of VLCFA precludes addition of unbound VLCFA to lipid membranes. We have overcome these limitations using methyl-beta-cyclodextrin to solubilize VLCFA for rapid delivery to "acceptor" phosphatidylcholine vesicles (small and large unilamellar) and to cells. VLCFA binding was monitored in real time with the fluorescent probe fluorescein-labeled phosphatidylethanolamine in the outer membrane leaflet, and entrapped pyranine was used to detect flip-flop across the membrane. The upper limit of the rate of flip-flop across the membrane was independent of temperature and media viscosity and was similar for model raft and non-raft membranes as well as living cells. We further showed that cyclodextrins can extract VLCFA rapidly (within seconds) from vesicles and cells, which have implications for the mechanism and potential alternative approaches to treat adrenoleukodystrophy. Because VLCFA diffuse through the lipid bilayer, proteins may not be required for their transport across the peroxisomal membrane.

Spectral heterogeneity of PRODAN fluorescence in isotropic solvents revealed by multivariate photokinetic analysis

This paper describes a multivariate analysis of the fluorescence emission of 6-propionyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (PRODAN) in a series of isotropic solvents of differing polarity and hydrogen-bonding ability. Multivariate methods distill the essential features from spectral data matrices so that the structural details that are embedded within the data are revealed to the analyst. In the aprotic solvents investigated, the analysis reveals a pair of emission components that have emission maxima that scale with the orientational polarizability. In the alcohols, short-lived, polarity-independent blue bands tentatively attributed to neutral hydrogen-bonded solute-solvent complexes form and relax prior to emission from paired bands that have Stokes shifts that scale with the solvent hydrogen-bonding ability rather than the polarity. In water, the short-lived blue bands were not observed, but the shift in the paired bands did scale with the solvent hydrogen-bonding ability.

Properties of the products formed by the activity of serum opacity factor against human plasma high-density lipoproteins

Serum opacity factor from Streptococcus pyogenes transfers the cholesteryl esters (CE) of approximately 100,000 plasma high-density lipoprotein particles (HDL) to a CE-rich microemulsion (CERM) while forming neo HDL, a cholesterol-poor HDL-like particle. HDL, neo HDL, and CERM are distinct. Neo HDL is lower in free cholesterol and has lower surface and total microviscosities than HDL; the surface polarity of neo HDL and HDL are similar. CERM is much larger than HDL and richer in cholesterol and CE. Although the surface microviscosity of HDL is higher than that of CERM, they have similar total microviscosities because cholesterol partitions into the neutral lipid core. Because of its unique surface properties apo E preferentially associates with the CERM. In contrast, the composition and properties of neo HDL make it a potential acceptor of cellular cholesterol and its esterification. Thus, neo HDL and CERM are possible vehicles for improving cholesterol transport to the liver.

Photokinetic analysis of PRODAN and LAURDAN in large unilamellar vesicles from multivariate frequency-domain fluorescence

This paper describes a multivariate photokinetic analysis of the membrane phase dependence of PRODAN and LAURDAN photokinetics in DMPC vesicles. Decay data, arranged in the form of Fourier transformed emission-decay matrices (FT-EDMs), were collected as a function of temperature around the gel phase transition temperature. Each matrix was partitioned into the emission spectra and decay profiles of the underlying emission components using methods based on principal components analysis. The analysis revealed that both probes typically emit at least three spectral components, which vary in intensity as the membrane undergoes gel to liquid-crystalline phase transitions: a locally excited species (lambda max approximately 415 nm), a charge-transfer species (lambda max approximately 435 nm), and a solvent relaxed species (lambda max approximately 490 nm). In contrast to previous reports, the most red-shifted species is not photoexcited, but evolves from the locally excited species and does not exhibit the dynamic Stokes' shifts associated with conventional solvent relaxation. The primary difference in the emission of the two probes is the prominence of the charge-transfer species in the LAURDAN emission.

Probing the sequence of conformationally induced polarity changes in the molecular chaperonin GroEL with fluorescence spectroscopy

Hydrophobic interactions play a major role in binding non-native substrate proteins in the central cavity of the bacterial chaperonin GroEL. The sequence of local conformational changes by which GroEL and its cofactor GroES assist protein folding can be explored using the polarity-sensitive fluorescence probe Nile Red. A specific single-cysteine mutant of GroEL (Cys261), whose cysteine is located inside the central cavity at the apical region of the protein, was covalently labeled with synthetically prepared Nile Red maleimide (NR). Bulk fluorescence spectra of Cys261-NR were measured to examine the effects of binding of the stringent substrate, malate dehydrogenase (MDH), GroES, and nucleotide on the local environment of the probe. After binding denatured substrate, the fluorescence intensity increased by 32 +/- 7%, suggesting enhanced hydrophobicity at the position of the label. On the other hand, in the presence of ATP, the fluorescence intensity decreased by 13 +/- 3%, implying increased local polarity. To explore the sequence of local polarity changes, substrate, GroES, and various nucleotides were added in different orders; the resulting changes in emission intensity provide insight into the sequence of conformational changes occurring during GroEL-mediated protein folding.

