1
|
Sun J, Su J, Ma C, Göstl R, Herrmann A, Liu K, Zhang H. Fabrication and Mechanical Properties of Engineered Protein-Based Adhesives and Fibers. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1906360. [PMID: 31805206 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201906360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Revised: 10/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Protein-based structural biomaterials are of great interest for various applications because the sequence flexibility within the proteins may result in their improved mechanical and structural integrity and tunability. As the two representative examples, protein-based adhesives and fibers have attracted tremendous attention. The typical protein adhesives, which are secreted by mussels, sandcastle worms, barnacles, and caddisfly larvae, exhibit robust underwater adhesion performance. In order to mimic the adhesion performance of these marine organisms, two main biological adhesives are presented, including genetically engineered protein-based adhesives and biomimetic chemically synthetized adhesives. Moreover, various protein-based fibers inspired by spider and silkworm proteins, collagen, elastin, and resilin are studied extensively. The achievements in synthesis and fabrication of structural biomaterials by DNA recombinant technology and chemical regeneration certainly will accelerate the explorations and applications of protein-based adhesives and fibers in wound healing, tissue regeneration, drug delivery, biosensors, and other high-tech applications. However, the mechanical properties of the biological structural materials still do not match those of natural systems. More efforts need to be devoted to the study of the interplay of the protein structure, cohesion and adhesion effects, fiber processing, and mechanical performance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 130022, Changchun, China
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Juanjuan Su
- Genetics and Aging Research Unit, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, 02129, USA
| | - Chao Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 130022, Changchun, China
- Zernike Institute for Advanced Materials, Nijenborgh 4, 9747 AG, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Andreas Herrmann
- DWI-Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials, Forckenbeckstr. 50, 52056, Aachen, Germany
| | - Kai Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 130022, Changchun, China
| | - Hongjie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Rare Earth Resource Utilization, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 130022, Changchun, China
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Chabi S, Dikin DA, Yin J, Percec S, Ren F. Structure-Mechanical Property Relations of Skin-Core Regions of Poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) Single Fiber. Sci Rep 2019; 9:740. [PMID: 30679742 PMCID: PMC6345797 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37366-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aims to elucidate the relationship between the mechanical properties and microstructures of poly(p-phenylene terephthalamide) (PPTA) single fibers at the micro/nano scale. The skin-core structure of Kevlar® 29 fiber was revealed through a focused electron beam experiment inside a scanning electron microscope (SEM) chamber. Cross sectional SEM images of the broken fiber showed that the thickness of the skin ranged from 300 to 800 nm and that the core region consisted of highly packed layers of fibrils. The skin and the core regions showed different mechanical behaviour and structural changes during nanoindentation and micro-tensile tests, indicating that the core region possessed higher stiffness, whereas the skin region could undergo more plastic deformation. Furthermore, micro-tensile testing results showed that the ultimate tensile strength, the elongation at failure, and the tensile toughness of single fibers could be significantly enhanced by cyclic loading. Such findings are important to understand the contribution of different microstructures of Kevlar® fibers to their mechanical performance, which in turn can be utilized to design high-performance fibers that are not limited by the trade-off between toughness and stiffness.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh Chabi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19122, United States.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico, 87131, United States
| | - Dmitriy A Dikin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19122, United States
| | - Jie Yin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19122, United States
| | - Simona Percec
- College of Science and Technology, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19122, United States
| | - Fei Ren
