1
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Fogeron ML, Lecoq L, Cole L, Harbers M, Böckmann A. Easy Synthesis of Complex Biomolecular Assemblies: Wheat Germ Cell-Free Protein Expression in Structural Biology. Front Mol Biosci 2021; 8:639587. [PMID: 33842544 PMCID: PMC8027086 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2021.639587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) systems are gaining more importance as universal tools for basic research, applied sciences, and product development with new technologies emerging for their application. Huge progress was made in the field of synthetic biology using CFPS to develop new proteins for technical applications and therapy. Out of the available CFPS systems, wheat germ cell-free protein synthesis (WG-CFPS) merges the highest yields with the use of a eukaryotic ribosome, making it an excellent approach for the synthesis of complex eukaryotic proteins including, for example, protein complexes and membrane proteins. Separating the translation reaction from other cellular processes, CFPS offers a flexible means to adapt translation reactions to protein needs. There is a large demand for such potent, easy-to-use, rapid protein expression systems, which are optimally serving protein requirements to drive biochemical and structural biology research. We summarize here a general workflow for a wheat germ system providing examples from the literature, as well as applications used for our own studies in structural biology. With this review, we want to highlight the tremendous potential of the rapidly evolving and highly versatile CFPS systems, making them more widely used as common tools to recombinantly prepare particularly challenging recombinant eukaryotic proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Laure Fogeron
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, Labex Ecofect, UMR 5086 CNRS/Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Lauriane Lecoq
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, Labex Ecofect, UMR 5086 CNRS/Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Laura Cole
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, Labex Ecofect, UMR 5086 CNRS/Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
| | - Matthias Harbers
- CellFree Sciences, Yokohama, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Integrative Medical Sciences (IMS), Yokohama, Japan
| | - Anja Böckmann
- Molecular Microbiology and Structural Biochemistry, Labex Ecofect, UMR 5086 CNRS/Université de Lyon, Lyon, France
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2
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The aftermath of the interplay between the endoplasmic reticulum stress response and redox signaling. Exp Mol Med 2021; 53:151-167. [PMID: 33558590 PMCID: PMC8080639 DOI: 10.1038/s12276-021-00560-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is an essential organelle of eukaryotic cells. Its main functions include protein synthesis, proper protein folding, protein modification, and the transportation of synthesized proteins. Any perturbations in ER function, such as increased demand for protein folding or the accumulation of unfolded or misfolded proteins in the ER lumen, lead to a stress response called the unfolded protein response (UPR). The primary aim of the UPR is to restore cellular homeostasis; however, it triggers apoptotic signaling during prolonged stress. The core mechanisms of the ER stress response, the failure to respond to cellular stress, and the final fate of the cell are not yet clear. Here, we discuss cellular fate during ER stress, cross talk between the ER and mitochondria and its significance, and conditions that can trigger ER stress response failure. We also describe how the redox environment affects the ER stress response, and vice versa, and the aftermath of the ER stress response, integrating a discussion on redox imbalance-induced ER stress response failure progressing to cell death and dynamic pathophysiological changes. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a cellular organelle responsible for protein folding, is sensitive to chemical imbalances that can induce stress, leading to cell death and disease. Researchers in South Korea, led by Han-Jung Chae from Jeonbuk National University in Jeonju and Hyung-Ryong Kim from Dankook University in Cheonan, review how the ER counters changes in its environment that spur protein folding defects by activating a series of signaling pathways, known collectively as the unfolded protein response. Redox imbalance, may fail adaptive ER stress response that can damage the ER and surrounding mitochondria by modifying cysteine residues. The interaction between the two stress systems, ER stress and oxidative stress, has profound negative impacts on normal physiology. Targeting one or both of these stress mechanisms may therefore be an effective means of treating disease.
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3
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Zhang Z, Zhang L, Zhou L, Lei Y, Zhang Y, Huang C. Redox signaling and unfolded protein response coordinate cell fate decisions under ER stress. Redox Biol 2018; 25:101047. [PMID: 30470534 PMCID: PMC6859529 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2018.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 11/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/07/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a dynamic organelle orchestrating the folding and post-translational maturation of almost all membrane proteins and most secreted proteins. These proteins synthesized in the ER, need to form disulfide bridge to acquire specific three-dimensional structures for function. The formation of disulfide bridge is mediated via protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family and other oxidoreductases, which contribute to reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and consumption in the ER. Therefore, redox regulation of ER is delicate and sensitive to perturbation. Deregulation in ER homeostasis, usually called ER stress, can provoke unfolded protein response (UPR) pathways with an aim to initially restore homeostasis by activating genes involved in protein folding and antioxidative machinery. Over time, however, activated UPR involves a variety of cellular signaling pathways which determine the state and fate of cell in large part (like autophagy, apoptosis, ferroptosis, inflammation, senescence, stemness, and cell cycle, etc.). This review will describe the regulation of UPR from the redox perspective in controlling the cell survival or death, emphasizing the redox modifications of UPR sensors/transducers in the ER.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Lu Zhang
- Department of Biotherapy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Li Zhou
- Department of Biotherapy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu 610041, PR China
| | - Yunlong Lei
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Molecular Medicine and Cancer Research Center, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing 400016, PR China
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, PR China.
| | - Canhua Huang
- Department of Biotherapy, State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, Chengdu 610041, PR China.
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4
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Yu T, Laird JR, Prescher JA, Thorpe C. Gaussia princeps luciferase: a bioluminescent substrate for oxidative protein folding. Protein Sci 2018; 27:1509-1517. [PMID: 29696739 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3433] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 04/20/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Gaussia princeps luciferase (GLuc) generates an intense burst of blue light when exposed to coelenterazine in the absence of ATP. Here we show that this 5-disulfide containing enzyme can be used as a facile and convenient substrate for studies of oxidative protein folding. Reduced GLuc (rGLuc), with 10 free cysteine residues, is completely inactive as a luciferase but >60% bioluminescence activity, compared to controls, can be recovered using a range of oxidizing regimens in the absence of the exogenous shuffling activity of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). The sulfhydryl oxidase QSOX1 can be assayed using rGLuc in a simple bioluminescence plate reader format. Similarly, low concentrations of rGLuc can be oxidized by millimolar levels of dehydroascorbate, hydrogen peroxide or much lower concentrations of sodium tetrathionate. The oxidative refolding of rGLuc in the presence of a range of glutathione redox buffers is only marginally accelerated by micromolar levels of PDI. This modest rate enhancement probably results from a relatively simple disulfide connectivity in native GLuc; reflecting two homologous domains each carrying two disulfide bonds with a single interdomain disulfide. When GLuc is reoxidized under denaturing conditions the resulting scrambled protein (sGLuc) can be used in a sensitive bioluminescence assay for reduced PDI in the absence of added exogenous thiols. Finally, the general facility by which rGLuc can recover bioluminescent activity in vitro provides a sensitive method for the assessment of inhibitors of oxidative protein folding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiantian Yu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716
| | - Joanna R Laird
- Department of Chemistry, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697
| | - Jennifer A Prescher
- Department of Chemistry, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, California, 92697
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716
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5
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Zhan YA, Abskharon R, Li Y, Yuan J, Zeng L, Dang J, Martinez MC, Wang Z, Mikol J, Lehmann S, Bu S, Steyaert J, Cui L, Petersen RB, Kong Q, Wang GX, Wohlkonig A, Zou WQ. Quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase inhibits prion formation in vitro. Aging (Albany NY) 2017; 8:3419-3429. [PMID: 27959866 PMCID: PMC5270677 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/24/2016] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Prions are infectious proteins that cause a group of fatal transmissible diseases in animals and humans. The scrapie isoform (PrPSc) of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) is the only known component of the prion. Several lines of evidence have suggested that the formation and molecular features of PrPSc are associated with an abnormal unfolding/refolding process. Quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) plays a role in protein folding by introducing disulfides into unfolded reduced proteins. Here we report that QSOX inhibits human prion propagation in protein misfolding cyclic amplification reactions and murine prion propagation in scrapie-infected neuroblastoma cells. Moreover, QSOX preferentially binds PrPSc from prion-infected human or animal brains, but not PrPC from uninfected brains. Surface plasmon resonance of the recombinant mouse PrP (moPrP) demonstrates that the affinity of QSOX for monomer is significantly lower than that for octamer (312 nM vs 1.7 nM). QSOX exhibits much lower affinity for N-terminally truncated moPrP (PrP89-230) than for the full-length moPrP (PrP23-231) (312 nM vs 2 nM), suggesting that the N-terminal region of PrP is critical for the interaction of PrP with QSOX. Our study indicates that QSOX may play a role in prion formation, which may open new therapeutic avenues for treating prion diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-An Zhan
- First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, The People's Republic of China.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Romany Abskharon
- VIB Center for Structural Biology, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium.,National Institute of Oceanography and Fisheries (NIFO), 11516 Cairo, Egypt.,CNS, Van Andel Research Institute, Grand Rapids, MI 49503, USA
| | - Yu Li
- First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, The People's Republic of China.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Jue Yuan
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Liang Zeng
- First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, The People's Republic of China.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Johnny Dang
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Manuel Camacho Martinez
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Zerui Wang
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, The People's Republic of China
| | - Jacqueline Mikol
- Hôpital Lariboisière, Service d'Anatomie et Cytologie Pathologiques, Paris, France
| | - Sylvain Lehmann
- IRMB -Hôpital ST ELOI, CHU de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Shizhong Bu
- Diabetes Research Center, Ningbo University, The People's Republic of China
| | - Jan Steyaert
- VIB Center for Structural Biology, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Li Cui
- Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, The People's Republic of China
| | - Robert B Petersen
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Qingzhong Kong
- Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
| | - Gong-Xiang Wang
- First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, The People's Republic of China
| | - Alexandre Wohlkonig
- VIB Center for Structural Biology, VIB, 1050 Brussels, Belgium.,Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wen-Quan Zou
- First Affiliated Hospital, Nanchang University, Nanchang, Jiangxi Province, The People's Republic of China.,Department of Pathology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neurology, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,National Prion Disease Pathology Surveillance Center, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Department of Neurology, The First Hospital of Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, The People's Republic of China.,State Key Laboratory for Infectious Disease Prevention and Control, National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing, The People's Republic of China
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6
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Abstract
Cysteine thiols are among the most reactive functional groups in proteins, and their pairing in disulfide linkages is a common post-translational modification in proteins entering the secretory pathway. This modest amino acid alteration, the mere removal of a pair of hydrogen atoms from juxtaposed cysteine residues, contrasts with the substantial changes that characterize most other post-translational reactions. However, the wide variety of proteins that contain disulfides, the profound impact of cross-linking on the behavior of the protein polymer, the numerous and diverse players in intracellular pathways for disulfide formation, and the distinct biological settings in which disulfide bond formation can take place belie the simplicity of the process. Here we lay the groundwork for appreciating the mechanisms and consequences of disulfide bond formation in vivo by reviewing chemical principles underlying cysteine pairing and oxidation. We then show how enzymes tune redox-active cofactors and recruit oxidants to improve the specificity and efficiency of disulfide formation. Finally, we discuss disulfide bond formation in a cellular context and identify important principles that contribute to productive thiol oxidation in complex, crowded, dynamic environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Fass
- Department of Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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7
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Foster CK, Thorpe C. Challenges in the evaluation of thiol-reactive inhibitors of human protein disulfide Isomerase. Free Radic Biol Med 2017; 108:741-749. [PMID: 28465261 PMCID: PMC5507595 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2017.04.367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2017] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
This paper addresses how to evaluate the efficacy of the growing inventory of thiol-reactive inhibitors of mammalian protein disulfide Isomerase (PDI) enzymes under realistic concentrations of potentially competing thiol-containing peptides and proteins. For this purpose, we introduce a variant of the widely-used reductase assay by using a commercially-available cysteine derivative (BODIPY FL L-Cystine; BD-SS) that yields a 55-fold increase in fluorescence (excitation/emission; 490/513nm) on scission of the disulfide bond. This plate reader-compatible method detects human PDI down to 5-10nM, can utilize a range of thiol substrates (including 5µM dithiothreitol, 10µM reduced RNase thiols, and 5mM glutathione; GSH), and can operate from pH 6-9.5 in a variety of buffers. PDI assays often employ low micromolar levels of substrates leading to ambiguities when thiol-directed inhibitors are evaluated. The present work utilizes 5mM GSH for both pre-incubation and assay phases to more realistically reflect the high concentration of thiols that an inhibitor would encounter intracellularly. Extracellular PDI faces a much lower concentration of potentially competing thiols; to assess reductase activity under these conditions, the pre-reduced PDI is treated with inhibitor and then fluorescence increase upon reduction of BD-SS is followed in the absence of additional competing thiols. Both assay modes were tested with four mechanistically diverse PDI inhibitors. Two reversible reagents, 3,4-methylenedioxy-β-nitrostyrene (MNS) and the arsenical APAO, were found to be strong inhibitors of PDI in the absence of competing thiols, but were ineffective in the presence of 5mM GSH. A further examination of the nitrostyrene showed that MNS not only forms facile Michael adducts with GSH, but also with the thiols of unfolded proteins (Kd values of 7 and <0.1µM, respectively) suggesting the existence of multiple potential intracellular targets for this membrane-permeant reagent. The inhibition of PDI by the irreversible alkylating agent, the chloroacetamide 16F16, was found to be only modestly attenuated by 5mM GSH. Finally, the thiol-independent flavonoid inhibitor quercetin-3-O-rutinoside was found to show equal efficacy in reoxidation and turnover assay types. This work provides a framework to evaluate inhibitors that may target the CxxC motifs of PDI and addresses some of the complexities in the interpretation of the behavior of thiol-directed reagents in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Celia K Foster
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States.
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8
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Schulman S, Bendapudi P, Sharda A, Chen V, Bellido-Martin L, Jasuja R, Furie BC, Flaumenhaft R, Furie B. Extracellular Thiol Isomerases and Their Role in Thrombus Formation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2016; 24:1-15. [PMID: 26467859 PMCID: PMC4717499 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2015.6530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The mammalian endoplasmic reticulum (ER) houses a large family of twenty thioredoxin-like proteins of which protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is the archetypal member. Although the PDI family is best known for its role in oxidative protein folding of secretory proteins in the ER, these thioredoxin-like proteins fulfill ever-expanding roles, both within the secretory pathway and beyond. RECENT ADVANCES Secreted PDI family proteins have now been shown to serve a critical role in platelet thrombus formation and fibrin generation. Utilizing intravital microscopy to visualize thrombus formation in mice, we have demonstrated the presence of extracellular PDI antigen during thrombus formation following injury of the vascular wall. Inhibition of PDI abrogates thrombus formation in vivo (16, 26, 46, 55). These observations have been extended to other PDI family members, including ERp57 (39, 116, 118, 123) and ERp5 (77). The vascular thiol isomerases are those PDI family members secreted from platelets and/or endothelium (40): PDI, ERp57, ERp5, ERp72, ERp44, ERp29, and TMX3. We focus here on PDI (16, 46, 55), ERp57 (39, 116, 118, 123), and ERp5 (77), which have been implicated in thrombus formation in vivo. CRITICAL ISSUES It would appear that a system of thiol isomerase redox catalysts has been hijacked from the ER to regulate thrombus formation in the vasculature. FUTURE DIRECTIONS How this redox system is trafficked to and regulated at the cell surface, the identity of extracellular substrates, why so many thiol isomerases are required, and which thiol isomerase functions are necessary are critical unanswered questions in understanding the role of thiol isomerases in thrombus formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sol Schulman
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Pavan Bendapudi
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Anish Sharda
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Vivien Chen
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Lola Bellido-Martin
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Reema Jasuja
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Barbara C Furie
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Robert Flaumenhaft
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Bruce Furie
- Division of Hemostasis and Thrombosis, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School , Boston, Massachusetts
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9
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Heckler EJ, Kholodovych V, Jain M, Liu T, Li H, Beuve A. Mapping Soluble Guanylyl Cyclase and Protein Disulfide Isomerase Regions of Interaction. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0143523. [PMID: 26618351 PMCID: PMC4664405 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0143523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a heterodimeric nitric oxide (NO) receptor that produces cyclic GMP. This signaling mechanism is a key component in the cardiovascular system. NO binds to heme in the β subunit and stimulates the catalytic conversion of GTP to cGMP several hundred fold. Several endogenous factors have been identified that modulate sGC function in vitro and in vivo. In previous work, we determined that protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) interacts with sGC in a redox-dependent manner in vitro and that PDI inhibited NO-stimulated activity in cells. To our knowledge, this was the first report of a physical interaction between sGC and a thiol-redox protein. To characterize this interaction between sGC and PDI, we first identified peptide linkages between sGC and PDI, using a lysine cross-linking reagent and recently developed mass spectrometry analysis. Together with Flag-immunoprecipitation using sGC domain deletions, wild-type (WT) and mutated PDI, regions of sGC involved in this interaction were identified. The observed data were further explored with computational modeling to gain insight into the interaction mechanism between sGC and oxidized PDI. Our results indicate that PDI interacts preferentially with the catalytic domain of sGC, thus providing a mechanism for PDI inhibition of sGC. A model in which PDI interacts with either the α or the β catalytic domain is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin J. Heckler
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Vladyslav Kholodovych
- High Performance and Research Computing, OIRT, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, United States of America
- Department of Pharmacology, Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, United States of America
| | - Mohit Jain
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Tong Liu
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Hong Li
- Proteomics Core, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
| | - Annie Beuve
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology and Neuroscience, New Jersey Medical School, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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10
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Hudson DA, Thorpe C. Mia40 is a facile oxidant of unfolded reduced proteins but shows minimal isomerase activity. Arch Biochem Biophys 2015; 579:1-7. [PMID: 26014136 PMCID: PMC4500674 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2015] [Revised: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Mia40 participates in oxidative protein folding within the mitochondrial intermembrane space (IMS) by mediating the transfer of reducing equivalents from client proteins to FAD-linked oxidoreductases of the Erv1 family (lfALR in mammals). Here we investigate the specificity of the human Mia40/lfALR system towards non-cognate unfolded protein substrates to assess whether the efficient introduction of disulfides requires a particular amino acid sequence context or the presence of an IMS targeting signal. Reduced pancreatic ribonuclease A (rRNase), avian lysozyme, and riboflavin binding protein are all competent substrates of the Mia40/lfALR system, although they lack those sequence features previously thought to direct disulfide bond formation in cognate IMS substrates. The oxidation of rRNase by Mia40 does not limit overall turnover of unfolded substrate by the Mia40/lfALR system. Mia40 is an ineffective protein disulfide isomerase when its ability to restore enzymatic activity from scrambled RNase is compared to that of protein disulfide isomerase. Mia40's ability to bind amphipathic peptides is evident by avid binding to the isolated B-chain during the insulin reductase assay. In aggregate these data suggest that the Mia40/lfALR system has a broad sequence specificity and that potential substrates may be protected from adventitious oxidation by kinetic sequestration within the mitochondrial IMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin A Hudson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States.