Influence of ester and ether linkage in phospholipids on the environment and dynamics of the membrane interface: a wavelength-selective fluorescence approach

We have monitored the environment and dynamics of the membrane interface formed by the ester-linked phospholipid 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) and the ether-linked phospholipid 1,2-dihexadecyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC) utilizing the wavelength-selective fluorescence approach and using the fluorescent membrane probe 2-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid (2-AS). This interfacially localized probe offers a number of advantages over those which lack a fixed location in the membrane. When incorporated in membranes formed by DPPC and DHPC, 2-AS exhibits red edge excitation shift (REES) of 14 and 8 nm, respectively. This implies that the rate of solvent reorientation, as sensed by the interfacial anthroyloxy probe, in ester-linked DPPC membranes is slow compared to the rate of solvent reorientation in ether-linked DHPC membranes. In addition, the fluorescence polarization values of 2-AS are found to be higher in DHPC membranes than in DPPC membranes. This is further supported by wavelength-dependent changes in fluorescence polarization and lifetime. Taken together, these results are useful in understanding the role of interfacial chemistry on membrane physical properties.

The red-edge effects: 30 years of exploration

In 1970, three laboratories independently made a discovery that, for aromatic fluorophores embedded into different rigid and highly viscous media, the spectroscopic properties do not conform to classical rules. The fluorescence spectra can depend on excitation wavelength, and the excited-state energy transfer, if present, fails at the "red" excitation edge. These red-edge effects were related to the existence of excited-state distribution of fluorophores on their interaction energy with the environment and the slow rate of dielectric relaxation of this environment. In these conditions the site-selection can be provided by variation of the energy of illuminating light quanta, and the behaviour of selected species can be followed as a function of time and other variables. These observations found extensive application in different areas of research: colloid and polymer science, molecular biophysics, photochemistry and photobiology. In particular, they led to the development of very productive methods of studying the dynamics of dielectric relaxations in protein and membranes, using the tryptophan emission and the emission of a variety of probes. These studies were extended to the time domain with the observation of new site-selective effects in emission intensity and anisotropy decays. They stimulated the emergence and development of cryogenic energy-selective and single-molecular techniques that became valuable tools in their own right in chemistry and biophysics research. Site-selection effects were discovered for electron-transfer and proton-transfer reactions if they depended on the dynamics of the environment. This review is focused on the progress in the field of red-edge effects, their applications and prospects.

Interaction of ceramides with phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin and sphingomyelin/cholesterol bilayers

Ceramides (Cers) may exert their biological activity through changes in membrane structure and organization. To understand this mechanism, the effect of Cer on the biophysical properties of phosphatidylcholine, sphingomyelin (SM) and SM/cholesterol bilayers was determined using fluorescence probe techniques. The Cers were bovine brain Cer and synthetic Cers that contained a single acyl chain species. The phospholipids were 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glyero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) and bovine brain, egg yolk and bovine erythrocyte SM. The addition of Cer to POPC and DPPC bilayers that were in the liquid-crystalline phase resulted in a linear increase in acyl chain order and decrease in membrane polarity. The addition of Cer to DPPC and SM bilayers also resulted in a linear increase in the gel to liquid-crystalline phase transition temperature (T(M)). The magnitude of the change was dependent upon Cer lipid composition and was much higher in SM bilayers than DPPC bilayers. The addition of 33 mol% cholesterol essentially eliminated the thermal transition of SM and SM/Cer bilayers. However, there is still a linear increase in acyl chain order induced by the addition of Cer. The results are interpreted as the formation of DPPC/Cer and SM/Cer lipid complexes. SM/Cer lipid complexes have higher T(M)s than the corresponding SM because the addition of Cer reduces the repulsion between the bulky headgroup and allows closer packing of the acyl chains. The biophysical properties of a SM/Cer-rich bilayer are dependent upon the amount of cholesterol present. In a cholesterol-poor membrane, a sphingomyelinase could catalyze the isothermal conversion of a liquid-crystalline SM bilayer to a gel phase SM/Cer complex at physiological temperature.

