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Lomeli-Martin A, Ahamed N, Abhyankar VV, Lapizco-Encinas BH. Electropatterning-Contemporary developments for selective particle arrangements employing electrokinetics. Electrophoresis 2023; 44:884-909. [PMID: 37002779 PMCID: PMC10330388 DOI: 10.1002/elps.202200286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2023]
Abstract
The selective positioning and arrangement of distinct types of multiscale particles can be used in numerous applications in microfluidics, including integrated circuits, sensors and biochips. Electrokinetic (EK) techniques offer an extensive range of options for label-free manipulation and patterning of colloidal particles by exploiting the intrinsic electrical properties of the target of interest. EK-based techniques have been widely implemented in many recent studies, and various methodologies and microfluidic device designs have been developed to achieve patterning two- and three-dimensional (3D) patterned structures. This review provides an overview of the progress in electropatterning research during the last 5 years in the microfluidics arena. This article discusses the advances in the electropatterning of colloids, droplets, synthetic particles, cells, and gels. Each subsection analyzes the manipulation of the particles of interest via EK techniques such as electrophoresis and dielectrophoresis. The conclusions summarize recent advances and provide an outlook on the future of electropatterning in various fields of application, especially those with 3D arrangements as their end goal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Lomeli-Martin
- Microscale Bioseparations Laboratory and Biomedical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Nuzhet Ahamed
- Microscale Bioseparations Laboratory and Biomedical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Vinay V. Abhyankar
- Biological Microsystems Laboratory and Biomedical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
| | - Blanca H. Lapizco-Encinas
- Microscale Bioseparations Laboratory and Biomedical Engineering Department, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, New York, USA
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2
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Halvorsen TG, Reubsaet L. The utility of molecularly imprinted polymers for mass spectrometric protein and proteomics analysis. Proteomics 2022; 22:e2100395. [PMID: 36217925 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.202100395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Selective and efficient sample clean-up is important in mass spectrometric protein- and proteomics analyses from biological matrices. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), polymers prepared to have tailor-made cavities for capture of target analytes may by such represent an interesting alternative for selective clean-up. The present review aims to give an overview of the utility of MIPs for protein capture from biological matrices prior to mass spectrometry (MS) analysis. The application of MIPs in depletion of abundant proteins, in protein and proteotypic peptide capture as well as in capture of post-translational modifications (PTMs) is described and discussed. In addition, an overview of available MIP formats and their advantages and challenges is given, together with an overview of the mass spectrometric techniques used in protein analysis after MIP capture. Overall, the present literature demonstrates that for many applications MIPs for sample clean-up in mass spectrometric protein and proteomics analysis from biological matrices is still not fully matured. MIPs for proteotypic peptide capture is the most mature approach and a method for routine use may be available within the next few years.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Léon Reubsaet
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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3
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Chen H, Guo J, Wang Y, Dong W, Zhao Y, Sun L. Bio-Inspired Imprinting Materials for Biomedical Applications. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2202038. [PMID: 35908804 PMCID: PMC9534966 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202202038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Inspired by the recognition mechanism of biological molecules, molecular imprinting techniques (MITs) are imparted with numerous merits like excellent stability, recognition specificity, adsorption properties, and easy synthesis processes, and thus broaden the avenues for convenient fabrication protocol of bio-inspired molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) with desirable functions to satisfy the extensive demands of biomedical applications. Herein, the recent research progress made with respect to bio-inspired imprinting materials is discussed in this review. First, the underlying mechanism and basic components of a typical molecular imprinting procedure are briefly explored. Then, emphasis is put on the introduction of diverse MITs and novel bio-inspired imprinting materials. Following these two sections, practical applications of MIPs in the field of biomedical science are focused on. Last but not least, perspectives on the remaining challenges and future development of bio-inspired imprinting materials are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanxu Chen
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSoutheast UniversityNanjing210096P. R. China
| | - Jiahui Guo
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSoutheast UniversityNanjing210096P. R. China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSoutheast UniversityNanjing210096P. R. China
| | - Weiliang Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Materials‐Oriented Chemical EngineeringCollege of Biotechnology and Pharmaceutical EngineeringNanjing Tech UniversityNanjing211800P. R. China
| | - Yuanjin Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSoutheast UniversityNanjing210096P. R. China
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health)Wenzhou InstituteUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesWenzhouZhejiang325001P. R. China
| | - Lingyun Sun
- Department of Rheumatology and ImmunologyNanjing Drum Tower HospitalSchool of Biological Science and Medical EngineeringSoutheast UniversityNanjing210096P. R. China
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health)Wenzhou InstituteUniversity of Chinese Academy of SciencesWenzhouZhejiang325001P. R. China
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4
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Preparation of C-Terminal Epitope Imprinted Particles Via Reversible Addition-Fragmentation Chain Transfer Polymerization and Zn2+ Chelating Strategy: Selective Recognition of Cytochrome c. Chromatographia 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-022-04180-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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5
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Zhang X, Ding S, Magoline J, Ivankin A, Mirkin CA. Photopolymerized Features via Beam Pen Lithography as a Novel Tool for the Generation of Large Area Protein Micropatterns. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2105998. [PMID: 35119205 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202105998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
A cantilever-free scanning probe lithography (CF-SPL)-based method for the rapid polymerization of nanoscale features on a surface via crosslinking and thiol-acrylate photoreactions is described, wherein the nanoscale position, height, and diameter of each feature can be finely and independently tuned. With precise spatiotemporal control over the illumination pattern, beam pen lithography (BPL) allows for the photo-crosslinking of polymers into ultrahigh resolution features over centimeter-scale areas using massively parallel >160 000 pen arrays of individually addressable pens that guide and focus light onto the surface with sub-diffraction resolution. The photoinduced crosslinking reaction of the ink material, which is composed of photoinitiator, diphenyl(2,4,6-trimethylbenzoyl) phosphine oxide, poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate, and thiol-modified functional binding molecules (i.e., thiol-PEG-biotin or 16-mercaptohexanoic acid), proceeds to ≈80% conversion with UV exposure (72 mW cm-2 ) for short time periods (0.5 s). Such polymer patterns are further reacted with proteins (streptavidin and fibronectin) to yield protein arrays with feature arrangements at high resolution and densities controlled by local UV exposure. This platform, which combines polymer photochemistry and massive arrays of scanning probes, constitutes a new approach to making biomolecular microarrays in a high-throughput and high-yielding manner, opening new routes for biochip synthesis, bioscreening, and cell biology research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinpeng Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
| | - Shaowei Ding
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- TERA-print, LLC, 8140 McCormick Blvd, Suite 132, Skokie, IL, 60076, USA
| | - Jared Magoline
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- TERA-print, LLC, 8140 McCormick Blvd, Suite 132, Skokie, IL, 60076, USA
| | - Andrey Ivankin
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- TERA-print, LLC, 8140 McCormick Blvd, Suite 132, Skokie, IL, 60076, USA
| | - Chad A Mirkin
- Department of Chemistry and International Institute for Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, 60208, USA
- TERA-print, LLC, 8140 McCormick Blvd, Suite 132, Skokie, IL, 60076, USA
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6
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Sullivan MV, Henderson A, Hand RA, Turner NW. A molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticle-based surface plasmon resonance sensor platform for antibiotic detection in river water and milk. Anal Bioanal Chem 2022; 414:3687-3696. [PMID: 35318515 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-022-04012-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Using a solid-phase molecular imprinting technique, high-affinity nanoparticles (nanoMIPs) selective for the target antibiotics, ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and ofloxacin have been synthesised. These have been applied in the development of a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensor for the detection of the three antibiotics in both river water and milk. The particles produced demonstrated good uniformity with approximate sizes of 65.8 ± 1.8 nm, 76.3 ± 4.1 nm, and 85.7 ± 2.5 nm, and were demonstrated to have affinities of 36.2 nM, 54.7 nM, and 34.6 nM for the ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and ofloxacin nanoMIPs, respectively. Cross-reactivity studies highlighted good selectivity towards the target antibiotic compared with a non-target antibiotic. Using spiked milk and river water samples, the nanoMIP-based SPR sensor offered comparable affinity with 66.8 nM, 33.4 nM, and 55.0 nM (milk) and 39.3 nM, 26.1 nM, and 42.7 nM (river water) for ciprofloxacin, moxifloxacin, and ofloxacin nanoMIPs, respectively, to that seen within a buffer standard. Estimated LODs for the three antibiotic targets in both milk and river water were low nM or below. The developed SPR sensor showed good potential for using the technology for the capture and detection of antibiotics from food and environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark V Sullivan
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Alisha Henderson
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Rachel A Hand
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
- Department of Chemistry, Library Road, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 &AL, UK
| | - Nicholas W Turner
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK.