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11
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The flavo-oxidase QSOX1 supports vascular smooth muscle cell migration and proliferation: Evidence for a role in neointima growth. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2015; 1852:1334-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2015.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2014] [Revised: 02/13/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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12
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Wang L, Wang X, Wang CC. Protein disulfide-isomerase, a folding catalyst and a redox-regulated chaperone. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 83:305-13. [PMID: 25697778 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2015.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2014] [Revised: 02/04/2015] [Accepted: 02/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Protein disulfide-isomerase (PDI) was the first protein-folding catalyst to be characterized, half a century ago. It plays critical roles in a variety of physiological events by displaying oxidoreductase and redox-regulated chaperone activities. This review provides a brief history of the identification of PDI as both an enzyme and a molecular chaperone and of the recent advances in studies on the structure and dynamics of PDI, the substrate binding and release, and the cooperation with its partners to catalyze oxidative protein folding and maintain ER redox homeostasis. In this review, we highlight the structural features of PDI, including the high interdomain flexibility, the multiple binding sites, the two synergic active sites, and the redox-dependent conformational changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Xi Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chih-chen Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
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13
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Hudson DA, Gannon SA, Thorpe C. Oxidative protein folding: from thiol-disulfide exchange reactions to the redox poise of the endoplasmic reticulum. Free Radic Biol Med 2015; 80:171-82. [PMID: 25091901 PMCID: PMC4312752 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review examines oxidative protein folding within the mammalian endoplasmic reticulum (ER) from an enzymological perspective. In protein disulfide isomerase-first (PDI-first) pathways of oxidative protein folding, PDI is the immediate oxidant of reduced client proteins and then addresses disulfide mispairings in a second isomerization phase. In PDI-second pathways the initial oxidation is PDI-independent. Evidence for the rapid reduction of PDI by reduced glutathione is presented in the context of PDI-first pathways. Strategies and challenges are discussed for determination of the concentrations of reduced and oxidized glutathione and of the ratios of PDI(red):PDI(ox). The preponderance of evidence suggests that the mammalian ER is more reducing than first envisaged. The average redox state of major PDI-family members is largely to almost totally reduced. These observations are consistent with model studies showing that oxidative protein folding proceeds most efficiently at a reducing redox poise consistent with a stoichiometric insertion of disulfides into client proteins. After a discussion of the use of natively encoded fluorescent probes to report the glutathione redox poise of the ER, this review concludes with an elaboration of a complementary strategy to discontinuously survey the redox state of as many redox-active disulfides as can be identified by ratiometric LC-MS-MS methods. Consortia of oxidoreductases that are in redox equilibrium can then be identified and compared to the glutathione redox poise of the ER to gain a more detailed understanding of the factors that influence oxidative protein folding within the secretory compartment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devin A Hudson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Shawn A Gannon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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14
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Sapra A, Ramadan D, Thorpe C. Multivalency in the inhibition of oxidative protein folding by arsenic(III) species. Biochemistry 2014; 54:612-21. [PMID: 25506675 PMCID: PMC4303313 DOI: 10.1021/bi501360e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The
renewed use of arsenicals as chemotherapeutics has rekindled
interest in the biochemistry of As(III) species. In this work, simple
bis- and tris-arsenical derivatives were synthesized with the aim
of exploiting the chelate effect in the inhibition of thiol-disulfide
oxidoreductases (here, Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase, QSOX, and protein
disulfide isomerase, PDI) that utilize two or more CxxC motifs in
the catalysis of oxidative protein folding. Coupling 4-aminophenylarsenoxide
(APAO) to acid chloride or anhydride derivatives yielded two bis-arsenical
prototypes, BA-1 and BA-2, and a tris-arsenical, TA-1. Unlike the
monoarsenical, APAO, these new reagents proved to be strong inhibitors
of oxidative protein folding in the presence of a realistic intracellular
concentration of competing monothiol (here, 5 mM reduced glutathione,
GSH). However, this inhibition does not reflect direct inactivation
of QSOX or PDI, but avid binding of MVAs to the reduced unfolded protein
substrates themselves. Titrations of reduced riboflavin-binding protein
with MVAs show that all 18 protein −SH groups can be captured
by these arsenicals. With reduced RNase, addition of substoichiometric
levels of MVAs is accompanied by the formation of Congo Red- and Thioflavin
T-positive fibrillar aggregates. Even with Kd values of ∼50 nM, MVAs are ineffective inhibitors
of PDI in the presence of millimolar levels of competing GSH. These
results underscore the difficulties of designing effective and specific
arsenical inhibitors for folded enzymes and proteins. Some of the
cellular effects of arsenicals likely reflect their propensity to
associate very tightly and nonspecifically to conformationally mobile
cysteine-rich regions of proteins, thereby interfering with folding
and/or function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aparna Sapra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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15
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Okuda A, Matsusaki M, Higashino Y, Masuda T, Urade R. Disulfide bond formation activity of soybean quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase. FEBS J 2014; 281:5341-55. [PMID: 25265152 DOI: 10.1111/febs.13079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2014] [Revised: 09/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Multiple enzymatic systems can catalyse protein disulfide bond formation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of eukaryotic cells. The enzyme quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) catalyses disulfide bond formation in unfolded proteins via the reduction of oxygen. We found two QSOX homologues in the soybean genome database, Glycine max QSOX (GmQSOX)1 and GmQSOX2, which encode proteins composed of an N-terminal signal peptide, a thioredoxin-like domain, an FAD-binding domain, Erv/ALR, and a transmembrane region near the C terminus. We subsequently cloned two GmQSOX1 cDNAs, GmQSOX1a and GmQSOX1b, which may be generated by alternative splicing. The GmQSOX1a, GmQSOX1b and GmQSOX2 mRNA levels increased during seed storage protein synthesis in the cotyledon, and were also upregulated under conditions causing ER stress. Recombinant GmQSOX1 expressed in Escherichia coli formed disulfide bonds on reduced and denatured RNase A, but did not show any refolding activity. The reduced and denatured RNase A was effectively refolded by recombinant GmQSOX1 in the presence of the soybean protein disulfide isomerase family protein GmPDIL-2 in the absence of glutathione redox buffer, suggesting that GmQSOX1 plays a role in protein folding in the ER. DATABASES The nucleotide sequence data for the GmQSOX1a, GmQSOX1b, GmQSOX2a, GmQSOX2b and glycinin AaB1b cDNAs are available in the DDBJ/EMBL/GenBank databases under the accession numbers AB196647, AB195548, XM-006589586, XM-003536592, and AB113349, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Okuda
- Division of Agronomy and Horticultural Science, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Uji, Kyoto, Japan
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16
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Regulating the level of intracellular hydrogen peroxide: the role of peroxiredoxin IV. Biochem Soc Trans 2014; 42:42-6. [PMID: 24450625 DOI: 10.1042/bst20130168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) can act as a signalling molecule affecting the cell cycle as well as contributing towards the oxidative stress response. The primary target of this molecule is oxidation-sensitive cysteine residues in proteins such as protein tyrosine phosphatases. The cell has robust mechanisms to remove H2O2 that need to be regulated for H2O2 to react with and modify protein thiols. In particular, the family of peroxiredoxins are capable of the rapid removal of even trace amounts of this molecule. It has been suggested that the inactivation of peroxiredoxins by hyperoxidation may allow H2O2 levels to increase in cells and thereby modify critical thiol groups in proteins. We have been studying how the H2O2 produced during disulfide formation in the ER (endoplasmic reticulum) is metabolized and have shown that ER-resident peroxiredoxin IV not only can remove H2O2, but also contributes to de novo disulfide formation. In the present article, we review recent data on the structure and function of this enzyme as well as its sensitivity to hyperoxidation.