Interfacial properties of phosphatidylcholine bilayers containing vitamin E derivatives

alpha-Tocopherol and alpha-tocopheryl succinate are biologically active lipids. The activity of these lipids may be related to how they affect membrane physical-chemical properties. Utilizing fluorescence methods, we have investigated the effect of alpha-tocopherol, alpha-tocopheryl succinate, and alpha-tocopheryl acetate on the properties of model membranes consisting of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine. In liquid-crystalline phase phospholipid bilayers, alpha-tocopherol decreased acyl chain mobility and decreased the interfacial polarity, but had no effect on the interfacial surface charge. In contrast, alpha-tocopheryl succinate had little effect on acyl chain motion or interfacial hydration, but increased the interfacial surface charge. alpha-Tocopheryl acetate had very little effect on any of the measurements of these bilayer properties. In a gel phase bilayer, alpha-tocopherol decreased acyl chain order, whereas alpha-tocopheryl succinate and alpha-tocopheryl acetate did not. Each alpha-tocopheryl derivative had a different effect on interfacial polarity, however, only alpha-tocopheryl succinate increased the interfacial surface charge. The acylation of alpha-tocopherol abolishes its antioxidant activity and generates molecules with different membrane physical properties. The non-polar acetate group of alpha-tocopheryl acetate locates this compound in a region of the bilayer where it has little effect on bilayer interfacial properties. The free carboxyl group of alpha-tocopheryl succinate is located in the interfacial region of the bilayer where it increases the membrane surface charge.

Anionic facial amphiphiles from cholic acid

[structure:see text] Anionic facial amphiphiles have been prepared from cholic acid. These compounds offer antipodes of recently reported cationic amphiphiles derived from cholic acid. The synthesis of the anionic amphiphiles was accomplished in few steps from a common intermediate. In contrast to many other anionic facial amphiphiles, the cholic acid derived amphiphiles appeared to aggregate at relatively low concentration.

Fluorescent probes used to monitor membrane interfacial polarity

The polarity of the interface between a lipid bilayer membrane and bulk water is an important physical parameter of the membrane. It is likely that several membrane-dependent biological functions are modulated by this property. However, interfacial polarity can be difficult to define because of an imprecise knowledge of the molecular nature of the interface. Nevertheless, attempts have been made to measure this quantity with the use of fluorescent probes which are sensitive to the solvent polarity. Often, however, other factors, such as the rate of solvent relaxation must be known in order to interpret the fluorescent properties in terms of the dielectric constant. In addition, the spatial orientation and location of the fluorophore are often not known precisely. Nevertheless, there have been successful efforts to gain a more accurate knowledge of this aspect of membrane physical properties and its relationship to biological phenomena is discussed.

Preferential interactions of fluorescent probe Prodan with cholesterol

The fluorescent probe Prodan has been widely used as a probe of model and biological membranes. Its fluorescent maxima in phospholipid bilayers vary as a function of phase state, with maxima at 485 for the liquid crystal Lalpha, 435 nm for the gel L'beta, and 507 nm for the interdigitated gel LbetaI phase, with excitation at 359 nm. These spectral changes have been used for the detection of phase changes among these phases. In the present study, the fluorescent properties and partition coefficients of Prodan in model membranes of phosphatidylcholines and phosphatidylethanols have been studied as a function of lipid phase state and cholesterol content. It is shown that the Prodan spectrum in the presence of cholesterol no longer reflects the known phase state of the lipid; in each phase state, the presence of cholesterol leads to a spectrum with the maximum at 435 nm, characteristic of the noninterdigitated gel phase. The partition coefficient of Prodan into these lipids also varies with the phase state, giving values of 0.35 x 10(4) in the interdigitated gel, 1.8 x 10(4) in the noninterdigitated gel, and 7. 6 x 10(4) in the liquid crystal phase. In the presence of cholesterol these partition coefficients are increased to 13 x 10(4) for the liquid crystal and the gel phase, and 5.1 x 10(4) in the presence of 100 mg/ml ethanol. These results suggest that Prodan has preferential interactions with cholesterol, and is thus not a randomly distributed fluorescent reporter probe in membranes containing cholesterol. These results suggest that Prodan should be used only with great caution in complex lipid mixtures, particularly biological membranes.

