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Ali V, Behera S, Nawaz A, Equbal A, Pandey K. Unique thiol metabolism in trypanosomatids: Redox homeostasis and drug resistance. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2022; 117:75-155. [PMID: 35878950 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are mainly responsible for heterogeneous parasitic diseases: Leishmaniasis, Sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease and control of these diseases implicates serious challenges due to the emergence of drug resistance. Redox-active biomolecules are the endogenous substances in organisms, which play important role in the regulation of redox homeostasis. The redox-active substances like glutathione, trypanothione, cysteine, cysteine persulfides, etc., and other inorganic intermediates (hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide) are very useful as defence mechanism. In the present review, the suitability of trypanothione and other essential thiol molecules of trypanosomatids as drug targets are described in Leishmania and Trypanosoma. We have explored the role of tryparedoxin, tryparedoxin peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and glutaredoxins in the anti-oxidant mechanism and drug resistance. Up-regulation of some proteins in trypanothione metabolism helps the parasites in survival against drug pressure (sodium stibogluconate, Amphotericin B, etc.) and oxidative stress. These molecules accept electrons from the reduced trypanothione and donate their electrons to other proteins, and these proteins reduce toxic molecules, neutralize reactive oxygen, or nitrogen species; and help parasites to cope with oxidative stress. Thus, a better understanding of the role of these molecules in drug resistance and redox homeostasis will help to target metabolic pathway proteins to combat Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahab Ali
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India.
| | - Sachidananda Behera
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Afreen Nawaz
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Asif Equbal
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India; Department of Botany, Araria College, Purnea University, Purnia, Bihar, India
| | - Krishna Pandey
- Department of Clinical Medicine, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
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Montanari R, Capelli D, Yamamoto K, Awaishima H, Nishikata K, Barendregt A, Heck AJR, Loiodice F, Altieri F, Paiardini A, Grottesi A, Pirone L, Pedone E, Peiretti F, Brunel JM, Itoh T, Pochetti G. Insights into PPARγ Phosphorylation and Its Inhibition Mechanism. J Med Chem 2020; 63:4811-4823. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c00048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberta Montanari
- Istituto di Cristallografia, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Salaria km. 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo Stazione, Rome, Italy
| | - Davide Capelli
- Istituto di Cristallografia, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Salaria km. 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo Stazione, Rome, Italy
| | - Keiko Yamamoto
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawagakuen,
Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Hirono Awaishima
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawagakuen,
Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Kimina Nishikata
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawagakuen,
Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Arjan Barendregt
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science4Life, University of Utrecht, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Albert J. R. Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Science4Life, University of Utrecht, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Fulvio Loiodice
- Department of Pharmacy & Drug Sciences, University of Bari “Aldo Moro”, Via Orabona 4, 70125 Bari, Italy
| | - Fabio Altieri
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi Fanelli”, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Alessandro Paiardini
- Department of Biochemical Sciences “A. Rossi Fanelli”, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | | | - Luciano Pirone
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Emilia Pedone
- Institute of Biostructures and Bioimaging, CNR, Via Mezzocannone 16, 80134 Naples, Italy
| | - Franck Peiretti
- Faculté de Médecine, Aix Marseille Université, INSERM, INRAE, C2VN, 13385 Marseille, France
| | | | - Toshimasa Itoh
- Laboratory of Drug Design and Medicinal Chemistry, Showa Pharmaceutical University, 3-3165 Higashi-tamagawagakuen,
Machida, Tokyo 194-8543, Japan
| | - Giorgio Pochetti
- Istituto di Cristallografia, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Via Salaria km. 29.300, 00015 Monterotondo Stazione, Rome, Italy
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The Role of Free Radicals in Autophagy Regulation: Implications for Ageing. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2018; 2018:2450748. [PMID: 29682156 PMCID: PMC5846360 DOI: 10.1155/2018/2450748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/16/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (ROS and RNS, resp.) have been traditionally perceived solely as detrimental, leading to oxidative damage of biological macromolecules and organelles, cellular demise, and ageing. However, recent data suggest that ROS/RNS also plays an integral role in intracellular signalling and redox homeostasis (redoxtasis), which are necessary for the maintenance of cellular functions. There is a complex relationship between cellular ROS/RNS content and autophagy, which represents one of the major quality control systems in the cell. In this review, we focus on redox signalling and autophagy regulation with a special interest on ageing-associated changes. In the last section, we describe the role of autophagy and redox signalling in the context of Alzheimer's disease as an example of a prevalent age-related disorder.
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Dong K, Wu M, Liu X, Huang Y, Zhang D, Wang Y, Yan LJ, Shi D. Glutaredoxins concomitant with optimal ROS activate AMPK through S-glutathionylation to improve glucose metabolism in type 2 diabetes. Free Radic Biol Med 2016; 101:334-347. [PMID: 27743883 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2016.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Revised: 10/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
AMPK dysregulation contributes to the onset and development of type 2 diabetes (T2DM). AMPK is known to be activated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant interference. However the mechanism by which redox state mediates such contradictory result remains largely unknown. Here we used streptozotocin-high fat diet (STZ-HFD) induced-type 2 diabetic rats and cells lines (L02 and HEK 293) to explore the mechanism of redox-mediated AMPK activation. We show glutaredoxins (Grxs) concomitant with optimal ROS act as an essential mediator for AMPK activation. ROS level results in different mechanisms for AMPK activation. Under low ROS microenvironment, Grxs-mediated S-glutathionylation on AMPK-α catalytic subunit activates AMPK to improve glucose transportation and degradation while inhibiting glycogen synthesis and keeping redox balance. While, under high ROS microenvironment, AMPK is activated by an AMP-dependent mechanism, however sustained high level ROS also causes loss of AMPK protein. This finding provides evidence for a new approach to diabetes treatment by individual doses of ROS or antioxidant calibrated against the actual redox level in vivo. Moreover, the novel function of Grxs in promoting glucose metabolism may provide new target for T2DM treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelei Dong
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Meiling Wu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaomin Liu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanjie Huang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Dongyang Zhang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiting Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China
| | - Liang-Jun Yan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, UNT System College of Pharmacy, University of North Texas Health Science Center, Fort Worth, TX, USA
| | - Dongyun Shi
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Shanghai Medical College of Fudan University, Free Radical Regulation and Application Research Center of Fudan University, Shanghai 200032, People's Republic of China.
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Kalinina EV, Chernov NN, Novichkova MD. Role of glutathione, glutathione transferase, and glutaredoxin in regulation of redox-dependent processes. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2015; 79:1562-83. [PMID: 25749165 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297914130082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Over the last decade fundamentally new features have been revealed for the participation of glutathione and glutathione-dependent enzymes (glutathione transferase and glutaredoxin) in cell proliferation, apoptosis, protein folding, and cell signaling. Reduced glutathione (GSH) plays an important role in maintaining cellular redox status by participating in thiol-disulfide exchange, which regulates a number of cell functions including gene expression and the activity of individual enzymes and enzyme systems. Maintaining optimum GSH/GSSG ratio is essential to cell viability. Decrease in the ratio can serve as an indicator of damage to the cell redox status and of changes in redox-dependent gene regulation. Disturbance of intracellular GSH balance is observed in a number of pathologies including cancer. Consequences of inappropriate GSH/GSSG ratio include significant changes in the mechanism of cellular redox-dependent signaling controlled both nonenzymatically and enzymatically with the participation of isoforms of glutathione transferase and glutaredoxin. This review summarizes recent data on the role of glutathione, glutathione transferase, and glutaredoxin in the regulation of cellular redox-dependent processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- E V Kalinina
- Peoples' Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, 117198, Russia.