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17
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Watanabe MM, Laurindo FRM, Fernandes DC. Methods of measuring protein disulfide isomerase activity: a critical overview. Front Chem 2014; 2:73. [PMID: 25232538 PMCID: PMC4153470 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2014.00073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase is an essential redox chaperone from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is responsible for correct disulfide bond formation in nascent proteins. PDI is also found in other cellular locations in the cell, particularly the cell surface. Overall, PDI contributes to ER and global cell redox homeostasis and signaling. The knowledge about PDI structure and function progressed substantially based on in vitro studies using recombinant PDI and chimeric proteins. In these experimental scenarios, PDI reductase and chaperone activities are readily approachable. In contrast, assays to measure PDI isomerase activity, the hallmark of PDI family, are more complex. Assessment of PDI roles in cells and tissues mainly relies on gain- or loss-of-function studies. However, there is limited information regarding correlation of experimental readouts with the distinct types of PDI activities. In this mini-review, we evaluate the main methods described for measuring the different kinds of PDI activity: thiol reductase, thiol oxidase, thiol isomerase and chaperone. We emphasize the need to use appropriate controls and the role of critical interferents (e.g., detergent, presence of reducing agents). We also discuss the translation of results from in vitro studies with purified recombinant PDI to cellular and tissue samples, with critical comments on the interpretation of results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica M Watanabe
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Francisco R M Laurindo
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Denise C Fernandes
- Vascular Biology Laboratory, Heart Institute (InCor), University of São Paulo School of Medicine São Paulo, Brazil
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18
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Zhang W, Zheng W, Mao M, Yang Y. Highly efficient folding of multi-disulfide proteins in superoxidizingEscherichia colicytoplasm. Biotechnol Bioeng 2014; 111:2520-7. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.25309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Wenyao Zhang
- Synthetic Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory; State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Mei Long Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Wenyun Zheng
- Synthetic Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory; State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Mei Long Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Miaowei Mao
- Synthetic Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory; State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Mei Long Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Yi Yang
- Synthetic Biology and Biotechnology Laboratory; State Key Laboratory of Bioreactor Engineering; Shanghai Collaborative Innovation Center for Biomanufacturing Technology; School of Pharmacy; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Mei Long Road Shanghai 200237 China
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19
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Onda Y, Kobori Y. Differential activity of rice protein disulfide isomerase family members for disulfide bond formation and reduction. FEBS Open Bio 2014; 4:730-4. [PMID: 25161881 PMCID: PMC4141933 DOI: 10.1016/j.fob.2014.07.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
PDIL1;1 efficiently catalyzed both disulfide bond formation and disulfide bond reduction. Two redox-active sites of PDIL1;1 were involved in disulfide reduction. Disulfide reduction activity of PDIL1;1 increased with increasing GSH concentration.
Protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs), a family of thiol-disulfide oxidoreductases that are ubiquitous in all eukaryotes, are the principal catalysts for disulfide bond formation. Here, we investigated three rice (Oryza sativa) PDI family members (PDIL1;1, PDIL1;4, and PDIL2;3) and found that PDIL1;1 exhibited the highest catalytic activity for both disulfide bond formation and disulfide bond reduction. The activity of PDIL1;1-catalyzed disulfide bond reduction, in which two redox-active sites were involved, was enhanced by increasing the glutathione concentration. These results suggest that PDIL1;1 plays primary roles in both disulfide bond formation and disulfide bond reduction, which allow for redox control of protein quality and packaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayoi Onda
- Department of Food and Applied Life Sciences, Yamagata University, 1-23 Wakaba-Machi, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-8555, Japan
| | - Yohei Kobori
- Department of Food and Applied Life Sciences, Yamagata University, 1-23 Wakaba-Machi, Tsuruoka, Yamagata 997-8555, Japan
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20
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase 1 (QSOX1) is an enzyme that oxidizes thiols during protein folding, reducing molecular oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. Tumor cells may take advantage of oxidative environments at different stages of tumorigenesis, but QSOX1 may also serve additional functions in tumors. RECENT ADVANCES Several groups have reported the over-expression of QSOX1 in breast, pancreas, and prostate cancers. A consensus is building that QSOX1 over-expression is important during tumor cell invasion, facilitating tumor cell migration at the tumor-stroma interface. As such, QSOX1 may be considered a prognostic indicator of metastatic potential or even indicate that cancer is present in a host. CRITICAL ISSUES However, some controversy exists between QSOX1 as a marker of poor or favorable outcome in breast cancer. More studies are required to reveal what advantage QSOX1 provides to breast and other types of cancer. More specifically, it is critical to learn which tumor types over-express QSOX1 and use its enzymatic activity to their advantage. FUTURE DIRECTIONS As interest increases in understanding the mechanisms of tumorigenesis within the extracellular matrix and how tumor cells influence fibroblasts and other stromal cells, QSOX1 may be revealed as an important player in cancer detection and prognosis. Defining the mechanism(s) of QSOX1 activity in tumors and in in vivo models will provide important insights into how to target QSOX1 with anti-neoplastic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas F Lake
- 1 School of Life Sciences, ASU/Mayo Clinic , Scottsdale, Arizona
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21
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El Hindy M, Hezwani M, Corry D, Hull J, El Amraoui F, Harris M, Lee C, Forshaw T, Wilson A, Mansbridge A, Hassler M, Patel VB, Kehoe PG, Love S, Conway ME. The branched-chain aminotransferase proteins: novel redox chaperones for protein disulfide isomerase--implications in Alzheimer's disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:2497-513. [PMID: 24094038 PMCID: PMC4026213 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The human branched-chain aminotransferase proteins (hBCATm and hBCATc) are regulated through oxidation and S-nitrosation. However, it remains unknown whether they share common redox characteristics to enzymes such as protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) in terms of regulating cellular repair and protein misfolding. RESULTS Here, similar to PDI, the hBCAT proteins showed dithiol-disulfide isomerase activity that was mediated through an S-glutathionylated mechanism. Site-directed mutagenesis of the active thiols of the CXXC motif demonstrates that they are fundamental to optimal protein folding. Far Western analysis indicated that both hBCAT proteins can associate with PDI. Co-immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that hBCATm directly binds to PDI in IMR-32 cells and the human brain. Electron and confocal microscopy validated the expression of PDI in mitochondria (using Mia40 as a mitochondrial control), where both PDI and Mia40 were found to be co-localized with hBCATm. Under conditions of oxidative stress, this interaction is decreased, suggesting that the proposed chaperone role for hBCATm may be perturbed. Moreover, immunohistochemistry studies show that PDI and hBCAT are expressed in the same neuronal and endothelial cells of the vasculature of the human brain, supporting a physiological role for this binding. INNOVATION This study identifies a novel redox role for hBCAT and confirms that hBCATm differentially binds to PDI under cellular stress. CONCLUSION These studies indicate that hBCAT may play a role in the stress response of the cell as a novel redox chaperone, which, if compromised, may result in protein misfolding, creating aggregates as a key feature in neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya El Hindy
- 1 Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of England , Coldharbor Lane, Bristol, United Kingdom
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22
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Israel BA, Jiang L, Gannon SA, Thorpe C. Disulfide bond generation in mammalian blood serum: detection and purification of quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase. Free Radic Biol Med 2014; 69:129-35. [PMID: 24468475 PMCID: PMC3960832 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2014.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 01/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/17/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive new plate-reader assay has been developed showing that adult mammalian blood serum contains circulating soluble sulfhydryl oxidase activity that can introduce disulfide bonds into reduced proteins with the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. The activity was purified 5000-fold to >90% homogeneity from bovine serum and found by mass spectrometry to be consistent with the short isoform of quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase 1 (QSOX1). This FAD-dependent enzyme is present at comparable activity levels in fetal and adult commercial bovine sera. Thus cell culture media that are routinely supplemented with either fetal or adult bovine sera will contain this facile catalyst of protein thiol oxidation. QSOX1 is present at approximately 25 nM in pooled normal adult human serum. Examination of the unusual kinetics of QSOX1 toward cysteine and glutathione at low micromolar concentrations suggests that circulating QSOX1 is unlikely to significantly contribute to the oxidation of these monothiols in plasma. However, the ability of QSOX1 to rapidly oxidize conformationally mobile protein thiols suggests a possible contribution to the redox status of exofacial and soluble proteins in blood plasma. Recent proteomic studies showing that plasma QSOX1 can be utilized in the diagnosis of pancreatic cancer and acute decompensated heart failure, together with the overexpression of this secreted enzyme in a number of solid tumors, suggest that the robust QSOX assay developed here may be useful in the quantitation of enzyme levels in a wide range of biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Israel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Lingxi Jiang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Shawn A Gannon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
| | - Colin Thorpe
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA.