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7
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Electrochemically Deposited Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Based Sensors. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22031282. [PMID: 35162027 PMCID: PMC8838766 DOI: 10.3390/s22031282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 01/26/2022] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022]
Abstract
This review is dedicated to the development of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) and the application of MIPs in sensor design. MIP-based biological recognition parts can replace receptors or antibodies, which are rather expensive. Conducting polymers show unique properties that are applicable in sensor design. Therefore, MIP-based conducting polymers, including polypyrrole, polythiophene, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene), polyaniline and ortho-phenylenediamine are frequently applied in sensor design. Some other materials that can be molecularly imprinted are also overviewed in this review. Among many imprintable materials conducting polymer, polypyrrole is one of the most suitable for molecular imprinting of various targets ranging from small organics up to rather large proteins. Some attention in this review is dedicated to overview methods applied to design MIP-based sensing structures. Some attention is dedicated to the physicochemical methods applied for the transduction of analytical signals. Expected new trends and horizons in the application of MIP-based structures are also discussed.
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8
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Bognár Z, Supala E, Yarman A, Zhang X, Bier FF, Scheller FW, Gyurcsányi RE. Peptide epitope-imprinted polymer microarrays for selective protein recognition. Application for SARS-CoV-2 RBD protein. Chem Sci 2022; 13:1263-1269. [PMID: 35222909 PMCID: PMC8809392 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc04502d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We introduce a practically generic approach for the generation of epitope-imprinted polymer-based microarrays for protein recognition on surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) chips. The SPRi platform allows the subsequent rapid screening of target binding kinetics in a multiplexed and label-free manner. The versatility of such microarrays, both as synthetic and screening platform, is demonstrated through developing highly affine molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) for the recognition of the receptor binding domain (RBD) of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein. A characteristic nonapeptide GFNCYFPLQ from the RBD and other control peptides were microspotted onto gold SPRi chips followed by the electrosynthesis of a polyscopoletin nanofilm to generate in one step MIP arrays. A single chip screening of essential synthesis parameters, including the surface density of the template peptide and its sequence led to MIPs with dissociation constants (K D) in the lower nanomolar range for RBD, which exceeds the affinity of RBD for its natural target, angiotensin-convertase 2 enzyme. Remarkably, the same MIPs bound SARS-CoV-2 virus like particles with even higher affinity along with excellent discrimination of influenza A (H3N2) virus. While MIPs prepared with a truncated heptapeptide template GFNCYFP showed only a slightly decreased affinity for RBD, a single mismatch in the amino acid sequence of the template, i.e. the substitution of the central cysteine with a serine, fully suppressed the RBD binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Bognár
- BME "Lendület" Chemical Nanosensors Research Group, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics Szt. Gellért tér 4 1111 Budapest Hungary
| | - Eszter Supala
- BME "Lendület" Chemical Nanosensors Research Group, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics Szt. Gellért tér 4 1111 Budapest Hungary
| | - Aysu Yarman
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Potsdam OT Golm Germany
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Potsdam OT Golm Germany
| | - Frank F Bier
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Potsdam OT Golm Germany
| | - Frieder W Scheller
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25 14476 Potsdam OT Golm Germany
| | - Róbert E Gyurcsányi
- BME "Lendület" Chemical Nanosensors Research Group, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and Economics Szt. Gellért tér 4 1111 Budapest Hungary
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9
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Chien HW, Yang CH, Shih YT, Wang TL. Upconversion Nanoparticles Encapsulated with Molecularly Imprinted Amphiphilic Copolymer as a Fluorescent Probe for Specific Biorecognition. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:3522. [PMID: 34685278 PMCID: PMC8539580 DOI: 10.3390/polym13203522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2021] [Revised: 10/07/2021] [Accepted: 10/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A fluorescent probe for specific biorecognition was prepared by a facile method in which amphiphilic random copolymers were encapsulated with hydrophobic upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs). This method quickly converted the hydrophobic UCNPs to hydrophilic UNCPs. Moreover, the self-folding ability of the amphiphilic copolymers allowed the formation of molecular imprinting polymers with template-shaped cavities. LiYF4:Yb3+/Tm3+@LiYF4:Yb3+ UCNP with up-conversion emission in the visible light region was prepared; this step was followed by the synthesis of an amphiphilic random copolymer, poly(methacrylate acid-co-octadecene) (poly(MAA-co-OD)). Combining the UCNPs and poly(MAA-co-OD) with the templates afforded a micelle-like structure. After removing the templates, UCNPs encapsulated with the molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) (UCNPs@MIP) were obtained. The adsorption capacities of UCNPs@MIP bound with albumin and hemoglobin, respectively, were compared. The results showed that albumin was more easily bound to UCNPs@MIP than to hemoglobin because of the effect of protein conformation. The feasibility of using UCNPs@MIP as a fluorescent probe was also studied. The results showed that the fluorescence was quenched when hemoglobin was adsorbed on UCNPs@MIP; however, this was not observed for albumin. This fluorescence quenching is attributed to Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) and overlap of the absorption spectrum of hemoglobin with the fluorescence spectrum of UCNPs@MIP. To our knowledge, the encapsulation approach for fabricating the UCNPs@MIP nanocomposite, which was further used as a fluorescent probe, might be the first report on specific biorecognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiu-Wen Chien
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Hsin Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan; (C.-H.Y.); (Y.-T.S.)
| | - Yan-Tai Shih
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan; (C.-H.Y.); (Y.-T.S.)
| | - Tzong-Liu Wang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung, Kaohsiung 811, Taiwan; (C.-H.Y.); (Y.-T.S.)