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 19122, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jiang C, Lu H, Cao K, Wan W, Shen Y, Lu Y. In Situ SEM Torsion Test of Metallic Glass Microwires Based on Micro Robotic Manipulation. SCANNING 2017; 2017:6215691. [PMID: 29109821 PMCID: PMC5661775 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6215691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Microwires, such as metallic, semiconductor, and polymer microwires and carbon fibers, have stimulated great interest due to their importance in various structural and functional applications. Particularly, metallic glass (MG) microwires, because of their amorphous atoms arrangement, have some unique mechanical properties compared with traditional metals. Despite the fact that substantial research efforts have been made on the mechanical characterizations of metallic glass microwires under tension or flexural bending, the mechanical properties of microwires under torsional loading have not been well studied, mainly due to the experimental difficulties, such as the detection of torsion angle, quantitative measurement of the torsional load, and the alignment between the specimen and torque meter. In this work, we implemented the in situ SEM torsion tests of individual La50Al30Ni20 metallic glass (MG) microwires successfully based on a self-developed micro robotic mechanical testing system. Unprecedented details, such as the revolving vein-pattern along the torsion direction on MG microwires fracture surface, were revealed. Our platform could provide critical insights into understanding the deformation mechanisms of other microwires under torsional loading and can even be further used for robotic micromanufacturing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen Jiang
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Center for Advanced Structural Materials (CASM), Shenzhen Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Haojian Lu
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Ke Cao
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Wenfeng Wan
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Yajing Shen
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Centre for Robotics and Automation, Shenzhen Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Yang Lu
- Department of Mechanical and Biomedical Engineering, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong
- Center for Advanced Structural Materials (CASM), Shenzhen Research Institute, City University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen 518057, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Howell DW, Duran CL, Tsai SP, Bondos SE, Bayless KJ. Functionalization of Ultrabithorax Materials with Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Enhances Angiogenic Activity. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:3558-3569. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David W. Howell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Camille L. Duran
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Shang-Pu Tsai
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Sarah E. Bondos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department
of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Rice University, Houston, Texas 77005, United States
| | - Kayla J. Bayless
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Hsiao HC, Santos A, Howell DW, Patterson JL, Fuchs-Young RS, Bondos SE. Culture of Tumorigenic Cells on Protein Fibers Reveals Metastatic Cell Behaviors. Biomacromolecules 2016; 17:3790-3799. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.6b01311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Ching Hsiao
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| | - Andres Santos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| | - David W. Howell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| | - Jan L. Patterson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| | - Robin S.L. Fuchs-Young
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| | - Sarah E. Bondos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
- Department of Biosciences, Rice University, Houston Texas 77251, United States
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Howell DW, Tsai SP, Churion K, Patterson J, Abbey C, Atkinson JT, Porterpan D, You YH, Meissner KE, Bayless KJ, Bondos SE. Identification of multiple dityrosine bonds in materials composed of the Drosophila protein Ultrabithorax. ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2015; 25:5988-5998. [PMID: 28725173 PMCID: PMC5513195 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201502852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The recombinant protein Ultrabithorax (Ubx), a Drosophila melanogaster Hox transcription factor, self-assembles into biocompatible materials in vitro that are remarkably extensible and strong. Here, we demonstrate that the strength of Ubx materials is due to intermolecular dityrosine bonds. Ubx materials auto-fluoresce blue, a characteristic of dityrosine, and bind dityrosine-specific antibodies. Monitoring the fluorescence of reduced Ubx fibers upon oxygen exposure reveals biphasic bond formation kinetics. Two dityrosine bonds in Ubx were identified by site-directed mutagenesis followed by measurements of fiber fluorescent intensity. One bond is located between the N-terminus and the homeodomain (Y4/Y296 or Y12/Y293), and another bond is formed by Y167 and Y240. Fiber fluorescence closely correlates with fiber strength, demonstrating that these bonds are intermolecular. To our knowledge, this is the first identification of specific residues that participate in dityrosine bonds in protein-based materials. The percentage of Ubx molecules harboring both bonds can be decreased or increased by mutagenesis, providing an additional mechanism to control the mechanical properties of Ubx materials. Duplication of tyrosine-containing motifs in Ubx increases dityrosine content in Ubx fibers, suggesting these motifs could be inserted in other self-assembling proteins to strengthen the corresponding materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David W Howell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Shang-Pu Tsai