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El Hindy M, Hezwani M, Corry D, Hull J, El Amraoui F, Harris M, Lee C, Forshaw T, Wilson A, Mansbridge A, Hassler M, Patel VB, Kehoe PG, Love S, Conway ME. The branched-chain aminotransferase proteins: novel redox chaperones for protein disulfide isomerase--implications in Alzheimer's disease. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 20:2497-513. [PMID: 24094038 PMCID: PMC4026213 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
AIMS The human branched-chain aminotransferase proteins (hBCATm and hBCATc) are regulated through oxidation and S-nitrosation. However, it remains unknown whether they share common redox characteristics to enzymes such as protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) in terms of regulating cellular repair and protein misfolding. RESULTS Here, similar to PDI, the hBCAT proteins showed dithiol-disulfide isomerase activity that was mediated through an S-glutathionylated mechanism. Site-directed mutagenesis of the active thiols of the CXXC motif demonstrates that they are fundamental to optimal protein folding. Far Western analysis indicated that both hBCAT proteins can associate with PDI. Co-immunoprecipitation studies demonstrated that hBCATm directly binds to PDI in IMR-32 cells and the human brain. Electron and confocal microscopy validated the expression of PDI in mitochondria (using Mia40 as a mitochondrial control), where both PDI and Mia40 were found to be co-localized with hBCATm. Under conditions of oxidative stress, this interaction is decreased, suggesting that the proposed chaperone role for hBCATm may be perturbed. Moreover, immunohistochemistry studies show that PDI and hBCAT are expressed in the same neuronal and endothelial cells of the vasculature of the human brain, supporting a physiological role for this binding. INNOVATION This study identifies a novel redox role for hBCAT and confirms that hBCATm differentially binds to PDI under cellular stress. CONCLUSION These studies indicate that hBCAT may play a role in the stress response of the cell as a novel redox chaperone, which, if compromised, may result in protein misfolding, creating aggregates as a key feature in neurodegenerative conditions such as Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya El Hindy
- 1 Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, University of the West of England , Coldharbor Lane, Bristol, United Kingdom
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Hanschmann EM, Godoy JR, Berndt C, Hudemann C, Lillig CH. Thioredoxins, glutaredoxins, and peroxiredoxins--molecular mechanisms and health significance: from cofactors to antioxidants to redox signaling. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:1539-605. [PMID: 23397885 PMCID: PMC3797455 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 493] [Impact Index Per Article: 44.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2012] [Revised: 02/01/2013] [Accepted: 02/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Thioredoxins (Trxs), glutaredoxins (Grxs), and peroxiredoxins (Prxs) have been characterized as electron donors, guards of the intracellular redox state, and "antioxidants". Today, these redox catalysts are increasingly recognized for their specific role in redox signaling. The number of publications published on the functions of these proteins continues to increase exponentially. The field is experiencing an exciting transformation, from looking at a general redox homeostasis and the pathological oxidative stress model to realizing redox changes as a part of localized, rapid, specific, and reversible redox-regulated signaling events. This review summarizes the almost 50 years of research on these proteins, focusing primarily on data from vertebrates and mammals. The role of Trx fold proteins in redox signaling is discussed by looking at reaction mechanisms, reversible oxidative post-translational modifications of proteins, and characterized interaction partners. On the basis of this analysis, the specific regulatory functions are exemplified for the cellular processes of apoptosis, proliferation, and iron metabolism. The importance of Trxs, Grxs, and Prxs for human health is addressed in the second part of this review, that is, their potential impact and functions in different cell types, tissues, and various pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva-Maria Hanschmann
- Institute for Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Medicine, Ernst-Moritz Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany
| | - José Rodrigo Godoy
- Institute of Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biophysics, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Carsten Berndt
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine University, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Christoph Hudemann
- Institute of Laboratory Medicine, Molecular Diagnostics, Philipps University, Marburg, Germany
| | - Christopher Horst Lillig
- Institute for Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University Medicine, Ernst-Moritz Arndt University, Greifswald, Germany
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Comini MA, Krauth-Siegel RL, Bellanda M. Mono- and dithiol glutaredoxins in the trypanothione-based redox metabolism of pathogenic trypanosomes. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 19:708-22. [PMID: 22978520 PMCID: PMC3739957 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Glutaredoxins are ubiquitous small thiol proteins of the thioredoxin-fold superfamily. Two major groups are distinguished based on their active sites: the dithiol (2-C-Grxs) and the monothiol (1-C-Grxs) glutaredoxins with a CXXC and a CXXS active site motif, respectively. Glutaredoxins are involved in cellular redox and/or iron sulfur metabolism. Usually their functions are closely linked to the glutathione system. Trypanosomatids, the causative agents of several tropical diseases, rely on trypanothione as principal low molecular mass thiol, and their glutaredoxins readily react with the unique bis(glutathionyl) spermidine conjugate. RECENT ADVANCES Two 2-C-Grxs and three 1-C-Grxs have been identified in pathogenic trypanosomatids. The 2-C-Grxs catalyze the reduction of glutathione disulfide by trypanothione and display reductase activity towards protein disulfides, as well as protein-glutathione mixed disulfides. In vitro, all three 1-C-Grxs as well as the cytosolic 2-C-Grx of Trypanosoma brucei can complex an iron-sulfur cluster. Recently the structure of the 1-C-Grx1 has been solved by NMR spectroscopy. The structure is very similar to those of other 1-C-Grxs, with some differences in the loop containing the conserved cis-Pro and the surface charge distribution. CRITICAL ISSUES Although four of the five trypanosomal glutaredoxins proved to coordinate an iron-sulfur cluster in vitro, the physiological role of the mitochondrial and cytosolic proteins, respectively, has only started to be unraveled. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The use of trypanothione by the glutaredoxins has established a novel role for this parasite-specific dithiol. Future work should reveal if these differences can be exploited for the development of novel antiparasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcelo A Comini
- Laboratory Redox Biology of Trypanosomes, Institut Pasteur de Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.