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10
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Mamipour Z, Nematollahzadeh A, Kompany-Zareh M. Molecularly imprinted polymer grafted on paper and flat sheet for selective sensing and diagnosis: a review. Mikrochim Acta 2021; 188:279. [PMID: 34331135 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-021-04930-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers are efficient and selective adsorbents which act as artificial receptors for desired compounds with the ability to recognize the size, shape, and functional groups of the compounds simultaneously. A molecularly imprinted polymer is prepared by the polymerization of functional monomers around a template (analyte) molecule. Afterward, the removal of the template from the polymer matrix leaves a selective cavity behind. The fabrication and development of molecularly imprinted polymers grew rapidly, due to their low cost, simple preparation, selectivity, sensitivity, and stable physicochemical properties. Traditionally, molecularly imprinted polymers can be synthesized using two main methods, namely bulk and surface imprinting. For more efficient use of the latter method, researchers have developed molecularly imprinted polymers grafted on the solid-phase matrix (substrate). This grafting technique would be particularly useful for surface imprinting of macromolecules, such as proteins. Cellulose fibers of papers with unique properties such as being abundant, retaining a porous structure, having good adsorption properties, and possessing hydroxyl groups naturally have gained much attention as substrate. The goal of this review is to introduce molecularly imprinted polymer-grafted or molecularly imprinted polymer-coated paper, as an interesting, simple, and efficient method in the detection and separation of small and large molecules. Therefore, in the present paper, several recent preparation techniques and applications of molecularly imprinted polymer-grafted paper are reviewed and discussed in detail. Green, cost-effective, selective, and sensitive paper-based sensor prepared via grafting molecularly imprinted polymer on paper surface with the potential use for online detection trace of analytes in the point-of-care testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Mamipour
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, Zanjan, Iran.,Chemical Engineering Department, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, P.O. Box 179, Ardabil, Iran
| | - Ali Nematollahzadeh
- Chemical Engineering Department, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, P.O. Box 179, Ardabil, Iran.
| | - Mohsen Kompany-Zareh
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Advanced Studies in Basic Sciences, Zanjan, Iran. .,Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, PO Box 15000, Halifax, NS, B3H 4R2, Canada.
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11
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Köse K, Kehribar DY, Uzun L. Molecularly imprinted polymers in toxicology: a literature survey for the last 5 years. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:35437-35471. [PMID: 34024002 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-14510-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The science of toxicology dates back almost to the beginning of human history. Toxic chemicals, which are encountered in different forms, are always among the chemicals that should be investigated in criminal field, environmental application, pharmaceutic, and even industry, where many researches have been carried out studies for years. Almost all of not only drugs but also industrial dyes have toxic side and direct effects. Environmental micropollutants accumulate in the tissues of all living things, especially plants, and show short- or long-term toxic symptoms. Chemicals in forensic science can be known by detecting the effect they cause to the body with the similar mechanism. It is clear that the best tracking tool among analysis methods is molecularly printed polymer-based analytical setups. Different polymeric combinations of molecularly imprinted polymers allow further study on detection or extraction using chromatographic and spectroscopic instruments. In particular, methods used in forensic medicine can detect trace amounts of poison or biological residues on the scene. Molecularly imprinted polymers are still in their infancy and have many variables that need to be developed. In this review, we summarized how molecular imprinted polymers and toxicology intersect and what has been done about molecular imprinted polymers in toxicology by looking at the studies conducted in the last 5 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazım Köse
- Department of Joint Courses, Hitit University, Çorum, Turkey.
| | - Demet Yalçın Kehribar
- Department of Internal Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Ondokuz Mayis University, Samsun, Turkey
| | - Lokman Uzun
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey.
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12
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Seitz WR, Grenier CJ, Csoros JR, Yang R, Ren T. Molecular Recognition: Perspective and a New Approach. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21082757. [PMID: 33919700 PMCID: PMC8070717 DOI: 10.3390/s21082757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
This perspective presents an overview of approaches to the preparation of molecular recognition agents for chemical sensing. These approaches include chemical synthesis, using catalysts from biological systems, partitioning, aptamers, antibodies and molecularly imprinted polymers. The latter three approaches are general in that they can be applied with a large number of analytes, both proteins and smaller molecules like drugs and hormones. Aptamers and antibodies bind analytes rapidly while molecularly imprinted polymers bind much more slowly. Most molecularly imprinted polymers, formed by polymerizing in the presence of a template, contain a high level of covalent crosslinker that causes the polymer to form a separate phase. This results in a material that is rigid with low affinity for analyte and slow binding kinetics. Our approach to templating is to use predominantly or exclusively noncovalent crosslinks. This results in soluble templated polymers that bind analyte rapidly with high affinity. The biggest challenge of this approach is that the chains are tangled when the templated polymer is dissolved in water, blocking access to binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- W. Rudolf Seitz
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; (J.R.C.); (T.R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-603-862-2408
| | | | - John R. Csoros
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; (J.R.C.); (T.R.)
| | - Rongfang Yang
- Community College of Rhode Island, 400 East Ave., Warwick, RI 02886, USA;
| | - Tianyu Ren
- Department of Chemistry, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA; (J.R.C.); (T.R.)
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13
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Sullivan MV, Clay O, Moazami MP, Watts JK, Turner NW. Hybrid Aptamer-Molecularly Imprinted Polymer (aptaMIP) Nanoparticles from Protein Recognition-A Trypsin Model. Macromol Biosci 2021; 21:e2100002. [PMID: 33760365 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202100002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 02/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Aptamers offer excellent potential for replacing antibodies for molecular recognition purposes however their performance can compromise with biological/environmental degradation being a particular problem. Molecularly imprinted Polymers (MIPs) offer an alternative to biological materials and while these offer the robustness and ability to work in extreme environmental conditions, they often lack the same recognition performance. By slightly adapting the chemical structure of a DNA aptamer it is incorporated for use as the recognition part of a MIP, thus creating an aptamer-MIP hybrid or aptaMIP. Here these are developed for the detection of the target protein trypsin. The aptaMIP nanoparticles offer superior binding affinity over conventional MIP nanoparticles (nanoMIPs), with KD values of 6.8 × 10-9 (±0.2 × 10-9 ) m and 12.3 × 10-9 (±0.4 × 10-9 ) m for the aptaMIP and nanoMIP, respectively. The aptaMIP also outperforms the aptamer only (10.3 × 10-9 m). Good selectivity against other protein targets is observed. Using surface plasmon resonance, the limit of detection for aptaMIP nanoparticles is twofold lower (2 nm) compared to the nanoMIP (4 nm). Introduction of the aptamer as a "macro-monomer" into the MIP scaffold has beneficial effects and offers potential to improve this class of polymers significantly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark V Sullivan
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Oliver Clay
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
| | - Michael P Moazami
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, UMass Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Jonathan K Watts
- RNA Therapeutics Institute, UMass Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA.,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Pharmacology, UMass Medical School, Worcester, MA, 01605, USA
| | - Nicholas W Turner
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester, LE1 9BH, UK
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Ramanavicius S, Jagminas A, Ramanavicius A. Advances in Molecularly Imprinted Polymers Based Affinity Sensors (Review). Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:974. [PMID: 33810074 PMCID: PMC8004762 DOI: 10.3390/polym13060974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent challenges in biomedical diagnostics show that the development of rapid affinity sensors is very important issue. Therefore, in this review we are aiming to outline the most important directions of affinity sensors where polymer-based semiconducting materials are applied. Progress in formation and development of such materials is overviewed and discussed. Some applicability aspects of conducting polymers in the design of affinity sensors are presented. The main attention is focused on bioanalytical application of conducting polymers such as polypyrrole, polyaniline, polythiophene and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) ortho-phenylenediamine. In addition, some other polymers and inorganic materials that are suitable for molecular imprinting technology are also overviewed. Polymerization techniques, which are the most suitable for the development of composite structures suitable for affinity sensors are presented. Analytical signal transduction methods applied in affinity sensors based on polymer-based semiconducting materials are discussed. In this review the most attention is focused on the development and application of molecularly imprinted polymer-based structures, which can replace antibodies, receptors, and many others expensive affinity reagents. The applicability of electrochromic polymers in affinity sensor design is envisaged. Sufficient biocompatibility of some conducting polymers enables to apply them as "stealth coatings" in the future implantable affinity-sensors. Some new perspectives and trends in analytical application of polymer-based semiconducting materials are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simonas Ramanavicius
- Department of Electrochemical Material Science, State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology (FTMC), Sauletekio av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (S.R.); (A.J.)