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Kelly Churion
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Jan Patterson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Colette Abbey
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Joshua T Atkinson
- Systems, Synthetic, and Physical Biology Graduate Program, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, United States
| | - Dustin Porterpan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Yil-Hwan You
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Kenith E Meissner
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Kayla J Bayless
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| | - Sarah E Bondos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX 77843, United States
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Bondos SE, Swint-Kruse L, Matthews KS. Flexibility and Disorder in Gene Regulation: LacI/GalR and Hox Proteins. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:24669-77. [PMID: 26342073 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.r115.685032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
To modulate transcription, a variety of input signals must be sensed by genetic regulatory proteins. In these proteins, flexibility and disorder are emerging as common themes. Prokaryotic regulators generally have short, flexible segments, whereas eukaryotic regulators have extended regions that lack predicted secondary structure (intrinsic disorder). Two examples illustrate the impact of flexibility and disorder on gene regulation: the prokaryotic LacI/GalR family, with detailed information from studies on LacI, and the eukaryotic family of Hox proteins, with specific insights from investigations of Ultrabithorax (Ubx). The widespread importance of structural disorder in gene regulatory proteins may derive from the need for flexibility in signal response and, particularly in eukaryotes, in protein partner selection.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E Bondos
- From the Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843
| | - Liskin Swint-Kruse
- the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, the University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas 66160, and
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Patterson JL, Arenas-Gamboa AM, Wang TY, Hsiao HC, Howell DW, Pellois JP, Rice-Ficht A, Bondos SE. Materials composed of theDrosophilaHox protein Ultrabithorax are biocompatible and nonimmunogenic. J Biomed Mater Res A 2014; 103:1546-53. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.35295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Revised: 06/25/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jan L. Patterson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine; Texas A&M Health Science Center; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Angela M. Arenas-Gamboa
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine; Texas A&M Health Science Center; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Ting-Yi Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Texas A&M University; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Hao-Ching Hsiao
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine; Texas A&M Health Science Center; College Station Texas 77843
| | - David W. Howell
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine; Texas A&M Health Science Center; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Jean-Philippe Pellois
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Texas A&M University; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Allison Rice-Ficht
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics; Texas A&M University; College Station Texas 77843
| | - Sarah E. Bondos
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine; Texas A&M Health Science Center; College Station Texas 77843
- Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology; Rice University; Houston Texas 77005
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Patterson JL, Abbey CA, Bayless KJ, Bondos SE. Materials composed of the Drosophila melanogaster protein ultrabithorax are cytocompatible. J Biomed Mater Res A 2013; 102:97-104. [PMID: 23596050 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.34675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 02/15/2013] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The Drosophila melanogaster Hox protein ultrabithorax (Ubx) has the interesting ability to hierarchically self-assemble in vitro into materials that have mechanical properties comparable to natural elastin. Ubx materials can be easily functionalized by gene fusion, generating potentially useful scaffolds for cell and tissue engineering. Here, we tested the cytocompatibility of fibers composed of Ubx or an mCherry-Ubx fusion protein. Fibers were cultured with three primary human cell lines derived from vasculature at low passage: umbilical vein endothelial cells, brain vascular pericytes, or aortic smooth muscle cells. No direct or indirect toxicity was observed for any cell line, in response to fibers composed of either plain Ubx or mCherry-Ubx. Cells readily adhered to Ubx fibers, and cells attached to fibers could be transferred between tissue cultures without loss of viability for at least 96 h. When attached to fibers, the morphology of the three cell lines differed somewhat, but all cells in contact with Ubx fibers exhibited a microtubular network aligned with the long axis of Ubx fibers. Thus, Ubx fibers are cytocompatible with cultured primary human vascular cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan L Patterson