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Paulsen C, Carroll KS. Cysteine-mediated redox signaling: chemistry, biology, and tools for discovery. Chem Rev 2013; 113:4633-79. [PMID: 23514336 PMCID: PMC4303468 DOI: 10.1021/cr300163e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 806] [Impact Index Per Article: 73.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Candice
E. Paulsen
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research
Institute, Jupiter, Florida, 33458, United States
| | - Kate S. Carroll
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research
Institute, Jupiter, Florida, 33458, United States
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Wu L, Zhai Y, Lu J, Wang Q, Sun F. Expression, purification and preliminary characterization of glucagon receptor extracellular domain. Protein Expr Purif 2013; 89:232-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pep.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2013] [Revised: 04/05/2013] [Accepted: 04/06/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Bindoli A, Rigobello MP. Principles in redox signaling: from chemistry to functional significance. Antioxid Redox Signal 2013; 18:1557-93. [PMID: 23244515 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2012.4655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are currently considered not only harmful byproducts of aerobic respiration but also critical mediators of redox signaling. The molecules and the chemical principles sustaining the network of cellular redox regulated processes are described. Special emphasis is placed on hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)), now considered as acting as a second messenger, and on sulfhydryl groups, which are the direct targets of the oxidant signal. Cysteine residues of some proteins, therefore, act as sensors of redox conditions and are oxidized in a reversible reaction. In particular, the formation of sulfenic acid and disulfide, the initial steps of thiol oxidation, are described in detail. The many cell pathways involved in reactive oxygen species formation are reported. Central to redox signaling processes are the glutathione and thioredoxin systems controlling H(2)O(2) levels and, hence, the thiol/disulfide balance. Lastly, some of the most important redox-regulated processes involving specific enzymes and organelles are described. The redox signaling area of research is rapidly expanding, and future work will examine new pathways and clarify their importance in cellular pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Bindoli
- Institute of Neuroscience (CNR), Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Padova, Padova, Italy.
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Glutaredoxins (Grxs) are small oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin family of proteins regulating the thiol redox state of several proteins. Thereby, Grxs are key elements in redox signaling. RECENT ADVANCES Redox signaling via protein thiols depends on reversible oxidative modifications induced mainly by reactive oxygen/nitrogen species and glutathione (GSH) in form of its oxidized disulfide or S-nitroso-glutathione. Grxs contribute to redox signaling by the catalysis of glutathionylation, de-glutathionylation, as well as reduction of disulfide bridges via two distinct enzymatic mechanisms. The dithiol mechanism utilizes both active site cysteines to reduce disulfides, whereas the monothiol mechanism utilizes only the N-terminal active site cysteine for the reduction of GSH mixed disulfides. The sphere of action of Grxs continues to grow with the recent identification of novel targets. CRITICAL ISSUES Because of limited methodological tools, the identification of new substrates for oxidoreductases in general is one of the biggest challenges in this research area. FUTURE DIRECTIONS With this review, we provide a condensed summary of the current knowledge of thiol/disulfide exchange reactions catalyzed by Grxs regarding the mechanistic, structural, and functional aspects. The latter will be of high importance for future research directions, gaining novel insights into redox signaling in general, and the role of Grxs in particular.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Horst Lillig
- Institut für Biochemie und Molekularbiologie, Universitätsmedizin Greifswald, Ernst Moritz Arndt-Universität Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany
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13
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Abstract
Many proteins contain free thiols that can be modified by the reversible formation of mixed disulfides with glutathione. Protein glutathionylation is of significance for defense against oxidative damage and in redox signaling. Here we outline the mechanisms and possible significance of protein glutathionylation.
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Heverly-Coulson GS, Boyd RJ, Mó O, Yáñez M. Revealing Unexpected Mechanisms for Nucleophilic Attack on SS and SeSe Bridges. Chemistry 2013; 19:3629-38. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201203328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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15
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de Marco A. Strategies for successful recombinant expression of disulfide bond-dependent proteins in Escherichia coli. Microb Cell Fact 2009; 8:26. [PMID: 19442264 PMCID: PMC2689190 DOI: 10.1186/1475-2859-8-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2009] [Accepted: 05/14/2009] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria are simple and cost effective hosts for producing recombinant proteins. However, their physiological features may limit their use for obtaining in native form proteins of some specific structural classes, such as for instance polypeptides that undergo extensive post-translational modifications. To some extent, also the production of proteins that depending on disulfide bridges for their stability has been considered difficult in E. coli. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic organisms keep their cytoplasm reduced and, consequently, disulfide bond formation is impaired in this subcellular compartment. Disulfide bridges can stabilize protein structure and are often present in high abundance in secreted proteins. In eukaryotic cells such bonds are formed in the oxidizing environment of endoplasmic reticulum during the export process. Bacteria do not possess a similar specialized subcellular compartment, but they have both export systems and enzymatic activities aimed at the formation and at the quality control of disulfide bonds in the oxidizing periplasm. This article reviews the available strategies for exploiting the physiological mechanisms of bactera to produce properly folded disulfide-bonded proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ario de Marco
- Cogentech, IFOM-IEO Campus for Oncogenomic, via Adamello, 16 - 20139, Milano, Italy.
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16
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Oxidation of cysteine 645 of cobalamin-independent methionine synthase causes a methionine limitation in Escherichia coli. J Bacteriol 2009; 191:3407-10. [PMID: 19286805 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01722-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cobalamin-independent methionine synthase (MetE) catalyzes the final step in Escherichia coli methionine biosynthesis but is inactivated under oxidative conditions, triggering a methionine deficiency. This study demonstrates that the mutation of MetE cysteine 645 to alanine completely eliminates the methionine auxotrophy imposed by diamide treatment, suggesting that modulation of MetE activity via cysteine 645 oxidation has significant physiological consequences for oxidatively stressed cells.
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Kalinina EV, Chernov NN, Saprin AN. Involvement of thio-, peroxi-, and glutaredoxins in cellular redox-dependent processes. BIOCHEMISTRY (MOSCOW) 2009; 73:1493-510. [DOI: 10.1134/s0006297908130099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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Lillig CH, Berndt C, Holmgren A. Glutaredoxin systems. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2008; 1780:1304-17. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2008.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 416] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 06/11/2008] [Accepted: 06/11/2008] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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19
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Lönn ME, Hudemann C, Berndt C, Cherkasov V, Capani F, Holmgren A, Lillig CH. Expression pattern of human glutaredoxin 2 isoforms: identification and characterization of two testis/cancer cell-specific isoforms. Antioxid Redox Signal 2008; 10:547-57. [PMID: 18092940 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2007.1821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The cellular redox state is associated with major cellular processes including differentiation, transformation, and apoptosis. Glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) is a mitochondrial oxidoreductase suggested to play a critical role in protection against apoptotic stimuli. An alternative Grx2 transcript variant encoding a nonmitochondrial protein (Grx2b) was proposed before, but no data was available on the expression of this isoform. We have systematically investigated the expression of Grx2 transcript variants in human tissues and transformed cell lines. The transcript variant encoding mitochondrial Grx2 (Grx2a) was found to be ubiquitously expressed, emphasizing the general importance of the protein for mitochondrial redox homeostasis. In addition, we confirmed the previously suggested isoform Grx2b and identified a new third isoform (Grx2c) derived from alternative splicing of the Grx2b-encoding transcript. In normal tissue expression of both Grx2b and Grx2c was restricted to testes, but additionally we were able to demonstrate transcripts in various cancer cell lines. Both Grx2b and Grx2c are enzymatically active, but only Grx2c can complex the regulatory iron-sulfur cluster described for Grx2a. Expression of GFP fusion proteins suggested a cytosolic and nuclear localization of both Grx2b and Grx2c. Our findings provide the first evidence for functions of Grx2 outside mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Elisabet Lönn