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
| | - Arunas Jagminas
- Department of Electrochemical Material Science, State Research Institute Center for Physical Sciences and Technology (FTMC), Sauletekio av. 3, LT-10257 Vilnius, Lithuania; (S.R.); (A.J.)
| | - Arunas Ramanavicius
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Geosciences, Institute of Chemistry, Vilnius University, Naugarduko 24, LT-03225 Vilnius, Lithuania
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Molecular Imprinting Strategies for Tissue Engineering Applications: A Review. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13040548. [PMID: 33673361 PMCID: PMC7918123 DOI: 10.3390/polym13040548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissue Engineering (TE) represents a promising solution to fabricate engineered constructs able to restore tissue damage after implantation. In the classic TE approach, biomaterials are used alongside growth factors to create a scaffolding structure that supports cells during the construct maturation. A current challenge in TE is the creation of engineered constructs able to mimic the complex microenvironment found in the natural tissue, so as to promote and guide cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation. In this context, the introduction inside the scaffold of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs)—synthetic receptors able to reversibly bind to biomolecules—holds great promise to enhance the scaffold-cell interaction. In this review, we analyze the main strategies that have been used for MIP design and fabrication with a particular focus on biomedical research. Furthermore, to highlight the potential of MIPs for scaffold-based TE, we present recent examples on how MIPs have been used in TE to introduce biophysical cues as well as for drug delivery and sequestering.
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Kalecki J, Iskierko Z, Cieplak M, Sharma PS. Oriented Immobilization of Protein Templates: A New Trend in Surface Imprinting. ACS Sens 2020; 5:3710-3720. [PMID: 33225686 PMCID: PMC7771019 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In this Review, we have summarized recent trends in protein template imprinting. We emphasized a new trend in surface imprinting, namely, oriented protein immobilization. Site-directed proteins were assembled through specially selected functionalities. These efforts resulted in a preferably oriented homogeneous protein construct with decreased protein conformation changes during imprinting. Moreover, the maximum functionality for protein recognition was utilized. Various strategies were exploited for oriented protein immobilization, including covalent immobilization through a boronic acid group, metal coordinating center, and aptamer-based immobilization. Moreover, we have discussed the involvement of semicovalent as well as covalent imprinting. Interestingly, these approaches provided additional recognition sites in the molecular cavities imprinted. Therefore, these molecular cavities were highly selective, and the binding kinetics was improved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jakub Kalecki
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Zofia Iskierko
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Cieplak
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piyush S. Sharma
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kasprzaka 44/52, 01-224 Warsaw, Poland
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17
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Lowdon JW, Diliën H, Singla P, Peeters M, Cleij TJ, van Grinsven B, Eersels K. MIPs for commercial application in low-cost sensors and assays - An overview of the current status quo. SENSORS AND ACTUATORS. B, CHEMICAL 2020; 325:128973. [PMID: 33012991 PMCID: PMC7525251 DOI: 10.1016/j.snb.2020.128973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) have emerged over the past few decades as interesting synthetic alternatives due to their long-term chemical and physical stability and low-cost synthesis procedure. They have been integrated into many sensing platforms and assay formats for the detection of various targets, ranging from small molecules to macromolecular entities such as pathogens and whole cells. Despite the advantages MIPs have over natural receptors in terms of commercialization, the striking success stories of biosensor applications such as the glucose meter or the self-test for pregnancy have not been matched by MIP-based sensor or detection kits yet. In this review, we zoom in on the commercial potential of MIP technology and aim to summarize the latest developments in their commercialization and integration into sensors and assays with high commercial potential. We will also analyze which bottlenecks are inflicting with commercialization and how recent advances in commercial MIP synthesis could overcome these obstacles in order for MIPs to truly achieve their commercial potential in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph W Lowdon
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Hanne Diliën
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Pankaj Singla
- Department of Chemistry, UGC-Centre for advanced studies-1, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar 143005, India
| | - Marloes Peeters
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Merz Court, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 7RU, United Kingdom
| | - Thomas J Cleij
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Bart van Grinsven
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Kasper Eersels
- Sensor Engineering Department, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, the Netherlands
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18
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Chien HW, Tsai MT, Yang CH, Lee RH, Wang TL. Interaction of LiYF 4:Yb 3+/Er 3+/Ho 3+/Tm 3+@LiYF 4:Yb 3+ upconversion nanoparticles, molecularly imprinted polymers, and templates. RSC Adv 2020; 10:35600-35610. [PMID: 35517120 PMCID: PMC9056933 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra05771a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, LiYF4:Yb0.253+/Er0.013+/Tm0.013+/Ho0.013+@LiYF4:Yb0.23+ upconverting nanoparticles (UCNP) were used as luminescent materials for the preparation of molecular imprinting polymer nanocomposites. Three luminescent molecularly imprinted polymer (MIP) nanocomposites were prepared by in situ polymerization. The relationship between the functional monomers, templates, and upconversion nanoparticles was investigated. Two hydrophilic monomers (acrylic acid (AA) and acrylamide (AAm)) and one hydrophobic monomer (N-tert-butylacrylamide (TBAm)) were employed as functional monomers, while one amino acid (cysteine) and two proteins (albumin and hemoglobin) were employed as the templates to investigate the effect of their interaction with LiYF4:Yb3+/Er3+/Ho3+/Tm3+@LiYF4:Yb3+ core/shell UCNPs on the polymerization process, luminescence properties, and adsorption capacity. The results showed that the UCNPs were embedded in the polymeric matrix to form an irregular quasimicrospherical UCNPs@MIP with diameters ranging from several hundred nanometers to several micrometers depending on the functional monomer. The quenching effect was more pronounced for the adsorption of hemoglobin with UCNPs@MIP compared to cysteine and albumin. In addition, the adsorption capacities of the AA- and AAm-made UCNPs@MIP were greater than those of TBAm-made UCNPs@MIP. The rebinding of the templates onto UCNPs@MIP was very fast and approached equilibrium within 30 min, indicating that the synthesized UCNPs@MIP can be employed as fluorescent probes to offer rapid detection of molecules. In this work, LiYF4:Yb0.253+/Er0.013+/Tm0.013+/Ho0.013+@LiYF4:Yb0.23+ upconverting nanoparticles (UCNP) were used as luminescent materials for the preparation of molecular imprinting polymer nanocomposites.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Hsiu-Wen Chien
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology Kaohsiung 807 Taiwan +886-7-3830674
| | - Min-Ting Tsai
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung Kaohsiung 811 Taiwan +886-7-591-9368 ext. 5000
| | - Chien-Hsin Yang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung Kaohsiung 811 Taiwan +886-7-591-9368 ext. 5000
| | - Rong-Ho Lee