Effect of cholesteryl hemisuccinate on the interfacial properties of phosphatidylcholine bilayers

Cholesteryl hemisuccinate (CHEMS) is an amphipathic lipid that can regulate cell growth. A comparison of the effects of CHEMS and cholesterol on 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) bilayers was investigated using fluorescence techniques. In liquid-crystalline phase POPC bilayers, CHEMS increased the interfacial surface charge, but was less effective than cholesterol in reducing acyl chain mobility and interfacial hydration. In liquid-crystalline phase DPPC bilayers, CHEMS and cholesterol were equally effective in reducing acyl chain mobility. Similar to the POPC matrix, CHEMS increased the interfacial surface charge and cholesterol decreased the surface hydration. The different effect of cholesterol and CHEMS on acyl chain mobility may be due to a preferential interaction of cholesterol with POPC. In gel phase DPPC bilayers, CHEMS and a succinylated pyrenyl cholesterol analog exhibited different effects on membrane physical-chemical properties than cholesterol. Succinylation also increased the rate of transfer of the pyrenyl cholesterol analog between single unilamellar vesicles approximately seven fold. This process demonstrated first-order kinetics which indicated that transbilayer migration was not a rate-limiting step. The succinylation of cholesterol places a carboxyl group at the lipid-water interface and the sterol ring deeper in the bilayer. For a structural model to explain its biological properties, CHEMS should be considered a bulky fatty acid.

Interaction of alpha-tocopherol with model human high-density lipoproteins

The effects of alpha-tocopherol on the properties of model high-density lipoproteins (HDLs), composed of human apolipoprotein A-I and dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine, were investigated by physicochemical methods. The intrinsic fluorescence of alpha-tocopherol and its effects on the polarization of fluorescence of 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene, which probes the hydrocarbon region of the lipids, and 4-heptadecyl-7-hydroxycoumarin, which is a probe of lipid surfaces, suggest that alpha-tocopherol is located at the lipid-water interface. Relative to cholesterol, alpha-tocopherol in lipid surfaces is virtually inert physicochemically. Incorporation of alpha-tocopherol into HDLs induces only a modest increase in particle size, no change in the transition temperature, and little change in lipid polarity and lipid-lipid interactions. Moreover, alpha-tocopherol has only a negligible effect on the kinetic parameters of the lipophilic enzyme lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase, which binds to phosphatidylcholine surfaces and forms cholesteryl esters. However, alpha-tocopherol has a dramatic inhibitory effect on the rate of association of apolipoprotein A-I with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine, a process that occurs through the insertion of the protein into preformed defects in the lipid surface. It is proposed that alpha-tocopherol inhibits the rate of association of apolipoprotein A-I with dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine by inserting into defects within the lipid surface, thereby reducing the size and/or number of sites for insertion of apolipoprotein A-I.

Prodan as a membrane surface fluorescence probe: partitioning between water and phospholipid phases

Fluorescence spectral features of 6-propionyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (Prodan) in phospholipid vesicles of different phase states are investigated. Like the spectra of 6-lauroyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (Laurdan), the steady-state excitation and emission spectra of Prodan are sensitive to the polarity of the environment, showing a relevant shift due to the dipolar relaxation phenomenon. Because of the different lengths of their acyl residues, the partitioning of the two probes between water and the membrane bilayer differs profoundly. To account for the contribution of Prodan fluorescence arising from water, we introduce a three-wavelength generalized polarization method that makes it possible to separate the spectral properties of Prodan in the lipid phase and in water, and to determine the probe partitioning between phospholipid and water and between the gel and the liquid-crystalline phases of phospholipids. In contrast to Laurdan, Prodan preferentially partitions in the liquid-crystalline phase with respect to the gel and is sensitive to the polar head pretransition, and its partition coefficient between the membrane and water depends on the phase state, i.e., on the packing of the bilayer. Prodan is sensitive to polarity variations occurring closer to the bilayer surface than those detected by Laurdan.

Surface properties of native human plasma lipoproteins and lipoprotein models

Plasma lipoprotein surface properties are important but poorly understood determinants of lipoprotein catabolism. To elucidate the relation between surface properties and surface reactivity, the physical properties of surface monolayers of native lipoproteins and lipoprotein models were investigated by fluorescent probes of surface lipid fluidity, surface lateral diffusion, and interfacial polarity, and by their reactivity to Naja melanoleuca phospholipase A2 (PLA2). Native lipoproteins were human very low, low-, and subclass 3 high-density lipoproteins (VLDL, LDL, and HDL3); models were 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (POPC) or its ether analog in single-bilayer vesicles, large and small microemulsions of POPC and triolein, and reassembled HDL (apolipoprotein A-I plus phospholipid). Among lipoproteins, surface lipid fluidity increased in the order HDL3 < LDL < VLDL, varying inversely with their (protein + cholesterol)/phospholipid ratios. Models resembled VLDL in fluidity. Both lateral mobility in the surface monolayer and polarity of the interfacial region were lower in native lipoproteins than in models. Among native lipoproteins and models, increased fluidity in the surface monolayer was associated with increased reactivity to PLA2. Addition of cholesterol (up to 20 mol%) to models had little effect on PLA2 activity, whereas the addition of apolipoprotein C-III stimulated it. Single-bilayer vesicles, phospholipid-triolein microemulsions, and VLDL have surface monolayers that are quantitatively similar, and distinct from those of LDL and HDL3. Surface property and enzymatic reactivity differences between lipoproteins and models were associated with differences in surface monolayer protein and cholesterol contents. Thus differences in the surface properties that regulate lipolytic reactivity are a predictable function of surface composition.