- The Medical Nobel Institute for Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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20
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Berndt C, Lillig CH, Holmgren A. Thioredoxins and glutaredoxins as facilitators of protein folding. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2008; 1783:641-50. [PMID: 18331844 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2008.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2008] [Revised: 02/05/2008] [Accepted: 02/06/2008] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase systems of bacterial cytoplasm and eukaryotic cytosol favor reducing conditions and protein thiol groups, while bacterial periplasm and eukaryotic endoplasmatic reticulum provide oxidizing conditions and a machinery for disulfide bond formation in the secretory pathway. Oxidoreductases of the thioredoxin fold superfamily catalyze steps in oxidative protein folding via protein-protein interactions and covalent catalysis to act as chaperones and isomerases of disulfides to generate a native fold. The active site dithiol/disulfide of thioredoxin fold proteins is CXXC where variations of the residues inside the disulfide ring are known to increase the redox potential like in protein disulfide isomerases. In the catalytic mechanism thioredoxin fold proteins bind to target proteins through conserved backbone-backbone hydrogen bonds and induce conformational changes of the target disulfide followed by nucleophilic attack by the N-terminally located low pK(a) Cys residue. This generates a mixed disulfide covalent bond which subsequently is resolved by attack from the C-terminally located Cys residue. This review will focus on two members of the thioredoxin superfamily of proteins known to be crucial for maintaining a reduced intracellular redox state, thioredoxin and glutaredoxin, and their potential functions as facilitators and regulators of protein folding and chaperone activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Berndt
- The Medical Nobel Institute for Biochemistry, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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21
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Berndt C, Lillig CH, Holmgren A. Thiol-based mechanisms of the thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems: implications for diseases in the cardiovascular system. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2006; 292:H1227-36. [PMID: 17172268 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.01162.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 250] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the cellular thiol redox state are crucial mediators of multiple cell processes like growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Excessive ROS production or oxidative stress is associated with several diseases, including cardiovascular disorders like ischemia-reperfusion. To prevent ROS-induced disorders, the heart is equipped with effective antioxidant systems. Key players in defense against oxidative stress are members of the thioredoxin-fold family of proteins. Of these, thioredoxins and glutaredoxins maintain a reduced intracellular redox state in mammalian cells by the reduction of protein thiols. The reversible oxidation of Cys-Gly-Pro-Cys or Cys-Pro(Ser)-Tyr-Cys active site cysteine residues is used in reversible electron transport. Thioredoxins and glutaredoxins belong to corresponding systems consisting of NADPH, thioredoxin reductase, and thioredoxin or NADPH, glutathione reductase, glutathione, and glutaredoxin, respectively. Thioredoxin as well as glutaredoxin activities appear to be very important for the progression and severity of several cardiovascular disorders. These proteins function not only as antioxidants, they inhibit or activate apoptotic signaling molecules like apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 and Ras or transcription factors like NF-kappaB. Thioredoxin activity is regulated by the endogenous inhibitor thioredoxin-binding protein 2 (TBP-2), indicating an important role of the balance between thioredoxin and TBP-2 levels in cardiovascular diseases. In this review, we will summarize cardioprotective effects of endogenous thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems as well as the high potential in clinical applications of exogenously applied thioredoxin or glutaredoxin or the induction of endogenous thioredoxin and glutaredoxin systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Berndt
- The Medical Nobel Inst for Biochemistry, Dept of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Inst, SE-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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22
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Abstract
A large number of proteins contain free thiols that can be modified by the formation of internal disulphides or by mixed disulphides with low-molecular-mass thiols. The majority of these latter modifications result from the interaction of protein thiols with the endogenous glutathione pool. Protein glutathionylation and disulphide formation are of significance both for defence against oxidative damage and in redox signalling. As mitochondria are central to both oxidative damage and redox signalling within the cell, these modifications of mitochondrial proteins are of particular importance. In the present study, we review the mechanisms and physiological significance of these processes.
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Hurd TR, Costa NJ, Dahm CC, Beer SM, Brown SE, Filipovska A, Murphy MP. Glutathionylation of mitochondrial proteins. Antioxid Redox Signal 2005; 7:999-1010. [PMID: 15998254 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2005.7.999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 165] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Many proteins contain free thiols that can be modified by the reversible formation of mixed disulfides with low-molecular-weight thiols through a process called S-thiolation. As the majority of these modifications result from the interaction of protein thiols with the endogenous glutathione pool, protein glutathionylation is the predominant alteration. Protein glutathionylation is of significance both for defense against oxidative damage and in redox signaling. As mitochondria are at the heart of both oxidative damage and redox signaling within the cell, the glutathionylation of mitochondrial proteins is of particular importance. Here we review the mechanisms and physiological significance of the glutathionylation of mitochondrial thiol proteins.
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Xiao R, Lundström-Ljung J, Holmgren A, Gilbert HF. Catalysis of thiol/disulfide exchange. Glutaredoxin 1 and protein-disulfide isomerase use different mechanisms to enhance oxidase and reductase activities. J Biol Chem 2005; 280:21099-106. [PMID: 15814611 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m411476200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaredoxin (Grx) and protein-disulfide isomerase (PDI) are members of the thioredoxin superfamily of thiol/disulfide exchange catalysts. Thermodynamically, rat PDI is a 600-fold better oxidizing agent than Grx1 from Escherichia coli. Despite that, Grx1 is a surprisingly good protein oxidase. It catalyzes protein disulfide formation in a redox buffer with an initial velocity that is 30-fold faster than PDI. Catalysis of protein and peptide oxidation by the individual catalytic domains of PDI and by a Grx1-PDI chimera show that differences in active site chemistry are fundamental to their oxidase activity. Mutations in the active site cysteines reveal that Grx1 needs only one cysteine to catalyze rapid substrate oxidation, whereas PDI requires both cysteines. Grx1 is a good oxidase because of the high reactivity of a Grx1-glutathione mixed disulfide, and PDI is a good oxidase because of the high reactivity of the disulfide between the two active site cysteines. As a protein disulfide reductase, Grx1 is also superior to PDI. It catalyzes the reduction of nonnative disulfides in scrambled ribonuclease and protein-glutathione mixed disulfides 30-180 times faster than PDI. A multidomain structure is necessary for PDI to catalyze effective protein reduction; however, placing Grx1 into the PDI multidomain structure does not enhance its already high reductase activity. Grx1 and PDI have both found mechanisms to enhance active site reactivity toward proteins, particularly in the kinetically difficult direction: Grx1 by providing a reactive glutathione mixed disulfide to supplement its oxidase activity and PDI by utilizing its multidomain structure to supplement its reductase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruoyu Xiao
- Verna and Marrs McLean Department of Biochemistry, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas 77030, USA
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25