- Department of Chemical Engineering, National Chung Hsing University Taichung 402 Taiwan
| | - Tzong-Liu Wang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, National University of Kaohsiung Kaohsiung 811 Taiwan +886-7-591-9368 ext. 5000
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Refaat D, Aggour MG, Farghali AA, Mahajan R, Wiklander JG, Nicholls IA, Piletsky SA. Strategies for Molecular Imprinting and the Evolution of MIP Nanoparticles as Plastic Antibodies-Synthesis and Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E6304. [PMID: 31847152 PMCID: PMC6940816 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20246304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Materials that can mimic the molecular recognition-based functions found in biology are a significant goal for science and technology. Molecular imprinting is a technology that addresses this challenge by providing polymeric materials with antibody-like recognition characteristics. Recently, significant progress has been achieved in solving many of the practical problems traditionally associated with molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), such as difficulties with imprinting of proteins, poor compatibility with aqueous environments, template leakage, and the presence of heterogeneous populations of binding sites in the polymers that contribute to high levels of non-specific binding. This success is closely related to the technology-driven shift in MIP research from traditional bulk polymer formats into the nanomaterial domain. The aim of this article is to throw light on recent developments in this field and to present a critical discussion of the current state of molecular imprinting and its potential in real world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doaa Refaat
- Department of Pathology, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Giza 12618, Egypt;
- Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Postgraduate Studies for Advanced Sciences (PSAS), Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 62511, Egypt;
| | - Mohamed G. Aggour
- Department of Biotechnology, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Giza 12618, Egypt;
| | - Ahmed A. Farghali
- Department of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Faculty of Postgraduate Studies for Advanced Sciences (PSAS), Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef 62511, Egypt;
| | - Rashmi Mahajan
- Bioorganic & Biophysical Chemistry Laboratory, Linnaeus University Centre for Biomaterials Chemistry, Department of Chemistry & Biomedical Sciences, Linnaeus University, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden; (R.M.); (J.G.W.)
| | - Jesper G. Wiklander
- Bioorganic & Biophysical Chemistry Laboratory, Linnaeus University Centre for Biomaterials Chemistry, Department of Chemistry & Biomedical Sciences, Linnaeus University, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden; (R.M.); (J.G.W.)
| | - Ian A. Nicholls
- Bioorganic & Biophysical Chemistry Laboratory, Linnaeus University Centre for Biomaterials Chemistry, Department of Chemistry & Biomedical Sciences, Linnaeus University, SE-39182 Kalmar, Sweden; (R.M.); (J.G.W.)
| | - Sergey A. Piletsky
- Chemistry Department, College of Science and Engineering, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK
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20
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Ozcelikay G, Kurbanoglu S, Zhang X, Kosak Soz C, Wollenberger U, Ozkan SA, Yarman A, Scheller FW. Electrochemical MIP Sensor for Butyrylcholinesterase. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:polym11121970. [PMID: 31801184 PMCID: PMC6960762 DOI: 10.3390/polym11121970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) mimic the binding sites of antibodies by substituting the amino acid-scaffold of proteins by synthetic polymers. In this work, the first MIP for the recognition of the diagnostically relevant enzyme butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) is presented. The MIP was prepared using electropolymerization of the functional monomer o-phenylenediamine and was deposited as a thin film on a glassy carbon electrode by oxidative potentiodynamic polymerization. Rebinding and removal of the template were detected by cyclic voltammetry using ferricyanide as a redox marker. Furthermore, the enzymatic activity of BuChE rebound to the MIP was measured via the anodic oxidation of thiocholine, the reaction product of butyrylthiocholine. The response was linear between 50 pM and 2 nM concentrations of BuChE with a detection limit of 14.7 pM. In addition to the high sensitivity for BuChE, the sensor responded towards pseudo-irreversible inhibitors in the lower mM range.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goksu Ozcelikay
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ankara University, Tandogan, Ankara 06560, Turkey; (G.O.); (S.K.); (S.A.O.)
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; (X.Z.); (U.W.)
| | - Sevinc Kurbanoglu
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ankara University, Tandogan, Ankara 06560, Turkey; (G.O.); (S.K.); (S.A.O.)
| | - Xiaorong Zhang
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; (X.Z.); (U.W.)
| | - Cagla Kosak Soz
- Faculty of Science, Material Science and Technologies, Turkish-German University, Sahinkaya Cad. No. 86, Beykoz, Istanbul 34820, Turkey;
| | - Ulla Wollenberger
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; (X.Z.); (U.W.)
| | - Sibel A. Ozkan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Ankara University, Tandogan, Ankara 06560, Turkey; (G.O.); (S.K.); (S.A.O.)
| | - Aysu Yarman
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; (X.Z.); (U.W.)
- Correspondence: (A.Y.); (F.W.S.)
| | - Frieder W. Scheller
- Institute of Biochemistry and Biology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Strasse 24-25, 14476 Potsdam, Germany; (X.Z.); (U.W.)
- Correspondence: (A.Y.); (F.W.S.)
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21
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Regan B, Boyle F, O'Kennedy R, Collins D. Evaluation of Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for Point-of-Care Testing for Cardiovascular Disease. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E3485. [PMID: 31395843 PMCID: PMC6720456 DOI: 10.3390/s19163485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Molecular imprinting is a rapidly growing area of interest involving the synthesis of artificial recognition elements that enable the separation of analyte from a sample matrix and its determination. Traditionally, this approach can be successfully applied to small analyte (<1.5 kDa) separation/ extraction, but, more recently it is finding utility in biomimetic sensors. These sensors consist of a recognition element and a transducer similar to their biosensor counterparts, however, the fundamental distinction is that biomimetic sensors employ an artificial recognition element. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) employed as the recognition elements in biomimetic sensors contain binding sites complementary in shape and functionality to their target analyte. Despite the growing interest in molecularly imprinting techniques, the commercial adoption of this technology is yet to be widely realised for blood sample analysis. This review aims to assess the applicability of this technology for the point-of-care testing (POCT) of cardiovascular disease-related biomarkers. More specifically, molecular imprinting is critically evaluated with respect to the detection of cardiac biomarkers indicative of acute coronary syndrome (ACS), such as the cardiac troponins (cTns). The challenges associated with the synthesis of MIPs for protein detection are outlined, in addition to enhancement techniques that ultimately improve the analytical performance of biomimetic sensors. The mechanism of detection employed to convert the analyte concentration into a measurable signal in biomimetic sensors will be discussed. Furthermore, the analytical performance of these sensors will be compared with biosensors and their potential implementation within clinical settings will be considered. In addition, the most suitable application of these sensors for cardiovascular assessment will be presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Regan
- School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland.