Binding and relaxation behaviour of prodan and patman in phospholipid vesicles: a fluorescence and 1H NMR study

The relative location, binding behaviour and the solvent relaxation behaviour of the polarity sensitive membrane probes 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene and 6-palmitoyl-2-[[trimethylammoniumethyl]methylamino]naphthalene chloride in vesicles composed of 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine or egg yolk lecithin have been compared using steady-state and time-resolved fluorescence as well as high resolution NMR measurements. The reconstructed time-resolved emission spectra show unambiguously that the observed spectral shifts in vesicle systems have to be assigned to time-dependent solvent relaxation processes rather than to a probe relocation mechanism. All fluorescence as well as the NMR relaxation data suggest a deeper localization of Patman in the membrane, sensing a less polar and/or more restricted probe environment.

Thermotropic properties of phosphatidylethanols

Phosphatidylethanol is formed when ethanol substitutes in the transphosphatidylation reaction catalyzed by phospholipase D. The structural and thermotropic properties of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanol and dimyristoylphosphatidylethanol have been studied using differential scanning calorimetry, fluorescence spectroscopy, and 31P nuclear magnetic resonance. These lipids exist in a bilayer phase with no indication of nonbilayer phase formation, as shown by 31P nuclear magnetic resonance. It was found that the phase behavior of these phospholipids before and during the main chain melting transition is different in 50 mM Tris buffer compared to salt solutions. The phase transition behavior and the 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (Prodan) fluorescence spectra for both lipids are consistent with the formation of the interdigitated gel phase under certain conditions. Both lipids become interdigitated in Tris-HCl, and ethanol enhances the formation of this phase. Comparative studies of the 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene spectra in dipalmitoylphosphatidylglycerol, dielaidoylphosphatidylethanolamine, and dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine further elucidate the value and limitations of this probe as a diagnostic tool for lipid structure.

Sphingomyelin inhibits the lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase reaction with reconstituted high density lipoproteins by decreasing enzyme binding

Lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase (LCAT) catalyzes the formation of cholesterol esters on high density lipoproteins (HDL) and plays a critical role in reverse cholesterol transport. Sphingomyelin, an important constituent of HDL, may regulate the activity of LCAT at any of the key steps of the enzymatic reaction: binding of LCAT to the interface, activation by apo A-I, or inhibition at the catalytic site. In order to clarify the role of sphingomyelin in the regulation of the LCAT reaction and its effects on the structure of apolipoprotein A-I, we prepared reconstituted HDL (rHDL) containing egg phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, apolipoprotein A-I, and up to 22 mol % sphingomyelin. Because the interfacial properties of substrate particles can dramatically affect LCAT binding and kinetics, we also prepared and analyzed proteoliposome substrates having the same components as the rHDL, except for a 4-fold higher ratio of phospholipid to apolipoprotein A-I. The reaction kinetics of LCAT with the rHDL particles revealed no significant change in the apparent Vmax but showed a concentration-dependent increase in slope of the reciprocal plots and in the apparent Km values with sphingomyelin content. The dissociation constant (Kd) for LCAT with these particles increased linearly with sphingomyelin content up to 22 mol %, changing in parallel with the apparent Km values. No structural changes of apolipoprotein A-I were detected in the particles with increasing content of sphingomyelin, but fluorescence results with lipophilic probes revealed that significant changes in the acyl chain, backbone, and head group regions of the lipid bilayer of the particles are introduced by the addition of sphingomyelin. On the other hand, the proteoliposome substrates also had increased Kdvalues for LCAT at high sphingomyelin contents but compared with the rHDL particles had a 6-10-fold lower affinity for LCAT binding and exhibited kinetics consistent with competitive inhibition by sphingomyelin at the active site. These results show conclusively that the dominant mechanism for the inhibition of LCAT activity with rHDL particles by sphingomyelin is the impaired binding of the enzyme to the interface. The results also underscore the significant differences in the enzyme reaction kinetics with different substrate particles.