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Beer SM, Taylor ER, Brown SE, Dahm CC, Costa NJ, Runswick MJ, Murphy MP. Glutaredoxin 2 Catalyzes the Reversible Oxidation and Glutathionylation of Mitochondrial Membrane Thiol Proteins. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:47939-51. [PMID: 15347644 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m408011200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The redox poise of the mitochondrial glutathione pool is central in the response of mitochondria to oxidative damage and redox signaling, but the mechanisms are uncertain. One possibility is that the oxidation of glutathione (GSH) to glutathione disulfide (GSSG) and the consequent change in the GSH/GSSG ratio causes protein thiols to change their redox state, enabling protein function to respond reversibly to redox signals and oxidative damage. However, little is known about the interplay between the mitochondrial glutathione pool and protein thiols. Therefore we investigated how physiological GSH/GSSG ratios affected the redox state of mitochondrial membrane protein thiols. Exposure to oxidized GSH/GSSG ratios led to the reversible oxidation of reactive protein thiols by thiol-disulfide exchange, the extent of which was dependent on the GSH/GSSG ratio. There was an initial rapid phase of protein thiol oxidation, followed by gradual oxidation over 30 min. A large number of mitochondrial proteins contain reactive thiols and most of these formed intraprotein disulfides upon oxidation by GSSG; however, a small number formed persistent mixed disulfides with glutathione. Both protein disulfide formation and glutathionylation were catalyzed by the mitochondrial thiol transferase glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2), as were protein deglutathionylation and the reduction of protein disulfides by GSH. Complex I was the most prominent protein that was persistently glutathionylated by GSSG in the presence of Grx2. Maintenance of complex I with an oxidized GSH/GSSG ratio led to a dramatic loss of activity, suggesting that oxidation of the mitochondrial glutathione pool may contribute to the selective complex I inactivation seen in Parkinson's disease. Most significantly, Grx2 catalyzed reversible protein glutathionylation/deglutathionylation over a wide range of GSH/GSSG ratios, from the reduced levels accessible under redox signaling to oxidized ratios only found under severe oxidative stress. Our findings indicate that Grx2 plays a central role in the response of mitochondria to both redox signals and oxidative stress by facilitating the interplay between the mitochondrial glutathione pool and protein thiols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha M Beer
- Medical Research Council Dunn Human Nutrition Unit, Wellcome Trust-MRC Building, Hills Road, Cambridge CB2 2XY, United Kingdom
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26
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Lundberg M, Fernandes AP, Kumar S, Holmgren A. Cellular and plasma levels of human glutaredoxin 1 and 2 detected by sensitive ELISA systems. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2004; 319:801-9. [PMID: 15184054 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.04.199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2004] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Glutaredoxins (Grx) catalyze glutathione-dependent thiol-disulfide oxidoreduction reactions. Mammalian cells contain at least two dithiol glutaredoxins, the well-characterized cytoplasmic (12kDa) Grx1 and the recently identified (18kDa) Grx2 with mitochondrial and nuclear isoforms. We have developed two sensitive and specific sandwich ELISAs to study the levels of human Grx1 and Grx2. Both Grx1 and Grx2 were present in placenta extracts and in cell lysates prepared from various tumor cell lines. However, the levels of Grx1 were at least 20 times higher than those of Grx2. Plasma from healthy blood donors contained 13.4+/-7.9ng/ml of Grx1, while Grx2 was not detected. Unstimulated peripheral blood mononuclear cells were shown to secrete Grx1, but upon 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate activation, the secretion of Grx1 was strongly suppressed. This effect was shown to occur at the transcriptional level. The secretion of Grx1 and its presence in plasma suggests extracellular functions as found for mammalian thioredoxin 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Lundberg
- Medical Nobel Institute for Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, S-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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27
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Silvennoinen L, Myllyharju J, Ruoppolo M, Orrù S, Caterino M, Kivirikko KI, Koivunen P. Identification and Characterization of Structural Domains of Human ERp57. J Biol Chem 2004; 279:13607-15. [PMID: 14732712 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m313054200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The amino acid sequence of ERp57, which functions in the endoplasmic reticulum together with the lectins calreticulin and calnexin to achieve folding of newly synthesized glycoproteins, is highly similar to that of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI), but they have their own distinct roles in protein folding. We have characterized the domain structure of ERp57 by limited proteolysis and N-terminal sequencing and have found it to be similar but not identical to that of PDI. ERp57 had three major protease-sensitive regions, the first of which was located between residues 120 and 150, the second between 201 and 215, and the third between 313 and 341, the data thus being consistent with a four-domain structure abb'a'. Recombinant expression in Escherichia coli was used to verify the domain boundaries. Each single domain and a b'a' double domain could be produced in the form of soluble, folded polypeptides, as verified by circular dichroism spectra and urea gradient gel electrophoresis. When the ability of ERp57 and its a and a' domains to fold denatured RNase A was studied by electrospray mass analyses, ERp57 markedly enhanced the folding rate at early time points, although less effectively than PDI, but was an ineffective catalyst of the overall process. The a and a' domains produced only minor, if any, increases in the folding rate at the early stages and no increase at the late stages. Interaction of the soluble ERp57 domains with the P domain of calreticulin was studied by chemical cross-linking in vitro. None of the single ERp57 domains nor the b'a' double domain could be cross-linked to the P domain, whereas cross-linking was obtained with a hybrid ERpabb'PDIa'c polypeptide but not with ERpabPDIb'a'c, indicating that multiple domains are involved in this protein-protein interaction and that the b' domain of ERp57 cannot be replaced by that of PDI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Silvennoinen
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oulu, PO Box 5000, FIN-90014 Oulu, Finland
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28
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Costa NJ, Dahm CC, Hurrell F, Taylor ER, Murphy MP. Interactions of mitochondrial thiols with nitric oxide. Antioxid Redox Signal 2003; 5:291-305. [PMID: 12880484 DOI: 10.1089/152308603322110878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of nitric oxide (NO) with mitochondria is of pathological significance and is also a potential mechanism for the regulation of mitochondrial function. Some of the ways in which NO may affect mitochondria are by reacting with low-molecular-weight thiols such as glutathione and with protein thiols. However, the detailed mechanisms and the consequences of these interactions for mitochondria are uncertain. Here we review mitochondrial thiol metabolism, outline how NO and its metabolites interact with thiols, and discuss the implications of these reactions for mitochondrial and cell function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola J Costa
- Human Nutrition Unit, Wellcome Trust/MRC Building, Cambridge, UK
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29
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Ruoppolo M, Orrù S, Talamo F, Ljung J, Pirneskoski A, Kivirikko KI, Marino G, Koivunen P. Mutations in domain a' of protein disulfide isomerase affect the folding pathway of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A. Protein Sci 2003; 12:939-52. [PMID: 12717017 PMCID: PMC2323865 DOI: 10.1110/ps.0242803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI, EC 5.3.4.1), an enzyme and chaperone, catalyses disulfide bond formation and rearrangements in protein folding. It is also a subunit in two proteins, the enzyme collagen prolyl 4-hydroxylase and the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein. It consists of two catalytically active domains, a and a', and two inactive ones, b and b', all four domains having the thioredoxin fold. Domain b' contains the primary peptide binding site, but a' is also critical for several of the major PDI functions. Mass spectrometry was used here to follow the folding pathway of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase A) in the presence of three PDI mutants, F449R, Delta455-457, and abb', and the individual domains a and a'. The first two mutants contained alterations in the last alpha helix of domain a', while the third lacked the entire domain a'. All mutants produced genuine, correctly folded RNase A, but the appearance rate of 50% of the product, as compared to wild-type PDI, was reduced 2.5-fold in the case of PDI Delta455-457, 7.5-fold to eightfold in the cases of PDI F449R and PDI abb', and over 15-fold in the cases of the individual domains a and a'. In addition, PDI F449R and PDI abb' affected the distribution of folding intermediates. Domains a and a' catalyzed the early steps in the folding but no disulfide rearrangements, and therefore the rate observed in the presence of these individual domains was similar to that of the spontaneous process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Ruoppolo
- Dipartimento di Biochimica e Biotecnologie Mediche, School of Biotechnological Sciences, Università degli Studi di Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy.