| | - Fiona Boyle
- School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
| | - Richard O'Kennedy
- School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
- Research Complex, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | - David Collins
- School of Biotechnology, Dublin City University, Dublin 9, Ireland
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22
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Zaidi SA. An Account on the Versatility of Dopamine as a Functional Monomer in Molecular Imprinting. ChemistrySelect 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.201901029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shabi Abbas Zaidi
- Department of ChemistryKwangwoon University, 20 Kwangwoon-ro, Nowon-Gu Seoul 01897 Korea
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23
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Crapnell RD, Hudson A, Foster CW, Eersels K, Grinsven BV, Cleij TJ, Banks CE, Peeters M. Recent Advances in Electrosynthesized Molecularly Imprinted Polymer Sensing Platforms for Bioanalyte Detection. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2019; 19:E1204. [PMID: 30857285 PMCID: PMC6427210 DOI: 10.3390/s19051204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The accurate detection of biological materials has remained at the forefront of scientific research for decades. This includes the detection of molecules, proteins, and bacteria. Biomimetic sensors look to replicate the sensitive and selective mechanisms that are found in biological systems and incorporate these properties into functional sensing platforms. Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) are synthetic receptors that can form high affinity binding sites complementary to the specific analyte of interest. They utilise the shape, size, and functionality to produce sensitive and selective recognition of target analytes. One route of synthesizing MIPs is through electropolymerization, utilising predominantly constant potential methods or cyclic voltammetry. This methodology allows for the formation of a polymer directly onto the surface of a transducer. The thickness, morphology, and topography of the films can be manipulated specifically for each template. Recently, numerous reviews have been published in the production and sensing applications of MIPs; however, there are few reports on the use of electrosynthesized MIPs (eMIPs). The number of publications and citations utilising eMIPs is increasing each year, with a review produced on the topic in 2012. This review will primarily focus on advancements from 2012 in the use of eMIPs in sensing platforms for the detection of biologically relevant materials, including the development of increased polymer layer dimensions for whole bacteria detection and the use of mixed monomer compositions to increase selectivity toward analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert D Crapnell
- Faculty of Science & Engineering, Div. of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Alexander Hudson
- Faculty of Science & Engineering, Div. of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Christopher W Foster
- Faculty of Science & Engineering, Div. of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Kasper Eersels
- Sensor Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Bart van Grinsven
- Sensor Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Thomas J Cleij
- Sensor Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Maastricht University, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Craig E Banks
- Faculty of Science & Engineering, Div. of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
| | - Marloes Peeters
- Faculty of Science & Engineering, Div. of Chemistry & Environmental Science, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street, Manchester M1 5GD, UK.
- School of Engineering, Newcastle University, Newcastle Upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK.
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24
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Biomimetic materials assembled on a photovoltaic cell as a novel biosensing approach to cancer biomarker detection. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10205. [PMID: 29977025 PMCID: PMC6033912 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27884-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 06/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
This work describes for the first time the integration of Dye Sensitized Solar Cell (DSSC) technology in biosensors and biomimetic materials, opening doors towards a new dimension of autonomous screening devices that may be used in point-of-care, with zero-power requirements. DSSCs are fabricated with a counter electrode (CE) of polypyrrole (PPy) that was made responsive to a specific protein by biomimetic material (BM) technology. Carcinogenic embryonic antigen (CEA) was selected as target protein. The resulting BM-PPy film acted as biomimetic artificial antibody for CEA. Rebinding of CEA into this film changed its intrinsic electrical properties and the subsequent electrical output of the DSSC using it as CE. The quantity of CEA in solution was deduced by I-V and electrochemical impedance spesctroscopy (EIS). Linear responses to CEA were observed down to 0.25 pg/mL, with 0.13 pg/mL detection limit. Control films of PPy (prepared without CEA in the electropolymerization step) confirmed the ability of the BM material to recognize the target protein. Accurate results were obtained in the analysis of urine samples. Further developments into this ground-breaking self-powered biosensor will display a huge impact in point-to-care medical applications, which may be extended to other fields of knowledge.
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25
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Sensing CA 15-3 in point-of-care by electropolymerizing O-phenylenediamine (oPDA) on Au-screen printed electrodes. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0196656. [PMID: 29715330 PMCID: PMC5929556 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0196656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
This work presents an alternative device for cancer screening in liquid biopsies. It combines a biomimetic film (i) with electrochemical detection (ii). The biomimetic film (i) was obtained by electro-polymerizing amine-substituted benzene rings around a CA 15–3 target. This protein target was previously adsorbed on a gold (Au) support and incubated in charged monomers (4-Styrenesulfonate sodium and 3-Hydroxytyraminium chloride). The protein was further eliminated by enzymatic activity, leaving behind vacant sites for subsequent rebinding. Electrochemical detection (ii) was achieved on an Au working electrode, designed on commercial screen-printed electrodes. Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy and ellipsometric readings were used to follow the chemical modification of the Au surface. The ability of the material to rebind CA15-3 was monitored by electrochemical techniques. The device displayed linear responses to CA15-3 ranging from 0.25 to 10.00 U/mL, with detection limits of 0.05 U/mL. Accurate results were obtained by applying the sensor to the analysis of CA15-3 in PBS buffer and in serum samples. This biosensing device displayed successful features for the detection of CA 15–3 and constitutes a promising tool for breast cancer screening procedures in point-of-care applications. Moreover, its scale-up seems feasible as it contains a plastic antibody assembled in situ, in less than 1 minute, and the analysis of serum takes less than 30 minutes.
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26
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Phan NVH, Sussitz HF, Ladenhauf E, Pum D, Lieberzeit PA. Combined Layer/Particle Approaches in Surface Molecular Imprinting of Proteins: Signal Enhancement and Competition. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2018; 18:E180. [PMID: 29320454 PMCID: PMC5796476 DOI: 10.3390/s18010180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2017] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report novel approaches to the molecular imprinting of proteins utilizing templates sizing around 10 nm and some 100 nm. The first step comprised synthesizing nanoparticles of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIP) towards bovine serum albumin (BSA) and characterizing them according to size and binding capacity. In a second step, they were utilized as templates. Quartz crystal microbalances (QCM) coated with MIP thin films based on BSA MIP nanoparticles lead to a two-fold increase in sensor responses, compared with the case of directly using the protein as the template. This also established that individual BSA molecules exhibit different "epitopes" for molecular imprinting on their outer surfaces. In light of this knowledge, a possible MIP-based biomimetic assay format was tested by exposing QCM coated with BSA MIP thin films to mixtures of BSA and imprinted and non-imprinted polymer (NIP) nanoparticles. At high protein concentrations (1000 ppm) measurements revealed aggregation behavior, i.e., BSA binding MIP NP onto the MIP surface. This increased sensor responses by more than 30% during proof of concept measurements. At lower a BSA concentration (500 ppm), thin films and particles revealed competitive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam Van Ho Phan
- University of Vienna, Faculty for Chemistry, Department of Physical Chemistry, Waehringer Strasse 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Hermann F Sussitz
- University of Vienna, Faculty for Chemistry, Department of Physical Chemistry, Waehringer Strasse 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Eva Ladenhauf
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 11, A-1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Dietmar Pum
- Institute of Biophysics, Department of Nanobiotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Muthgasse 11, A-1190 Vienna, Austria.
| | - Peter A Lieberzeit
- University of Vienna, Faculty for Chemistry, Department of Physical Chemistry, Waehringer Strasse 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria.