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, College of Medicine, Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, Texas 77843-1114
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Teulé F, Addison B, Cooper AR, Ayon J, Henning RW, Benmore CJ, Holland GP, Yarger JL, Lewis RV. Combining flagelliform and dragline spider silk motifs to produce tunable synthetic biopolymer fibers. Biopolymers 2012; 97:418-31. [PMID: 22012252 PMCID: PMC3372544 DOI: 10.1002/bip.21724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Revised: 10/01/2011] [Accepted: 10/02/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
The two Flag/MaSp 2 silk proteins produced recombinantly were based on the basic consensus repeat of the dragline silk spidroin 2 protein (MaSp 2) from the Nephila clavipes orb weaving spider. However, the proline-containing pentapeptides juxtaposed to the polyalanine segments resembled those found in the flagelliform silk protein (Flag) composing the web spiral: (GPGGX(1) GPGGX(2))(2) with X(1) /X(2) = A/A or Y/S. Fibers were formed from protein films in aqueous solutions or extruded from resolubilized protein dopes in organic conditions when the Flag motif was (GPGGX(1) GPGGX(2))(2) with X(1) /X(2) = Y/S or A/A, respectively. Post-fiber processing involved similar drawing ratios (2-2.5×) before or after water-treatment. Structural (ssNMR and XRD) and morphological (SEM) changes in the fibers were compared to the mechanical properties of the fibers at each step. Nuclear magnetic resonance indicated that the fraction of β-sheet nanocrystals in the polyalanine regions formed upon extrusion, increased during stretching, and was maximized after water-treatment. X-ray diffraction showed that nanocrystallite orientation parallel to the fiber axis increased the ultimate strength and initial stiffness of the fibers. Water furthered nanocrystal orientation and three-dimensional growth while plasticizing the amorphous regions, thus producing tougher fibers due to increased extensibility. These fibers were highly hygroscopic and had similar internal network organization, thus similar range of mechanical properties that depended on their diameters. The overall structure of the consensus repeat of the silk-like protein dictated the mechanical properties of the fibers while protein molecular weight limited these same properties. Subtle structural motif re-design impacted protein self-assembly mechanisms and requirements for fiber formation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Florence Teulé
- Department of Biology, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5305, USA.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Majithia R, Patterson J, Bondos SE, Meissner KE. On the design of composite protein-quantum dot biomaterials via self-assembly. Biomacromolecules 2011; 12:3629-37. [PMID: 21892824 DOI: 10.1021/bm200889k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Incorporation of nanoparticles during the hierarchical self-assembly of protein-based materials can impart function to the resulting composite materials. Herein we demonstrate that the structure and nanoparticle distribution of composite fibers are sensitive to the method of nanoparticle addition and the physicochemical properties of both the nanoparticle and the protein. Our model system consists of a recombinant enhanced green fluorescent protein-Ultrabithorax (EGFP-Ubx) fusion protein and luminescent CdSe-ZnS core-shell quantum dots (QDs), allowing us to optically assess the distribution of both the protein and nanoparticle components within the composite material. Although QDs favorably interact with EGFP-Ubx monomers, the relatively rough surface morphology of composite fibers suggests EGFP-Ubx-QD conjugates impact self-assembly. Indeed, QDs templated onto EGFP-Ubx film post-self-assembly can be subsequently drawn into smooth composite fibers. Additionally, the QD surface charge impacts QD distribution within the composite material, indicating that surface charge plays an important role in self-assembly. QDs with either positively or negatively charged coatings significantly enhance fiber extensibility. Conversely, QDs coated with hydrophobic moieties and suspended in toluene produce composite fibers with a heterogeneous distribution of QDs and severely altered fiber morphology, indicating that toluene severely disrupts Ubx self-assembly. Understanding factors that impact the protein-nanoparticle interaction enables manipulation of the structure and mechanical properties of composite materials. Since proteins interact with nanoparticle surface coatings, these results should be applicable to other types of nanoparticles with similar chemical groups on the surface.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ravish Majithia
- Material Science and Engineering Interdisciplinary Program, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|