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30
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Narayan M, Welker E, Scheraga HA. Native conformational tendencies in unfolded polypeptides: development of a novel method to assess native conformational tendencies in the reduced forms of multiple disulfide-bonded proteins. J Am Chem Soc 2003; 125:2036-7. [PMID: 12590517 DOI: 10.1021/ja021252y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative folding is the concomitant formation of the native disulfide bonds and the native tertiary structure from the reduced and unfolded polypeptide. Of interest is the inherent conformational tendency (bias) present in the reduced polypeptide to dictate the formation of the full set of native disulfide bonds. Here, by application of a novel tool, we have been able to assess this "native conformational tendency" present in reduced and unfolded bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A (RNase A). The essence of this method lies in the ability of the oxidant [Pt(en)(2)Cl(2)](2+) (where "en" is ethylenediamine) to oxidize disulfide bonds under conditions in which both reduction and disulfide reshuffling, which are essential for rearranging non-native disulfide bonds, are extremely slow. When applied to RNase A, the method revealed little or no bias toward formation of the full native set of disulfide bonds in the fully reduced protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahesh Narayan
- Baker Laboratory of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, USA
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31
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Ramjit HG. Kinetics of Disulphide–Disulphide Interchange Reactions in Polysulphide Polymers by Mass Spectrometry. I. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2003. [DOI: 10.1081/ma-120017257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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32
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Shenton D, Perrone G, Quinn KA, Dawes IW, Grant CM. Regulation of protein S-thiolation by glutaredoxin 5 in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:16853-9. [PMID: 11882660 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m200559200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The irreversible oxidation of cysteine residues can be prevented by protein S-thiolation, a process by which protein -SH groups form mixed disulfides with low molecular weight thiols such as glutathione. We report here that this protein modification is not a simple response to the cellular redox state, since different oxidants lead to different patterns of protein S-thiolation. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis shows that glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) is the major target for modification following treatment with hydroperoxides (hydrogen peroxide or tert-butylhydroperoxide), whereas this enzyme is unaffected following cellular exposure to the thiol oxidant diamide. Further evidence that protein S-thiolation is tightly regulated in response to oxidative stress is provided by the finding that the Tdh3 GAPDH isoenzyme, and not the Tdh2 isoenzyme, is S-thiolated following exposure to H(2)O(2) in vivo, whereas both GAPDH isoenzymes are S-thiolated when H(2)O(2) is added to cell-free extracts. This indicates that cellular factors are likely to be responsible for the difference in GAPDH S-thiolation observed in vivo rather than intrinsic structural differences between the GAPDH isoenzymes. To begin to search for factors that can regulate the S-thiolation process, we investigated the role of the glutaredoxin family of oxidoreductases. We provide the first evidence that protein dethiolation in vivo is regulated by a monothiol-glutaredoxin rather than the classical glutaredoxins, which contain two active site cysteine residues. In particular, glutaredoxin 5 is required for efficient dethiolation of the Tdh3 GAPDH isoenzyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Shenton
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology, Manchester M60 1QD, United Kingdom
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33
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Xia B, Vlamis-Gardikas A, Holmgren A, Wright PE, Dyson HJ. Solution structure of Escherichia coli glutaredoxin-2 shows similarity to mammalian glutathione-S-transferases. J Mol Biol 2001; 310:907-18. [PMID: 11453697 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.2001.4721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Glutaredoxin 2 (Grx2) from Escherichia coli is distinguished from other glutaredoxins by its larger size, low overall sequence identity and lack of electron donor activity with ribonucleotide reductase. However, catalysis of glutathione (GSH)-dependent general disulfide reduction by Grx2 is extremely efficient. The high-resolution solution structure of E. coli Grx2 shows a two-domain protein, with residues 1 to 72 forming a classical "thioredoxin-fold" glutaredoxin domain, connected by an 11 residue linker to the highly helical C-terminal domain, residues 84 to 215. The active site, Cys9-Pro10-Tyr11-Cys12, is buried in the interface between the two domains, but Cys9 is solvent-accessible, consistent with its role in catalysis. The structures reveal the hither to unknown fact that Grx2 is structurally similar to glutathione-S-transferases (GST), although there is no obvious sequence homology. The similarity of these structures gives important insights into the functional significance of a new class of mammalian GST-like proteins, the single-cysteine omega class, which have glutaredoxin oxidoreductase activity rather than GSH-S-transferase conjugating activity. E. coli Grx 2 is structurally and functionally a member of this new expanding family of large glutaredoxins. The primary function of Grx2 as a GST-like glutaredoxin is to catalyze reversible glutathionylation of proteins with GSH in cellular redox regulation including stress responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Xia
- Department of Molecular Biology and Skaggs Institute of Chemical Biology, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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34
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Lundberg M, Johansson C, Chandra J, Enoksson M, Jacobsson G, Ljung J, Johansson M, Holmgren A. Cloning and expression of a novel human glutaredoxin (Grx2) with mitochondrial and nuclear isoforms. J Biol Chem 2001; 276:26269-75. [PMID: 11297543 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m011605200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 256] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutaredoxin (Grx) is a glutathione-dependent hydrogen donor for ribonucleotide reductase. Today glutaredoxins are known as a multifunctional family of GSH-disulfide-oxidoreductases belonging to the thioredoxin fold superfamily. In contrast to Escherichia coli and yeast, a single human glutaredoxin is known. We have identified and cloned a novel 18-kDa human dithiol glutaredoxin, named glutaredoxin-2 (Grx2), which is 34% identical to the previously known cytosolic 12-kDa human Grx1. The human Grx2 sequence contains three characteristic regions of the glutaredoxin family: the dithiol/disulfide active site, CSYC, the GSH binding site, and a hydrophobic surface area. The human Grx2 gene, located at chromosome 1q31.2--31.3, consisted of five exons that were transcribed to a 0.9-kilobase human Grx2 mRNA ubiquitously expressed in several tissues. Two alternatively spliced Grx2 mRNA isoforms that differed in their 5' region were identified. These corresponded to alternative proteins with a common 125-residue C-terminal Grx domain but with different N-terminal extensions of 39 and 40 residues, respectively. The 125-residue Grx domain and the two full-length variants were expressed in E. coli and exhibited GSH-dependent hydroxyethyl disulfide and dehydroascorbate reducing activities. Western blot analysis of subcellular fractions from Jurkat cells with a specific anti-Grx2 antibody showed that human Grx2 was predominantly located in the nucleus but also present in the mitochondria. We further showed that one of the mRNA isoforms corresponding to Grx2a encoded a functional N-terminal mitochondrial translocation signal.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Lundberg
- Medical Nobel Institute for Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institute, S-17177 Stockholm, Sweden
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35