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Erol K, Uzun L. Two-step polymerization approach for synthesis of macroporous surface ion-imprinted cryogels. JOURNAL OF MACROMOLECULAR SCIENCE PART A-PURE AND APPLIED CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10601325.2017.1342519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kadir Erol
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Ankara, Turkey
- Hitit University, Osmancık Ömer Derindere Vocational School, Çorum, Turkey
| | - Lokman Uzun
- Hacettepe University, Faculty of Science, Department of Chemistry, Ankara, Turkey
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Frasco MF, Truta LAANA, Sales MGF, Moreira FTC. Imprinting Technology in Electrochemical Biomimetic Sensors. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 17:E523. [PMID: 28272314 PMCID: PMC5375809 DOI: 10.3390/s17030523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Biosensors are a promising tool offering the possibility of low cost and fast analytical screening in point-of-care diagnostics and for on-site detection in the field. Most biosensors in routine use ensure their selectivity/specificity by including natural receptors as biorecognition element. These materials are however too expensive and hard to obtain for every biochemical molecule of interest in environmental and clinical practice. Molecularly imprinted polymers have emerged through time as an alternative to natural antibodies in biosensors. In theory, these materials are stable and robust, presenting much higher capacity to resist to harsher conditions of pH, temperature, pressure or organic solvents. In addition, these synthetic materials are much cheaper than their natural counterparts while offering equivalent affinity and sensitivity in the molecular recognition of the target analyte. Imprinting technology and biosensors have met quite recently, relying mostly on electrochemical detection and enabling a direct reading of different analytes, while promoting significant advances in various fields of use. Thus, this review encompasses such developments and describes a general overview for building promising biomimetic materials as biorecognition elements in electrochemical sensors. It includes different molecular imprinting strategies such as the choice of polymer material, imprinting methodology and assembly on the transduction platform. Their interface with the most recent nanostructured supports acting as standard conductive materials within electrochemical biomimetic sensors is pointed out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela F Frasco
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Liliana A A N A Truta
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - M Goreti F Sales
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Felismina T C Moreira
- BioMark-CINTESIS/ISEP, School of Engineering, Polytechnic Institute of Porto, 4200-072 Porto, Portugal.
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Yankelov R, Yungerman I, Srebnik S. The selectivity of protein-imprinted gels and its relation to protein properties: A computer simulation study. J Mol Recognit 2017; 30. [DOI: 10.1002/jmr.2607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 11/27/2016] [Accepted: 12/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rami Yankelov
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Technion - Israel Institute of Technology; Haifa Israel 32000
| | - Irena Yungerman
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Technion - Israel Institute of Technology; Haifa Israel 32000
| | - Simcha Srebnik
- Department of Chemical Engineering; Technion - Israel Institute of Technology; Haifa Israel 32000
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30
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Akiba U, Anzai JI. Recent Progress in Electrochemical Biosensors for Glycoproteins. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2016; 16:E2045. [PMID: 27916961 PMCID: PMC5191026 DOI: 10.3390/s16122045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2016] [Revised: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 11/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of recent progress in the development of electrochemical biosensors for glycoproteins. Electrochemical glycoprotein sensors are constructed by combining metal and carbon electrodes with glycoprotein-selective binding elements including antibodies, lectin, phenylboronic acid and molecularly imprinted polymers. A recent trend in the preparation of glycoprotein sensors is the successful use of nanomaterials such as graphene, carbon nanotube, and metal nanoparticles. These nanomaterials are extremely useful for improving the sensitivity of glycoprotein sensors. This review focuses mainly on the protocols for the preparation of glycoprotein sensors and the materials used. Recent improvements in glycoprotein sensors are discussed by grouping the sensors into several categories based on the materials used as recognition elements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uichi Akiba
- Graduate School of Engineering and Science, Akita University, 1-1 Tegatagaluenn-machi, Akita 010-8502, Japan.
| | - Jun-Ichi Anzai
- Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tohoku University, Aoba, Aramakim, Sendai 980-8578, Japan.
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Luan J, Liu KK, Tadepalli S, Jiang Q, Morrissey JJ, Kharasch ED, Singamaneni S. PEGylated Artificial Antibodies: Plasmonic Biosensors with Improved Selectivity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:23509-16. [PMID: 27540627 PMCID: PMC5371828 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b07252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Molecular imprinting, which involves the formation of artificial recognition elements or cavities with complementary shape and chemical functionality to the target species, is a powerful method to overcome a number of limitations associated with natural antibodies. An important but often overlooked consideration in the design of artificial biorecognition elements based on molecular imprinting is the nonspecific binding of interfering species to noncavity regions of the imprinted polymer. Here, we demonstrate a universal method, namely, PEGylation of the noncavity regions of the imprinted polymer, to minimize the nonspecific binding and significantly enhance the selectivity of the molecular imprinted polymer for the target biomolecules. The nonspecific binding, as quantified by the localized surface plasmon resonance shift of imprinted plasmonic nanorattles upon exposure to common interfering proteins, was found to be more than 10 times lower compared to the non-PEGylated counterparts. The method demonstrated here can be broadly applied to a wide variety of functional monomers employed for molecular imprinting. The significantly higher selectivity of PEGylated molecular imprints takes biosensors based on these artificial biorecognition elements closer to real-world applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Luan
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Keng-Ku Liu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Sirimuvva Tadepalli
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Qisheng Jiang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Jeremiah J. Morrissey
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Evan D. Kharasch
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- The Center for Clinical Pharmacology, St. Louis College of Pharmacy and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Srikanth Singamaneni
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
- Siteman Cancer Center, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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Stephenson-Brown A, Acton AL, Preece JA, Fossey JS, Mendes PM. Selective glycoprotein detection through covalent templating and allosteric click-imprinting. Chem Sci 2015; 6:5114-5119. [PMID: 29142730 PMCID: PMC5666680 DOI: 10.1039/c5sc02031j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
A hierarchical bottom-up route exploiting reversible covalent interactions with boronic acids and so-called click chemistry for selective glycoprotein detection is described. The self-assembled and imprinted surfaces confer high binding affinities, nanomolar sensitivity, exceptional glycoprotein specificity and selectivity.
Many glycoproteins are intimately linked to the onset and progression of numerous heritable or acquired diseases of humans, including cancer. Indeed the recognition of specific glycoproteins remains a significant challenge in analytical method and diagnostic development. Herein, a hierarchical bottom-up route exploiting reversible covalent interactions with boronic acids and so-called click chemistry for the fabrication of glycoprotein selective surfaces that surmount current antibody constraints is described. The self-assembled and imprinted surfaces, containing specific glycoprotein molecular recognition nanocavities, confer high binding affinities, nanomolar sensitivity, exceptional glycoprotein specificity and selectivity with as high as 30 fold selectivity for prostate specific antigen (PSA) over other glycoproteins. This synthetic, robust and highly selective recognition platform can be used in complex biological media and be recycled multiple times with no performance decrement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Stephenson-Brown
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham , West Midlands B15 2TT , UK .
| | - Aaron L Acton
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham , West Midlands B15 2TT , UK .
| | - Jon A Preece
- School of Chemistry , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham , West Midlands B15 2TT , UK .
| | - John S Fossey
- School of Chemistry , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham , West Midlands B15 2TT , UK .
| | - Paula M Mendes
- School of Chemical Engineering , University of Birmingham , Edgbaston , Birmingham , West Midlands B15 2TT , UK .