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23
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Israel BA, Kodali VK, Thorpe C. Going through the barrier: coupled disulfide exchange reactions promote efficient catalysis in quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase. J Biol Chem 2013; 289:5274-84. [PMID: 24379406 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.536219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) family of enzymes generates disulfide bonds in peptides and proteins with the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. Determination of the potentials of the redox centers in Trypanosoma brucei QSOX provides a context for understanding catalysis by this facile oxidant of protein thiols. The CXXC motif of the thioredoxin domain is comparatively oxidizing (E'0 of -144 mV), consistent with an ability to transfer disulfide bonds to a broad range of thiol substrates. In contrast, the proximal CXXC disulfide in the ERV (essential for respiration and vegetative growth) domain of TbQSOX is strongly reducing (E'0 of -273 mV), representing a major apparent thermodynamic barrier to overall catalysis. Reduction of the oxidizing FAD cofactor (E'0 of -153 mV) is followed by the strongly favorable reduction of molecular oxygen. The role of a mixed disulfide intermediate between thioredoxin and ERV domains was highlighted by rapid reaction studies in which the wild-type CGAC motif in the thioredoxin domain of TbQSOX was replaced by the more oxidizing CPHC or more reducing CGPC sequence. Mixed disulfide bond formation is accompanied by the generation of a charge transfer complex with the flavin cofactor. This provides thermodynamic coupling among the three redox centers of QSOX and avoids the strongly uphill mismatch between the formal potentials of the thioredoxin and ERV disulfides. This work identifies intriguing mechanistic parallels between the eukaryotic QSOX enzymes and the DsbA/B system catalyzing disulfide bond generation in the bacterial periplasm and suggests that the strategy of linked disulfide exchanges may be exploited in other catalysts of oxidative protein folding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Israel
- From the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716
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24
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Abstract
QSOX1 (quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase 1) efficiently catalyses the insertion of disulfide bonds into a wide range of proteins. The enzyme is mechanistically well characterized, but its subcellular location and the identity of its protein substrates remain ill-defined. The function of QSOX1 is likely to involve disulfide formation in proteins entering the secretory pathway or outside the cell. In the present study, we show that this enzyme is efficiently secreted from mammalian cells despite the presence of a transmembrane domain. We identify internal cleavage sites and demonstrate that the protein is processed within the Golgi apparatus to yield soluble enzyme. As a consequence of this efficient processing, QSOX1 is probably functional outside the cell. Also, QSOX1 forms a dimer upon cleavage of the C-terminal domain. The processing of QSOX1 suggests a novel level of regulation of secretion of this potent disulfide catalyst and producer of hydrogen peroxide.
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25
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Recombinant human prion protein inhibits prion propagation in vitro. Sci Rep 2013; 3:2911. [PMID: 24105336 PMCID: PMC3793212 DOI: 10.1038/srep02911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Prion diseases are associated with the conformational conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into the pathological scrapie isoform (PrPSc) in the brain. Both the in vivo and in vitro conversion of PrPC into PrPSc is significantly inhibited by differences in amino acid sequence between the two molecules. Using protein misfolding cyclic amplification (PMCA), we now report that the recombinant full-length human PrP (rHuPrP23-231) (that is unglycosylated and lacks the glycophosphatidylinositol anchor) is a strong inhibitor of human prion propagation. Furthermore, rHuPrP23-231 also inhibits mouse prion propagation in a scrapie-infected mouse cell line. Notably, it binds to PrPSc, but not PrPC, suggesting that the inhibitory effect of recombinant PrP results from blocking the interaction of brain PrPC with PrPSc. Our findings suggest a new avenue for treating prion diseases, in which a patient's own unglycosylated and anchorless PrP is used to inhibit PrPSc propagation without inducing immune response side effects.
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26
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Aller I, Meyer AJ. The oxidative protein folding machinery in plant cells. PROTOPLASMA 2013; 250:799-816. [PMID: 23090240 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-012-0463-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Formation of intra-molecular disulfides and concomitant oxidative protein folding is essential for stability and catalytic function of many soluble and membrane-bound proteins in the endomembrane system, the mitochondrial inter-membrane space and the thylakoid lumen. Disulfide generation from free cysteines in nascent polypeptide chains is generally a catalysed process for which distinct pathways exist in all compartments. A high degree of similarities between highly diverse eukaryotic and bacterial systems for generation of protein disulfides indicates functional conservation of key processes throughout evolution. However, while many aspects about molecular function of enzymatic systems promoting disulfide formation have been demonstrated for bacterial and non-plant eukaryotic organisms, it is now clear that the plant machinery for oxidative protein folding displays distinct details, suggesting that the different pathways have been adapted to plant-specific requirements in terms of compartmentation, molecular function and regulation. Here, we aim to evaluate biological diversity by comparing the plant systems for oxidative protein folding to the respective systems from non-plant eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Aller
- INRES-Chemical Signalling, University of Bonn, Friedrich-Ebert-Allee 144, D-53113 Bonn, Germany
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27
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Heckler EJ, Crassous PA, Baskaran P, Beuve A. Protein disulfide-isomerase interacts with soluble guanylyl cyclase via a redox-based mechanism and modulates its activity. Biochem J 2013; 452:161-9. [PMID: 23477350 PMCID: PMC3992929 DOI: 10.1042/bj20130298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
NO binds to the receptor sGC (soluble guanylyl cyclase), stimulating cGMP production. The NO-sGC-cGMP pathway is a key component in the cardiovascular system. Discrepancies in sGC activation and deactivation in vitro compared with in vivo have led to a search for endogenous factors that regulate sGC or assist in cellular localization. In our previous work, which identified Hsp (heat-shock protein) 70 as a modulator of sGC, we determined that PDI (protein disulfide-isomerase) bound to an sGC-affinity matrix. In the present study, we establish and characterize this interaction. Incubation of purified PDI with semi-purified sGC, both reduced and oxidized, resulted in different migration patterns on non-reducing Western blots indicating a redox component to the interaction. In sGC-infected COS-7 cells, transfected FLAG-tagged PDI and PDI CXXS (redox active site 'trap mutant') pulled down sGC. This PDI-sGC complex was resolved by reductant, confirming a redox interaction. PDI inhibited NO-stimulated sGC activity in COS-7 lysates, however, a PDI redox-inactive mutant PDI SXXS did not. Together, these data unveil a novel mechanism of sGC redox modulation via thiol-disulfide exchange. Finally, in SMCs (smooth muscle cells), endogenous PDI and sGC co-localize by in situ proximity ligation assay, which suggests biological relevance. PDI-dependent redox regulation of sGC NO sensitivity may provide a secondary control over vascular homoeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin J Heckler
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, New Jersey Medical School, UMDNJ, Newark, NJ 07103, USA.