Enhancement of Agkistrodon piscivorus piscivorus venom phospholipase A2 activity toward phosphatidylcholine vesicles by lysolecithin and palmitic acid: studies with fluorescent probes of membrane structure

The activity of phospholipase A2 from snake venom to hydrolyze bilayers of phosphatidylcholines is greatly enhanced by the presence of the hydrolysis products, lysolecithin and fatty acid, in the bilayer. The fluorescence of several probes of membrane structure was used to monitor changes in bilayer physical properties during vesicle hydrolysis. These changes were compared to emission spectra and fluorescence polarization results occurring upon direct addition of lysolecithin and/or fatty acid to the bilayer. The excimer to monomer ratio of 1,3-bis(1-pyrene)propane was insensitive to vesicle hydrolysis, suggesting that changes in the order of the phospholipid chains were not relevant to the effect of the hydrolysis products on phospholipase activity. The fluorescence of 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)-naphthalene (Prodan) suggested that the polarity of the bilayer in the region of the phospholipid head groups increases as the hydrolysis products accumulate in the bilayer. The fluorescence of 6-dodecanoyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (Laurdan) confirmed that such effects were restricted to the bilayer surface. Furthermore, the lysolecithin appeared to be the product most responsible for these changes. These results suggested that lysolecithin increases the activity of phospholipase A2 during vesicle hydrolysis by disrupting the bilayer surface, making the phospholipid molecules more accessible to the enzyme active site.

Effect of ethanol-induced lipid interdigitation on the membrane solubility of Prodan, Acdan, and Laurdan

The effect of ethanol-induced lipid interdigitation on the partition coefficient (Kp) of 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (Prodan) and its two derivatives, 6-acetyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (Acdan) and 6-lauroyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (Laurdan), in L-alpha-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) vesicles has been examined by a precipitation method over the ethanol concentration range of 0-1.8 M. At 20 degrees C and in the absence of ethanol, the Kp values for Acdan, Prodan, and Laurdan are 2.0 x 10(3), 2.8 x 10(4), and 4.7 x 10(6), respectively. This result suggests that the Kp of Prodan and its derivatives is not simply a linear function of the polymethylene units. As DPPC undergoes the ethanol-induced phase transition from the noninterdigitated to the fully interdigitated gel state, Kp for Prodan and Acdan decreases by a factor of 5 and 2, respectively, whereas Kp for Laurdan exhibits no detectable changes with ethanol. The differences in Kp are in parallel with the differences in the fluorescence emission spectra of these probes over the ethanol concentration range examined. Previous fluorescence and infrared data indicated that membrane perturbation caused by the probes increases in the order: Laurdan > Prodan > Acdan. Thus, the degree of membrane perturbation also seems to be in parallel with Kp. Among these three probes, Prodan fluorescence reflects most correctly the ethanol-induced lipid interdigitation. In conclusion, the partitioning of small solutes in lipid membranes is significantly reduced by ethanol-induced lipid interdigitation, probably as a result of an increased membrane surface density due to the increased intramolecular lipid acyl chain ordering and a tighter overall intermolecular packing.

Interactions of Laurdan with phosphatidylcholine liposomes: a high pressure FTIR study

The interactions of 6-lauroyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (Laurdan) with L-alpha-dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) have been studied isothermally at 28 degrees C by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) at two pH values (6.8 and 3.0) and over the pressure range of 0.001-25 kbar. The results obtained with Laurdan are compared with those previously obtained with 6-propionyl-2-dimethylaminonaphthalene (Prodan) (Chong et al. (1989) Biochemistry 28, 8358-8363). The objective of this study is to delineate the differential interactions of Prodan and Laurdan with lipid membranes. The Laurdan carbonyl and naphthalene vibrational bands as well as the correlation field splitting of the methylene scissoring mode all indicate that in phospholipid model membrane systems, Laurdan behaves differently from Prodan. The data suggest that the chromophore of Laurdan is embedded somewhat deeper in the membrane than that of Prodan. The correlation field splitting pressure suggests that Laurdan causes more perturbation to DMPC vesicles than Prodan. Instead of being relocated to the exterior of the membrane as is the case of Prodan, Laurdan is found to remain in the membrane even when it is partially positively charged at pH 3. Apparently the stabilizing forces come from the strong van der Waals and hydrophobic interactions between the lauroyl chain and its neighboring lipid molecules. Laurdan seems to remain in the membrane at high pressures (up to 25 kbar). Using deuterated DMPC (d-DMPC) and deuterated L-alpha-dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (d-DPPC), we have demonstrated that, at 1 atm, there is a void space between the lauroyl chain of Laurdan and the acyl chain of the matrix lipid, regardless of the physical state of the matrix lipid. This void space, probably caused by the bulky naphthalene ring, is eventually diminished by elevated pressures.