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Orrù S, Vitagliano L, Esposito L, Mazzarella L, Marino G, Ruoppolo M. Effect of deamidation on folding of ribonuclease A. Protein Sci 2000; 9:2577-82. [PMID: 11206080 PMCID: PMC2144509 DOI: 10.1110/ps.9.12.2577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The folding of ribonuclease A (RNase A) has been extensively studied by characterizing the disulfide containing intermediates using different experimental conditions and analytical techniques. So far, some aspects still remain unclear such as the role of the loop 65-72 in the folding pathway. We have studied the oxidative folding of a RNase A derivative containing at position 67 the substitution Asn --> isoAsp where the local structure of the loop 65-72 has been modified keeping intact the C65-C72 disulfide bond. By comparing the folding behavior of this mutant to that of the wild-type protein, we found that the deamidation significantly decreases the folding rate and alters the folding pathway of RNase A. Results presented here shed light on the role of the 65-72 region in the folding process of RNase A and also clarifies the effect of the deamidation on the folding/unfolding processes. On a more general ground, this study represents the first characterization of the intermediates produced along the folding of a deamidated protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Orrù
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Università degli Studi di Salerno, Italy
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36
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Hidaka Y, Shimono C, Ohno M, Okumura N, Adermann K, Forssmann WG, Shimonishi Y. Dual function of the propeptide of prouroguanylin in the folding of the mature peptide: disulfide-coupled folding and dimerization. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:25155-62. [PMID: 10827170 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m000543200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Guanylyl cyclase activating peptide II (GCAP-II), an endogenous ligand of guanylyl cyclase C, is produced via the processing of the precursor protein (prepro-GCAP-II). We have previously shown that the propeptide in pro-GCAP-II functions as an intramolecular chaperone in the proper folding of the mature peptide, GCAP-II (Hidaka, Y., Ohno, M., Hemmasi, B., Hill, O., Forssmann, W.-G., and Shimonishi, Y. (1998) Biochemistry 37, 8498-8507). Here, we report an essential region in pro-GCAP-II for the correct disulfide pairing of the mature peptide, GCAP-II. Five mutant proteins, in which amino acid residues were sequentially deleted from the N terminus, and three mutant proteins of pro-GCAP-II, in which N-terminal 6, 11, or 17 amino acid residues were deleted, were overproduced using Escherichia coli or human kidney 293T cells, respectively. Detailed analysis of in vivo or in vitro folding of these mutant proteins revealed that one or two amino acid residues at the N terminus of pro-GCAP-II are critical, not only for the chaperone function in the folding but also for the net stabilization of pro-GCAP-II. In addition, size exclusion chromatography revealed that pro-GCAP-II exists as a dimer in solution. These data indicate that the propeptide has two roles in proper folding: the disulfide-coupled folding of the mature region and the dimerization of pro-GCAP-II.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Hidaka
- Division of Organic Chemistry and Division of Protein Metabolism, Institute for Protein Research, Osaka University, Suita, Japan.
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37
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Shin HC, Scheraga HA. Catalysis of the oxidative folding of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A by protein disulfide isomerase. J Mol Biol 2000; 300:995-1003. [PMID: 10891284 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.2000.3928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The major oxidative folding pathways of bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A at pH 8.0 and 25 degrees C involve a pre-equilibrium steady state among ensembles of intermediates with zero, one, two, three and four disulfide bonds. The rate-determining steps are the reshuffling of the unstructured three-disulfide ensemble to two native-like three-disulfide species, des-[65-72] and des-[40-95], that convert to the native structure during oxidative formation of the fourth disulfide bond. Under the same regeneration conditions, with oxidized and reduced DTT, used previously for kinetic oxidative-folding studies of this protein, the addition of 4 microM protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) was found to lead to catalysis of each disulfide-formation step, including the rate-limiting rearrangement steps in which the native-like intermediates des-[65-72] and des-[40-95] are formed. The changes in the distribution of intermediates were also determined in the presence and absence of PDI at three different temperatures (with the DTT redox system) as well as at 25 degrees C (with the glutathione redox system). The results indicate that the acceleration of the formation of native protein by PDI, which we observed earlier, is due to PDI catalysis of each of the intermediate steps without changing the overall pathways or folding mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- H C Shin
- Baker Laboratory of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Ithaca, NY, 14853-1301, USA
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38
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Vinci F, Ruoppolo M, Pucci P, Freedman RB, Marino G. Early intermediates in the PDI-assisted folding of ribonuclease A. Protein Sci 2000; 9:525-35. [PMID: 10752614 PMCID: PMC2144577 DOI: 10.1110/ps.9.3.525] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The oxidative refolding of ribonuclease A has been investigated in several experimental conditions using a variety of redox systems. All these studies agree that the formation of disulfide bonds during the process occurs through a nonrandom mechanism with a preferential coupling of certain cysteine residues. We have previously demonstrated that in the presence of glutathione the refolding process occurs through the reiteration of two sequential reactions: a mixed disulfide with glutathione is produced first which evolves to form an intramolecular S-S bond. In the same experimental conditions, protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) was shown to catalyze formation and reduction of mixed disulfides with glutathione as well as formation of intramolecular S-S bonds. This paper reports the structural characterization of the one-disulfide intermediate population during the oxidative refolding of Ribonuclease A under the presence of PDI and glutathione with the aim of defining the role of the enzyme at the early stages of the reaction. The one-disulfide intermediate population occurring at the early stages of both the uncatalyzed and the PDI-catalyzed refolding was purified and structurally characterized by proteolytic digestion followed by MALDI-MS and LC/ESIMS analyses. In the uncatalyzed refolding, a total of 12 disulfide bonds out of the 28 theoretical possible cysteine couplings was observed, confirming a nonrandom distribution of native and nonnative disulfide bonds. Under the presence of PDI, only two additional nonnative disulfides were detected. Semiquantitative LC/ESIMS analysis of the distribution of the S-S bridged peptides showed that the most abundant species were equally populated in both the uncatalyzed and the catalyzed process. This paper shows the first structural characterization of the one-disulfide intermediate population formed transiently during the refolding of ribonuclease A in quasi-physiological conditions that mimic those present in the ER lumen. At the early stages of the process, three of the four native disulfides are detected, whereas the Cys26-Cys84 pairing is absent. Most of the nonnative disulfide bonds identified are formed by nearest-neighboring cysteines. The presence of PDI does not significantly alter the distribution of S-S bonds, suggesting that the ensemble of single-disulfide species is formed under thermodynamic control.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Vinci
- Dipartimento di Chimica Università degli Studi di Salerno, Italy
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39
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Roux P, Ruoppolo M, Chaffotte AF, Goldberg ME. Comparison of the kinetics of S-S bond, secondary structure, and active site formation during refolding of reduced denatured hen egg white lysozyme. Protein Sci 1999; 8:2751-60. [PMID: 10631992 PMCID: PMC2144241 DOI: 10.1110/ps.8.12.2751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the role of some tertiary interactions, the disulfide bonds, in the early stages of refolding of hen lysozyme, we report the kinetics of reoxidation of denatured and reduced lysozyme under the same refolding conditions as those previously used to investigate the kinetics of regain of its circular dichroism (CD), fluorescence, and activity. At different stages of the refolding, the oxidation of the protein was blocked by alkylation of the free cysteines with iodoacetamide and the various oxidation states present in the samples were identified by electrospray-mass spectrometry. Thus, it was possible to monitor the appearance and/or disappearance of the species with 0 to 4 disulfide bonds. Using a simulation program, these kinetics were compared with those of regain of far-UV CD, fluorescence, and enzymatic activity and were discussed in terms of a refined model for the refolding of reduced hen egg white lysozyme.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Roux