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28
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Liu J, Li F, Rozovsky S. The intrinsically disordered membrane protein selenoprotein S is a reductase in vitro. Biochemistry 2013; 52:3051-61. [PMID: 23566202 DOI: 10.1021/bi4001358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Selenoprotein S (SelS or VIMP) is an intrinsically disordered membrane enzyme that provides protection against reactive oxidative species. SelS is a member of the endoplasmic reticulum-associated protein degradation pathway, but its precise enzymatic function is unknown. Because it contains the rare amino acid selenocysteine, it belongs to the family of selenoproteins, which are typically oxidoreductases. Its exact enzymatic function is key to understanding how the cell regulates the response to oxidative stress and thus influences human health and aging. To identify its enzymatic function, we have isolated the selenocysteine-containing enzyme by relying on the aggregation of forms that do not have this reactive residue. That allows us to establish that SelS is primarily a thioredoxin-dependent reductase. It is capable of reducing hydrogen peroxide but is not an efficient or broad-spectrum peroxidase. Only the selenocysteine-containing enzyme is active. In addition, the reduction potential of SelS was determined to be -234 mV using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. This value is consistent with SelS being a partner of thioredoxin. On the basis of this information, SelS can directly combat reactive oxygen species but is also likely to participate in a signaling pathway, via a yet unidentified substrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, USA
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Gad W, Nair MG, Van Belle K, Wahni K, De Greve H, Van Ginderachter JA, Vandenbussche G, Endo Y, Artis D, Messens J. The quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (hQSOX1b) tunes the expression of resistin-like molecule alpha (RELM-α or mFIZZ1) in a wheat germ cell-free extract. PLoS One 2013; 8:e55621. [PMID: 23383248 PMCID: PMC3561318 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0055621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although disulfide bond formation in proteins is one of the most common types of post-translational modifications, the production of recombinant disulfide-rich proteins remains a challenge. The most popular host for recombinant protein production is Escherichia coli, but disulfide-rich proteins are here often misfolded, degraded, or found in inclusion bodies. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We optimize an in vitro wheat germ translation system for the expression of an immunological important eukaryotic protein that has to form five disulfide bonds, resistin-like alpha (mFIZZ1). Expression in combination with human quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (hQSOX1b), the disulfide bond-forming enzyme of the endoplasmic reticulum, results in soluble, intramolecular disulfide bonded, monomeric, and biological active protein. The mFIZZ1 protein clearly suppresses the production of the cytokines IL-5 and IL-13 in mouse splenocytes cultured under Th2 permissive conditions. CONCLUSION/SIGNIFICANCE The quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase hQSOX1b seems to function as a chaperone and oxidase during the oxidative folding. This example for mFIZZ1 should encourage the design of an appropriate thiol/disulfide oxidoreductase-tuned cell free expression system for other challenging disulfide rich proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wael Gad
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Structural Biology, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Meera G. Nair
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California Riverside, Riverside, California, United States of America
| | - Karolien Van Belle
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Structural Biology, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Khadija Wahni
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Structural Biology, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Henri De Greve
- Department of Structural Biology, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jo A. Van Ginderachter
- Lab of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- Myeloid Cell Immunology Lab, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guy Vandenbussche
- Centre de Biologie Structurale et de Bioinformatique, Structure et Fonction des Membranes Biologiques, Université Libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Yaeta Endo
- Cell Free Science and Technology Research Center, Ehime University, Matsuyama, Japan
| | - David Artis
- Department of Microbiology and Institute for Immunology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Joris Messens
- Brussels Center for Redox Biology, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Structural Biology, Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie, Brussels, Belgium
- Structural Biology Brussels, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
- * E-mail:
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Patent Highlights. Pharm Pat Anal 2012. [DOI: 10.4155/ppa.12.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
A snapshot of recent key developments in the patent literature of relevance to the advancement of pharmaceutical and medical R&D
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Codding JA, Israel BA, Thorpe C. Protein substrate discrimination in the quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) family. Biochemistry 2012; 51:4226-35. [PMID: 22582951 DOI: 10.1021/bi300394w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
This work explores the substrate specificity of the quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) family of disulfide-generating flavoenzymes to provide enzymological context for investigation of the physiological roles of these facile catalysts of oxidative protein folding. QSOX enzymes are generally unable to form disulfide bonds within well-structured proteins. Use of a temperature-sensitive mutant of ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme 4 (Ubc4') as a model substrate shows that QSOX activity correlates with the unfolding of Ubc4' monitored by circular dichroism. Fusion of Ubc4' with the more stable glutathione-S-transferase domain demonstrates that QSOX can selectively introduce disulfides into the less stable domain of the fusion protein. In terms of intermolecular disulfide bond generation, QSOX is unable to cross-link well-folded globular proteins via their surface thiols. However, the construction of a septuple mutant of RNase A, retaining a single cysteine residue, demonstrates that flexible protein monomers can be directly coupled by the oxidase. Steady- and pre-steady-state kinetic experiments, combined with static fluorescence approaches, indicate that while QSOX is an efficient catalyst for disulfide bond formation between mobile elements of structure, it does not appear to have a significant binding site for unfolded proteins. These aspects of protein substrate discrimination by QSOX family members are rationalized in terms of the stringent steric requirements for disulfide exchange reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer A Codding
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716-2522, USA
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Lobstein J, Emrich CA, Jeans C, Faulkner M, Riggs P, Berkmen M. SHuffle, a novel Escherichia coli protein expression strain capable of correctly folding disulfide bonded proteins in its cytoplasm. Microb Cell Fact 2012; 11:56. [PMID: 22569138 PMCID: PMC3526497 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-11-56] [Citation(s) in RCA: 342] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2011] [Accepted: 05/08/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Production of correctly disulfide bonded proteins to high yields remains a challenge. Recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli is the popular choice, especially within the research community. While there is an ever growing demand for new expression strains, few strains are dedicated to post-translational modifications, such as disulfide bond formation. Thus, new protein expression strains must be engineered and the parameters involved in producing disulfide bonded proteins must be understood. RESULTS We have engineered a new E. coli protein expression strain named SHuffle, dedicated to producing correctly disulfide bonded active proteins to high yields within its cytoplasm. This strain is based on the trxB gor suppressor strain SMG96 where its cytoplasmic reductive pathways have been diminished, allowing for the formation of disulfide bonds in the cytoplasm. We have further engineered a major improvement by integrating into its chromosome a signal sequenceless disulfide bond isomerase, DsbC. We probed the redox state of DsbC in the oxidizing cytoplasm and evaluated its role in assisting the formation of correctly folded multi-disulfide bonded proteins. We optimized protein expression conditions, varying temperature, induction conditions, strain background and the co-expression of various helper proteins. We found that temperature has the biggest impact on improving yields and that the E. coli B strain background of this strain was superior to the K12 version. We also discovered that auto-expression of substrate target proteins using this strain resulted in higher yields of active pure protein. Finally, we found that co-expression of mutant thioredoxins and PDI homologs improved yields of various substrate proteins. CONCLUSIONS This work is the first extensive characterization of the trxB gor suppressor strain. The results presented should help researchers design the appropriate protein expression conditions using SHuffle strains.
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Onda Y, Kawagoe Y. Oxidative protein folding: selective pressure for prolamin evolution in rice. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:1966-72. [PMID: 22112460 PMCID: PMC3337189 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.12.17967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
During seed development, endosperm cells of highly productive cereals, including rice, synthesize disulfide-rich proteins in large amounts and deposit them into storage organelles. Disulfide bond formation involves electron transfer and generates H(2)O(2) as a by-product. To ensure proper development and maturation of seeds, the endosperm cells must supply large amounts of oxidizing equivalents to dithiols in nascent proteins in a controlled manner. This review compares multiple oxidative protein folding systems in yeast, cultured human cells, and rice endosperm. We discuss possible roles of ERO1, other sulfhydryl oxidases, and the protein disulfide isomerase family in the formation of disulfide bonds in storage proteins and the development of protein bodies. Rice prolamins, encoded by a multigene family, are divided into Cys-rich and Cys-depleted subgroups. We discuss the potential importance of disulfide bond formation in the evolution of the prolamin family in japonica rice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayoi Onda
- Department of Food and Applied Life Sciences; Yamagata University; Tsuruoka, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kawagoe
- Division of Plant Sciences; National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences; Tsukuba, Japan
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Deng B, Deng S, Sun F, Zhang S, Dong H. Down-regulation of free riboflavin content induces hydrogen peroxide and a pathogen defense in Arabidopsis. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2011; 77:185-201. [PMID: 21720919 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-011-9802-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2010] [Accepted: 06/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Riboflavin mediates many bioprocesses associated with the generation of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), a cellular signal that regulates defense responses in plants. Although plants can synthesize riboflavin, the levels vary widely in different organs and during different stages of development, indicating that changes in riboflavin levels may have physiological effects. Here, we show that changing riboflavin content affects H₂O₂ accumulation and a pathogen defense in Arabidopsis thaliana. Leaf content of free riboflavin was modulated by ectopic expression of the turtle gene encoding riboflavin-binding protein (RfBP). The RfBP-expressing Arabidopsis thaliana (REAT) plants produced the RfBP protein that possessed riboflavin-binding activity. Compared with the wild-type plant, several tested REAT lines had >70% less flavins of free form. This change accompanied an elevation in the level of H₂O₂ and an enhancement of plant resistance to a bacterial pathogen. All the observed REAT characters were eliminated due to RfBP silencing (RfBPi) under REAT background. When an H₂O₂ scavenger was applied, H₂O₂ level declined in all the plants, and REAT no longer exhibited the phenotype of resistance enhancement. However, treatment with an NADPH oxidase inhibitor diminished H₂O₂ content and pathogen defense in wild-type and RfBPi but not in REAT. Our results suggest that the intrinsic down-regulation of free flavins is responsible for NADPH oxidase-independent H₂O₂ accumulation and the pathogen defense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benliang Deng
- State Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Integrated Management of Crop Pests, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China
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35
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Bulleid NJ, Ellgaard L. Multiple ways to make disulfides. Trends Biochem Sci 2011; 36:485-92. [PMID: 21778060 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2011.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 168] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Our concept of how disulfides form in proteins entering the secretory pathway has changed dramatically in recent years. The discovery of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) oxidoreductin 1 (ERO1) was followed by the demonstration that this enzyme couples oxygen reduction to de novo formation of disulfides. However, mammals deficient in ERO1 survive and form disulfides, which suggests the presence of alternative pathways. It has recently been shown that peroxiredoxin 4 is involved in peroxide removal and disulfide formation. Other less well-characterized pathways involving quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase, ER-localized protein disulfide isomerase peroxidases and vitamin K epoxide reductase might all contribute to disulfide formation. Here we discuss these various pathways for disulfide formation in the mammalian ER and highlight the central role played by glutathione in regulating this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil J Bulleid
- Institute of Molecular, Cellular and Systems Biology, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.