Polarity decrease at the adhesive junction between two model membranes containing gangliosides

The increased electrical conductance previously observed between two model membranes containing gangliosides suggests the creation of a new environment in the adhesive junction [Brewer, G. J., & Thomas, P.D. (1984) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 776, 279]. In order to provide a mechanism for this novel finding, we now report an investigation of the micropolarity in the adhesive junction. Emission from the fluorescent probe PRODAN is a sensitive measure of polarity of the probe environment. A bimodal linear relationship correlates the emission wavelength from PRODAN with the inverse of solvent dielectric constant (1/epsilon). A better single linear relationship is obtained using Reichardt's relative polarity measure (RPM). Creation of two macroscopic spherical lipid bilayers from phosphatidylcholine, brain gangliosides, and PRODAN allowed selective excitation and observation of fluorescence from either a single bilayer or the double bilayer in the adhesive junction. The reported PRODAN polarity of -0.57 in a single ganglioside-containing membrane was midway between the polarity of water and n-hexane, suggesting PRODAN localization near the lipid carbonyls. The adhesive junctional region exhibited two new less polar environments of PRODAN fluorescence, RPM = -0.45 and -0.29. These measures are consistent with a relatively dehydrated immobilized phase. These changes were not observed in the adhesion zone between two membranes made with phosphatidylcholine without gangliosides. The changes in molecular structure in the junction that could be responsible for the altered PRODAN emission are discussed. A decrease in the hydrocarbon thickness of junctional membranes or a decrease in the aqueous junctional polarity could be responsible for the polarity decrease reported by PRODAN.

Probing the structure of diacetylenic phospholipid tubules with fluorescent lipophiles

Novel lipid structures called tubules can be prepared from diacetylenic phospholipids. We have prepared fluorescent tubules from mixtures of 1,2-bis(10,12-tricosadiynoyl)-sn-glycero-3-phosphatidylcholine and 1 mol% fluorescent lipophiles to study the characteristics of the tubule lipid matrix. We have found that once formed, tubules do not incorporate lipophiles from the aqueous phase into their lipid matrix. The spectral characteristics of the fluorophore laurodan in tubules, and the lack of diffusion of N-nitrobenzoxydiazol phosphatidylethanolamine in tubules, have allowed us to characterize the microenvironment of these structures as being extremely rigid and tightly packed. Despite their rigid characteristic, tubules are formed from intact liposomes as demonstrated by the formation of doubly labeled tubules from two populations of liposomes, each of which contained a different nonexchangeable fluorescent lipophile.

Spectroscopic studies of the tyrosine residues of human plasma apolipoprotein A-II

Human apolipoprotein A-II (apo A-II) in solution and associated with 1,2-dimyristoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DMPC) was investigated by a combination of absorbance and fluorescence methods. Each apo A-II polypeptide chain contains four tyrosine residues but no tryptophan residues. Two and three tyrosine residues, respectively, appear to be buried for apo A-II in aqueous solution and in the lipid-associated protein. The spectroscopic properties of the tyrosine residues of lipid-associated apo A-II were also investigated. Plots of fluorescence intensity against temperature revealed a discontinuity in the region of the phase transition; however, over the same temperature range, there was no change in the exposure of tyrosine residues to the aqueous environment or in their mobility as measured by fluorescence polarization. Near-ultraviolet circular dichroic measurements demonstrated that the environments of the tyrosine residues of lipid-associated apo A-II and nitrated apo A-II were different from that of the apo A-II in solution or in a denatured state. Similar measurements also revealed that the microenvironments around tyrosines of apo A-II bound to DMPC in the gel phase are different from those observed in the liquid crystalline phase. Using environmentally sensitive fluorescence lipid probes, we have previously demonstrated that the polarity of the lipid/water interface of DMPC changes through a phase transition. The observations presented here indicate that these environmental changes also occur at the lipid/protein interface.

Effects of hydrostatic pressure on the location of PRODAN in lipid bilayers: a FT-IR study

The effects of hydrostatic pressure on the location of 6-propionyl-2-(dimethylamino)naphthalene (PRODAN), an environmentally sensitive fluorescent probe, in phosphatidylcholine lipid bilayers have been studied by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) over the pressure range of 0.001-25 kbar. The results derived from the PRODAN C = O stretching band, the correlation field splitting of the methylene scissoring mode, and the methylene symmetric stretching mode as well as the absorption of the naphthalene ring show that in the sample of 4% (w/w) PRODAN in dimyristoyl-L-alpha-phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) at pH 6.8, most of the PRODAN molecules are embedded in the bilayers. In contrast, at pH 3.0, PRODAN was found to reside either on the membrane surface or dispersed in water. Compared to DMPC, egg yolk phosphatidylcholine (egg PC), which contains a substantial amount of unsaturated fatty acyl chains, is more susceptible to PRODAN permeation. The present study shows that the pressure dependence of the location of PRODAN in lipid membranes is different from that of tetracaine, a local anesthetic, in lipid bilayers. The model regarding the PRODAN location in lipid bilayers derived from the present infrared data has been compared with that obtained with previous fluorescence studies.