- Unité de Biochimie Cellulaire (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique: CNRS URA 1129), Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
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40
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Lundström-Ljung J, Vlamis-Gardikas A, Aslund F, Holmgren A. Reactivity of glutaredoxins 1, 2 and 3 from Escherichia coli and protein disulfide isomerase towards glutathionyl-mixed disulfides in ribonuclease A. FEBS Lett 1999; 443:85-8. [PMID: 9989580 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(98)01698-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We have examined the activity of protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) and glutaredoxin (Grx) 1, 2 and 3 from Escherichia coli to catalyze the cleavage of glutathionylated ribonuclease A (RNase-SG) by 1 mM GSH to yield reduced RNase. Apparent Km values for RNase-SG were similar, 2-10 microM, for Grx 1, 3 and PDI but Grx I and Grx 3 showed 500-fold higher turnover numbers than PDI. The atypical Grx 2 also catalyzed deglutathionylation by GSH, but had higher Km and apparent turnover number values compared to the two classical Grx. Refolding of RNase in a glutathione redox buffer was catalyzed by PDI. However, it could be measured only after a characteristic lag phase that was shortened by all three E. coli Grxs in a concentration-dependent manner. A role of the glutaredoxin mechanism in the endoplasmic reticulum is suggested.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lundström-Ljung
- Medical Nobel Institute of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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41
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Westphal V, Spetzler JC, Meldal M, Christensen U, Winther JR. Kinetic analysis of the mechanism and specificity of protein-disulfide isomerase using fluorescence-quenched peptides. J Biol Chem 1998; 273:24992-9. [PMID: 9737954 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.273.39.24992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein-disulfide isomerase (PDI) is an abundant folding catalyst in the endoplasmic reticulum of eukaryotic cells. PDI introduces disulfide bonds into newly synthesized proteins and catalyzes disulfide bond isomerizations. We have synthesized a library of disulfide-linked fluorescence-quenched peptides, individually linked to resin beads, for two purposes: 1) to probe PDI specificity, and 2) to identify simple, sensitive peptide substrates of PDI. Using this library, beads that became rapidly fluorescent by reduction by human PDI were selected. Amino acid sequencing of the bead-linked peptides revealed substantial similarities. Several of the peptides were synthesized in solution, and a quantitative characterization of pre-steady state kinetics was carried out. Interestingly, a greater than 10-fold difference in affinity toward PDI was seen for various substrates of identical length. As opposed to conventional PDI assays involving larger polypeptides, the starting material for this assay is homogenous. It is furthermore simple and highly sensitive (requires less than 0.5 microgram of PDI/assay) and thus opens the possibility for quantitative determination of PDI activity and specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Westphal
- Department of Yeast Genetics, Carlsberg Laboratory, Gamle Carlsberg Vej 10, DK-2500 Copenhagen Valby, Denmark
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42
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Kleemann R, Kapurniotu A, Frank RW, Gessner A, Mischke R, Flieger O, Jüttner S, Brunner H, Bernhagen J. Disulfide analysis reveals a role for macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) as thiol-protein oxidoreductase. J Mol Biol 1998; 280:85-102. [PMID: 9653033 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.1998.1864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 238] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The molecular mechanism of action of macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), a cytokine with a critical role in the immune and inflammatory response, has not yet been identified. Here we report that MIF can function as an enzyme exhibiting thiol-protein oxidoreductase activity. Using a decapeptide fragment of MIF (MF1) spanning the conserved cysteine sequence motif Cys57-Ala-Leu-Cys60 (CALC), Cys-->Ser mutants (C57S MIF, C60S MIF, and C57S/C60S MIF) of human MIF (wtMIF), and alkylated wtMIF, we show that this activity is mediated by the CALC region and is important for the macrophage-activating properties of MIF. Both wtMIF and MF1 were demonstrated to form an intramolecular disulfide bridge. Using two common oxidoreductase assays, MIF was shown to enzymatically catalyze the reduction of insulin and 2-hydroxyethyldisulfide (HED). Examination of wtMIF and the mutants by far-UV circular dichroism spectroscopy (CD) together with denaturation studies showed that substituting or reducing the cysteine residues of CALC led to a reduced conformational stability of MIF but did not significantly change its overall conformation. A functional role for the CALC region was revealed by subjecting the mutants and alkylated wtMIF to the enzymatic assays. Mutant C60S did not have any enzymatic activity while mutant C57S had a reduced activity. Thiol-modified wtMIF that was alkylated under oxidizing conditions was found to have full enzymatic activity, whereas alkylation of wtMIF under reducing conditions completely eliminated MIF-mediated redox activity. Importantly, further physiological relevance of the disulfide motif was obtained by examining the mutants and alkylated MIF in an immunological assay that involved the macrophage-activating properties of MIF. In this test, mutant C60S was essentially inactive and mutant C57S was partly active, indicating together that at least some of the cytokine-like biological activities of MIF are dependent on the presence of cysteine 57 and 60. Again, use of the alkylated MIF species confirmed the role of the cysteine motif for this MIF activity. In conclusion, our results argue (a) that MIF exhibits enzymatic oxidoreductase activity, (b) that this activity is dependent on the presence of the catalytic center that is formed by cysteine residues 57 and 60, and (c) that certain MIF-mediated immune processes are due to the cysteine-mediated redox mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Kleemann
- Chair for Interfacial Engineering, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, D-70569, Germany
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43
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald T. Raines
- Departments of Biochemistry and Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706
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44
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Luikenhuis S, Perrone G, Dawes IW, Grant CM. The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae contains two glutaredoxin genes that are required for protection against reactive oxygen species. Mol Biol Cell 1998; 9:1081-91. [PMID: 9571241 PMCID: PMC25331 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.9.5.1081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutaredoxins are small heat-stable proteins that act as glutathione-dependent disulfide oxidoreductases. Two genes, designated GRX1 and GRX2, which share 40-52% identity and 61-76% similarity with glutaredoxins from bacterial and mammalian species, were identified in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Strains deleted for both GRX1 and GRX2 were viable but lacked heat-stable oxidoreductase activity using beta-hydroxyethylene disulfide as a substrate. Surprisingly, despite the high degree of homology between Grx1 and Grx2 (64% identity), the grx1 mutant was unaffected in oxidoreductase activity, whereas the grx2 mutant displayed only 20% of the wild-type activity, indicating that Grx2 accounted for the majority of this activity in vivo. Expression analysis indicated that this difference in activity did not arise as a result of differential expression of GRX1 and GRX2. In addition, a grx1 mutant was sensitive to oxidative stress induced by the superoxide anion, whereas a strain that lacked GRX2 was sensitive to hydrogen peroxide. Sensitivity to oxidative stress was not attributable to altered glutathione metabolism or cellular redox state, which did not vary between these strains. The expression of both genes was similarly elevated under various stress conditions, including oxidative, osmotic, heat, and stationary phase growth. Thus, Grx1 and Grx2 function differently in the cell, and we suggest that glutaredoxins may act as one of the primary defenses against mixed disulfides formed following oxidative damage to proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Luikenhuis
- Cooperative Research Center for Food Industry Innovation, School of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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