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36
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Faccio G, Nivala O, Kruus K, Buchert J, Saloheimo M. Sulfhydryl oxidases: sources, properties, production and applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2011; 91:957-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-011-3440-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2011] [Revised: 06/10/2011] [Accepted: 06/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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Onda Y, Nagamine A, Sakurai M, Kumamaru T, Ogawa M, Kawagoe Y. Distinct roles of protein disulfide isomerase and P5 sulfhydryl oxidoreductases in multiple pathways for oxidation of structurally diverse storage proteins in rice. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:210-23. [PMID: 21278127 PMCID: PMC3051231 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.110.079509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
In the rice (Oryza sativa) endosperm, storage proteins are synthesized on the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), in which prolamins are sorted to protein bodies (PBs) called type-I PB (PB-I). Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) family oxidoreductase PDIL2;3, an ortholog of human P5, contains a conserved structural disulfide in the redox-inactive thioredoxin-like (TRX) domain and was efficiently targeted to the surface of PB-I in a redox active site-dependent manner, whereas PDIL1;1, an ortholog of human PDI, was localized in the ER lumen. Complementation analyses using PDIL1;1 knockout esp2 mutant indicated that the a and a' TRX domains of PDIL1;1 exhibited similar redox activities and that PDIL2;3 was unable to perform the PDIL1;1 functions. PDIL2;3 knockdown inhibited the accumulation of Cys-rich 10-kD prolamin (crP10) in the core of PB-I. Conversely, crP10 knockdown dispersed PDIL2;3 into the ER lumen. Glutathione S-transferase-PDIL2;3 formed a stable tetramer when it was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant PDIL2;3 tetramer facilitated α-globulin(C79F) mutant protein to form nonnative intermolecular disulfide bonds in vitro. These results indicate that PDIL2;3 and PDIL1;1 are not functionally redundant in sulfhydryl oxidations of structurally diverse storage proteins and play distinct roles in PB development. We discuss PDIL2;3-dependent and PDIL2;3-independent oxidation pathways that sustain disulfide bonds of crP10 in PB-I.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yayoi Onda
- Division of Plant Sciences, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
| | - Ai Nagamine
- Division of Plant Sciences, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
| | - Mutsumi Sakurai
- Division of Plant Sciences, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Kumamaru
- Institute of Genetic Resources, Faculty of Agriculture, Kyushu University, Hakozaki, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan
| | - Masahiro Ogawa
- Faculty of Life Science, Yamaguchi Prefectural University, Sakurabatake, Yamaguchi 753-8502, Japan
| | - Yasushi Kawagoe
- Division of Plant Sciences, National Institute of Agrobiological Sciences, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8602, Japan
- Address correspondence to
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Recycling of peroxiredoxin IV provides a novel pathway for disulphide formation in the endoplasmic reticulum. EMBO J 2010; 29:4185-97. [PMID: 21057456 PMCID: PMC3018787 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2010.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 191] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/15/2010] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Disulphide formation in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is catalysed by members of the protein disulphide isomerase (PDI) family. These enzymes can be oxidized by the flavoprotein ER oxidoreductin 1 (Ero1), which couples disulphide formation with reduction of oxygen to form hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)). The H(2)O(2) produced can be metabolized by ER-localized peroxiredoxin IV (PrxIV). Continuous catalytic activity of PrxIV depends on reduction of a disulphide within the active site to form a free thiol, which can then react with H(2)O(2). Here, we demonstrate that several members of the PDI family are able to directly reduce this PrxIV disulphide and in the process become oxidized. Furthermore, we show that altering cellular expression of these proteins within the ER influences the efficiency with which PrxIV can be recycled. The oxidation of PDI family members by PrxIV is a highly efficient process and demonstrates how oxidation by H(2)O(2) can be coupled to disulphide formation. Oxidation of PDI by PrxIV may therefore increase efficiency of disulphide formation by Ero1 and also allows disulphide formation via alternative sources of H(2)O(2).
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Kodali VK, Thorpe C. Oxidative protein folding and the Quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase family of flavoproteins. Antioxid Redox Signal 2010; 13:1217-30. [PMID: 20136510 PMCID: PMC2959182 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2010.3098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Flavin-linked sulfhydryl oxidases participate in the net generation of disulfide bonds during oxidative protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Members of the Quiescin-sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) family catalyze the facile direct introduction of disulfide bonds into unfolded reduced proteins with the reduction of molecular oxygen to generate hydrogen peroxide. Current progress in dissecting the mechanism of QSOX enzymes is reviewed, with emphasis on the CxxC motifs in the thioredoxin and Erv/ALR domains and the involvement of the flavin prosthetic group. The tissue distribution and intra- and extracellular location of QSOX enzymes are discussed, and suggestions for the physiological role of these enzymes are presented. The review compares the substrate specificity and catalytic efficiency of the QSOX enzymes with members of the Ero1 family of flavin-dependent sulfhydryl oxidases: enzymes believed to play key roles in disulfide generation in yeast and higher eukaryotes. Finally, limitations of our current understanding of disulfide generation in metazoans are identified and questions posed for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vamsi K Kodali
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19711, USA
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Kodali VK, Thorpe C. Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase from Trypanosoma brucei: catalytic activity and mechanism of a QSOX family member with a single thioredoxin domain. Biochemistry 2010; 49:2075-85. [PMID: 20121244 DOI: 10.1021/bi902222s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase (QSOX) flavoenzymes catalyze the direct, facile, insertion of disulfide bonds into reduced unfolded proteins with the reduction of oxygen to hydrogen peroxide. To date, only QSOXs from vertebrates have been characterized enzymatically. These metazoan sulfhydryl oxidases have four recognizable domains: a redox-active thioredoxin (Trx) domain containing the first of three CxxC motifs (C(I)-C(II)), a second Trx domain with no obvious redox-active disulfide, a helix-rich domain, and then an Erv/ALR domain. This last domain contains the FAD moiety, a proximal C(III)-C(IV) disulfide, and a third CxxC of unknown function (C(V)-C(VI)). Plant and protist QSOXs lack the second Trx domain but otherwise appear to contain the same complement of redox centers. This work presents the first characterization of a single-Trx QSOX. Trypanosoma brucei QSOX was expressed in Escherichia coli using a synthetic gene and found to be a stable, monomeric, FAD-containing protein. Although evidently lacking an entire domain, TbQSOX shows catalytic activity and substrate specificity similar to the vertebrate QSOXs examined previously. Unfolded reduced proteins are more than 200-fold more effective substrates on a per thiol basis than glutathione and some 10-fold better than the parasite bisglutathione analogue, trypanothione. These data are consistent with a role for the protist QSOX in oxidative protein folding. Site-directed mutagenesis of each of the six cysteine residues (to serines) shows that the CxxC motif in the single-Trx domain is crucial for efficient catalysis of the oxidation of both reduced RNase and the model substrate dithiothreitol. As expected, the proximal disulfide C(III)-C(IV), which interacts with the flavin, is catalytically crucial. However, as observed with human QSOX1, the third CxxC motif shows no obvious catalytic role during the in vitro oxidation of reduced RNase or dithiothreitol. Pre-steady-state kinetics demonstrates that turnover in TbQSOX is limited by an internal redox step leading to 2-electron reduction of the FAD cofactor. In sum, the single-Trx domain QSOX studied here shows a striking similarity in enzymatic behavior to its double-Trx metazoan counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vamsi K Kodali
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
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41
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James NG, Ross JA, Mason AB, Jameson DM. Excited-state lifetime studies of the three tryptophan residues in the N-lobe of human serum transferrin. Protein Sci 2010; 19:99-110. [PMID: 19916167 DOI: 10.1002/pro.287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The energy transfer from the three Trp residues at positions 8, 128, and 264 within the human serum transferrin (hTF) N-lobe to the ligand to metal charge transfer band has been investigated by monitoring changes in Trp fluorescence emission and lifetimes. The fluorescence emission from hTF N-lobe is dominated by Trp264, as revealed by an 82% decrease in the quantum yield when this Trp residue is absent. Fluorescence lifetimes were determined by multifrequency phase fluorometry of mutants containing one or two Trp residues. Decays of these samples are best described by two or three discrete lifetimes or by a unimodal Lorentzian distribution. The discrete lifetimes and the center of the lifetime distribution for samples containing Trp128 and Trp264 are affected by iron. The distribution width narrows on iron removal and is consistent with a decrease in dynamic mobility of the dominant fluorophore, Trp264. Both the quantum yield and the lifetimes are lower when iron is present, however, not proportionally. The greater effect of iron on quantum yields is indicative of nonexcited state quenching, i.e., static quenching. The results of these experiments provide quantitative data strongly suggesting that Förster resonance energy transfer is not the sole source of Trp quenching in the N-lobe of hTF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas G James
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Vermont, College of Medicine, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA.