Effects of platelet activating factor on calcium-lipid interactions and lateral phase separations in phospholipid vesicles

Recent studies localizing the inflammatory mediator, platelet activating factor (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine), to the membranes of stimulated neutrophils, raise the possibility that PAF may, in addition to its activities as a mediator, alter the physical properties of membranes. This, and the increasing evidence that calcium-lipid interactions may have central importance in membrane organizational structure and in functions of cell homeostasis and stimulus-response coupling, prompted us to study the effects of PAF on calcium-lipid interactions in lipid vesicles. Using fluorescence polarization of dansylated probes located in the glycerol portion of the membrane bilayer, PAF (at a concentration as low as 1 mol%) was shown to reduce membrane rigidification significantly during calcium-induced lateral phase separations. This effect of PAF was structurally dependent on both the 1-position alkyl linkage and the 2-position acetyl group as shown by studies of related lipid analogs. Furthermore, using a self-quenching probe, it was shown that inhibition of lateral phase separation did not account for this reduction in the calcium-induced membrane rigidification attributed to PAF. Data suggest that PAF at low concentrations may alter phospholipid head packing and, thereby, change membrane surface features during calcium-lipid interactions, effects which may ultimately explain some of its biological actions.

Effects of platelet activating factor and related lipids on phase transition of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine

Recent evidence localizing the inflammatory mediator, platelet activating factor, (PAF, 1-O-alkyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine) to the membranes of stimulated neutrophils raises the possibility that PAF may, in addition to its activities as a mediator, alter the physical properties of membranes. Accordingly, the effects of PAF and related alkyl ether and acyl analogs on phase transition thermodynamics of dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC) were studied using fluorescence polarization of the fluorescent probe, 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH). PAF, its ester analog (1-palmitoyl-2-acetylphosphatidylcholine) and both the corresponding alkyl and acyl lysophospholipid analogs (each at a concentration of 10 mol%) significantly decreased the phase transition temperature and broadened the phase transition of DPPC (P less than 0.05). The relative potency of the lipids in causing this effect was ester-PAF greater than or equal to PAF greater than or equal to lyso-PAF greater than lyso-PC suggesting that the fluidization of the synthetic membranes was attributable to both the 2-position acetyl group and the 1-position alkyl linkage. Furthermore, using various related compounds, increases in chain length and degree of unsaturation in the 2-position were shown to enhance the depression in transition temperature and broadening of the phase transition. Phase transition thermodynamics were also assessed using differential scanning calorimetry. Similar depression in the phase transition temperature was measured for PAF and both the alkyl and acyl lysophospholipids. Broadening of the phase transition for DPPC by the various analogs was assessed by calculation of transition peak width and cooperative unit. Data from fluorescence polarization and differential scanning calorimetry provide similar though not identical results and support the hypothesis that the unique features of PAF may alter membrane physical properties and could ultimately explain some of its biologic actions.

The effect of cholesterol on lipid dynamics and packing in diether phosphatidylcholine bilayers. X-ray diffraction and 2H-NMR study

In order to compare the lipid packing, conformation and dynamics of ether- and ester-linked phosphatidylcholines in the presence of equimolar concentrations of cholesterol, multilamellar dispersions of these lipid-sterol mixtures were investigated by X-ray diffraction and 2H-NMR. A comparison of the X-ray diffraction patterns at 22 degrees C of 1,2-di-O-hexadecyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DHPC) and 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) dispersion, each containing 50 mol% cholesterol, demonstrate that the structural characteristics of DHPC and DPPC bilayers in the presence of cholesterol are essentially indistinguishable by X-ray diffraction. In contradistinction to the similar structural characteristics of DHPC and DPPC in the presence of cholesterol, the low-angle lamellar reflections of DHPC at 22 degrees C in the absence of cholesterol are indicative of an interdigitated phase, demonstrating that cholesterol facilitates the conversion from an interdigitated to a non-interdigitated phase. Above Tc in each lipid-sterol mixture, the quadrupolar splittings from the alpha-methylene segments of 1,2[1',1'-2H]DHPC and 1,2[2',2'-2H2]DPPC indicate that both chain inequivalence and magnetic inequivalence of any particular alpha-C2H2 deuteron pair are preserved and actually enhanced in the presence of cholesterol. Lowering of the temperature below Tc in 1,2[2',2'-2H2]DPPC/cholesterol dispersion leads to a progressive intensity loss of the sn-2 chain components, a thermotropic effect which is not observed in the corresponding components of the 1,2[1',1'-2H2]DHPC/cholesterol spectra.