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42
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Pena F, Jansens A, van Zadelhoff G, Braakman I. Calcium as a crucial cofactor for low density lipoprotein receptor folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. J Biol Chem 2010; 285:8656-64. [PMID: 20089850 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m110.105718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The family of low density lipoprotein (LDL) receptors mediate uptake of a plethora of ligands from the circulation and couple this to signaling, thereby performing a crucial role in physiological processes including embryonic development, cancer development, homeostasis of lipoproteins, viral infection, and neuronal plasticity. Structural integrity of individual ectodomain modules in these receptors depends on calcium, and we showed before that the LDL receptor folds its modules late after synthesis via intermediates with abundant non-native disulfide bonds and structure. Using a radioactive pulse-chase approach, we here show that for proper LDL receptor folding, calcium had to be present from the very early start of folding, which suggests at least some native, essential coordination of calcium ions at the still largely non-native folding phase. As long as the protein was in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), its folding was reversible, which changed only upon both proper incorporation of calcium and exit from the ER. Coevolution of protein folding with the high calcium concentration in the ER may be the basis for the need for this cation throughout the folding process even though calcium is only stably integrated in native repeats at a later stage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florentina Pena
- Cellular Protein Chemistry, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research, Utrecht University, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Hatahet F, Ruddock LW. Protein disulfide isomerase: a critical evaluation of its function in disulfide bond formation. Antioxid Redox Signal 2009; 11:2807-50. [PMID: 19476414 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2009.2466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 495] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Disulfide bond formation is probably involved in the biogenesis of approximately one third of human proteins. A central player in this essential process is protein disulfide isomerase or PDI. PDI was the first protein-folding catalyst reported. However, despite more than four decades of study, we still do not understand much about its physiological mechanisms of action. This review examines the published literature with a critical eye. This review aims to (a) provide background on the chemistry of disulfide bond formation and rearrangement, including the concept of reduction potential, before examining the structure of PDI; (b) detail the thiol-disulfide exchange reactions that are catalyzed by PDI in vitro, including a critical examination of the assays used to determine them; (c) examine oxidation and reduction of PDI in vivo, including not only the role of ERo1 but also an extensive assessment of the role of glutathione, as well as other systems, such as peroxide, dehydroascorbate, and a discussion of vitamin K-based systems; (d) consider the in vivo reactions of PDI and the determination and implications of the redox state of PDI in vivo; and (e) discuss other human and yeast PDI-family members.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feras Hatahet
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Oulu , Oulu, Finland
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ER membrane-localized oxidoreductase Ero1 is required for disulfide bond formation in the rice endosperm. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2009; 106:14156-61. [PMID: 19666483 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0904429106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The developing endosperm of rice (Oryza sativa, Os) synthesizes a large amount of storage proteins on the rough (r)ER. The major storage proteins, glutelins and prolamins, contain either intra or intermolecular disulfide bonds, and oxidative protein folding is necessary for the sorting of the proteins to the protein bodies. Here, we investigated an electron transfer pathway for the formation of protein disulfide bonds in the rER of the rice endosperm, focusing on the roles of the thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase, OsEro1. Confocal microscopic analysis revealed that N-glycosylated OsEro1 is localized to the rER membrane in the subaleurone cells, and that targeting of OsEro1 to the rER membrane depends on the N-terminal region from Met-1 to Ser-55. The RNAi knockdown of OsERO1 inhibited the formation of native disulfide bonds in the glutelin precursors (proglutelins) and promoted aggregation of the proglutelins through nonnative intermolecular disulfide bonds in the rER. Inhibition of the formation of native disulfide bonds was also observed in the seeds of the esp2 mutant, which lacks protein disulfide isomerase-like (PDIL)1;1, but shows enhanced OsEro1 expression. We detected the generation of H(2)O(2) in the rER of the WT subaleurone cells, whereas the rER-derived H(2)O(2) levels decreased markedly in EM49 homozygous mutant seeds, which have fewer sulfhydryl groups than the WT seeds. Together, we propose that the formation of native disulfide bonds in proglutelins depends on an electron transfer pathway involving OsEro1 and OsPDIL.
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de Marco A. Strategies for successful recombinant expression of disulfide bond-dependent proteins in Escherichia coli. Microb Cell Fact 2009; 8:26. [PMID: 19442264 PMCID: PMC2689190 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-8-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2009] [Accepted: 05/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria are simple and cost effective hosts for producing recombinant proteins. However, their physiological features may limit their use for obtaining in native form proteins of some specific structural classes, such as for instance polypeptides that undergo extensive post-translational modifications. To some extent, also the production of proteins that depending on disulfide bridges for their stability has been considered difficult in E. coli. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms keep their cytoplasm reduced and, consequently, disulfide bond formation is impaired in this subcellular compartment. Disulfide bridges can stabilize protein structure and are often present in high abundance in secreted proteins. In eukaryotic cells such bonds are formed in the oxidizing environment of endoplasmic reticulum during the export process. Bacteria do not possess a similar specialized subcellular compartment, but they have both export systems and enzymatic activities aimed at the formation and at the quality control of disulfide bonds in the oxidizing periplasm. This article reviews the available strategies for exploiting the physiological mechanisms of bactera to produce properly folded disulfide-bonded proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ario de Marco
- Cogentech, IFOM-IEO Campus for Oncogenomic, via Adamello, 16 - 20139, Milano, Italy.
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Ramadan D, Rancy PC, Nagarkar RP, Schneider JP, Thorpe C. Arsenic(III) species inhibit oxidative protein folding in vitro. Biochemistry 2009; 48:424-32. [PMID: 19102631 DOI: 10.1021/bi801988x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The success of arsenic trioxide in the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukemia has renewed interest in the cellular targets of As(III) species. The effects of arsenicals are usually attributed to their ability to bind vicinal thiols or thiol selenols in prefolded proteins thereby compromising cellular function. The present studies suggest an additional, more pleiotropic, contribution to the biological effects of arsenicals. As(III) species, by avid coordination to the cysteine residues of unfolded reduced proteins, can compromise protein folding pathways. Three representative As(III) compounds (arsenite, monomethylarsenous acid (MMA), and an aryl arsenical (PSAO)) have been tested with three reduced secreted proteins (lysozyme, ribonuclease A, and riboflavin binding protein (RfBP)). Using absorbance, fluorescence, and pre-steady-state methods, we show that arsenicals bind tightly to low micromolar concentrations of these unfolded proteins with stoichiometries of 1 As(III) per 2 thiols for MMA and PSAO and 1 As(III) for every 3 thiols with arsenite. Arsenicals, at 10 microM, strongly disrupt the oxidative folding of RfBP even in the presence of 5 mM reduced glutathione, a competing ligand for As(III) species. MMA catalyzes the formation of amyloid-like monodisperse fibrils using reduced RNase. These in vitro data show that As(III) species can slow, or even derail, protein folding pathways. In vivo, the propensity of As(III) species to bind to unfolded cysteine-containing proteins may contribute to oxidative and protein folding stresses that are prominent features of the cellular response to arsenic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Ramadan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
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