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Zayats M, Brenner AJ, Searson PC. Protein imprinting in polyacrylamide-based gels. Biomaterials 2014; 35:8659-68. [PMID: 25034963 PMCID: PMC4352324 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.05.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 05/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Protein imprinting in hydrogels is a method to produce materials capable of selective recognition and capture of a target protein. Here we report on the imprinting of fluorescently-labeled maltose binding protein (MBP) in acrylamide (AAm)/N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) hydrogels. The targeting efficiency and selectivity of protein recognition is usually characterized by the imprinting factor, which in the simplest case is the ratio of protein uptake in an imprinted film divided by the uptake by the corresponding non-imprinted film. Our objective in this work is to study the dynamics of protein binding and elution in imprinted and non-imprinted films to elucidate the processes that control protein recognition. Protein elution from imprinted and non-imprinted films suggests that imprinting results in sites with a distribution of binding energies, and that only a relatively small fraction of these sites exhibit strong binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maya Zayats
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Andrew J Brenner
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Peter C Searson
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA.
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Phan NVH, Sussitz HF, Lieberzeit PA. Polymerization Parameters Influencing the QCM Response Characteristics of BSA MIP. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2014; 4:161-71. [PMID: 25587416 PMCID: PMC4264377 DOI: 10.3390/bios4020161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2014] [Revised: 05/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Designing Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for sensing proteins is still a somewhat empirical process due to the inherent complexity of protein imprinting. Based on Bovine Serum Albumin as a model analyte, we explored the influence of a range of experimental parameters on the final sensor responses. The optimized polymer contains 70% cross linker. Lower amounts lead to higher sensitivity, but also sensor response times substantially increase (to up to 10 h) at constant imprinting effect (signal ratio MIP/NIP on quartz crystal microbalance—QCM). However, by shifting the polymer properties to more hydrophilic by replacing methacrylic acid by acrylic acid, part of the decreased sensitivity can be recovered leading to appreciable sensor responses. Changing polymer morphology by bulk imprinting and nanoparticle approaches has much lower influence on sensitivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nam V H Phan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty for Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; E-Mails: (N.V.H.P.); (H.F.S.)
| | - Hermann F Sussitz
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty for Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; E-Mails: (N.V.H.P.); (H.F.S.)
| | - Peter A Lieberzeit
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty for Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währinger Straße 38, A-1090 Vienna, Austria; E-Mails: (N.V.H.P.); (H.F.S.)
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35
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Mathur A, Blais S, Goparaju CMV, Neubert T, Pass H, Levon K. Development of a biosensor for detection of pleural mesothelioma cancer biomarker using surface imprinting. PLoS One 2013; 8:e57681. [PMID: 23516416 PMCID: PMC3596364 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0057681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Accepted: 01/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Hyaluronan-linked protein 1 (HAPLN1) which has been shown to be highly expressed in malignant pleural mesotheliomas (MPM), was detected in serum using an electrochemical surface-imprinting method. First, the detection method was optimized using Bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a model protein to mimic the optimal conditions required to imprint the similar molecular weight protein HAPLN1. BSA was imprinted on the gold electrode with hydroxyl terminated alkane thiols, which formed a self-assembled monolayer (SAM) around BSA. The analyte (BSA) was then washed away and its imprint (empty cavity with shape-memory) was used for detection of BSA in a solution, using electrochemical open-circuit potential method, namely potentiometry. Factors considered to optimize the conditions include incubation time, protein concentration, limit of detection and size of electrode. Matrix assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) was used to confirm selectivity of imprints. With the obtained imprinting control parameters, HAPLN1 was imprinted in duplicate and the detection of spiked HAPLN1 was successfully conducted in serum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aabhas Mathur
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of NYU, Brooklyn, New York, United States of America
| | - Steven Blais
- Kimmel Center of Biology and Medicine at Skirball Institute and Department of Pharmacology, NYU School of Medicine, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Chandra M. V. Goparaju
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, NYU Medical Center, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas Neubert
- Kimmel Center of Biology and Medicine at Skirball Institute and Department of Pharmacology, NYU School of Medicine, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Harvey Pass
- Department of Cardiothoracic Surgery, NYU Medical Center, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Kalle Levon
- Department of Chemical and Biological Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of NYU, Brooklyn, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Wang C, Howell M, Raulji P, Davis Y, Mohapatra S. Preparation and Characterization of Molecularly Imprinted Polymeric Nanoparticles for Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP). ADVANCED FUNCTIONAL MATERIALS 2011; 21:4423-4429. [PMID: 23459692 PMCID: PMC3583218 DOI: 10.1002/adfm.201100946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Natriuretic peptide receptor A (NPRA), the receptor for the cardiac hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), is expressed abundantly on cancer cells and disruption of ANP-NPRA signaling inhibits tumor burden and metastasis. Since antagonists of NPRA signaling have not provided reproducible results, we reasoned that a synthetic neutralizing antibody to ANP, which has high selectivity and affinity for ANP, could be used to regulate ANP levels and attenuate NPRA signaling. In this study, we prepared molecularly imprinted polymer nanoparticles (MIPNPs) for ANP using a short peptide of ANP as the template and determined their binding affinity and selectivity. The MIPNPs were prepared by precipitation polymerization using NH2-SLRRSS-CONH2, which is a short peptide from ANP as template, methacrylic acid (MAA) and N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAm) as functional monomers, bis-acrylamide (BIS) as crosslinker. The average diameter of MIPNPs and non-imprinted nanoparticles (NIPNPs) in water is 215.8 ±4.6 nm and 197.7±3.1 nm respectively. The binding isotherm analysis showed that MIPNPs have a much higher binding affinity for template peptide and ANP than NIPNPs. Scatchard analysis gave an equilibrium dissociation constant, Kd of 7.3 μM with a binding capacity 106.7 μmol/g for template peptide and Kd of 7.9 μM with a binding capacity of 36.0 μmol/g for ANP. Measurements of binding kinetics revealed that MIPNPs reach protein adsorption equilibrium in 30 min. MIPNPs found to have high specificity for ANP with little affinity for BSA or scrambled ANP peptide. MIPNPs also recognized and adsorbed ANP in cell culture media spiked with ANP and human plasma. Taken together, these results indicate that MIPNPs have high affinity and selectivity for ANP and can be used as a synthetic antibody for modulating ANP-NPRA signaling in cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chunyan Wang
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
- Nanomedicine Research Center, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
| | - Mark Howell
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
| | - Payal Raulji
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
| | - Yvonne Davis
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
- Nanomedicine Research Center, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
| | - Subhra Mohapatra
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
- Nanomedicine Research Center, University of South Florida, 12901 Bruce B. Downs Blvd
- James A Haley VA Hospital, 12902 Bruce B. Downs Blvd., Tampa, FL, 33612
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Kryscio DR, Shi Y, Ren P, Peppas NA. Molecular docking simulations for macromolecularly imprinted polymers. Ind Eng Chem Res 2011; 50:13877-13884. [PMID: 22287827 PMCID: PMC3266373 DOI: 10.1021/ie201858n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Molecularly imprinted polymers are fully synthetic antibody mimics prepared via the crosslinking of organic monomers in the presence of an analyte. This general procedure is now well developed for small molecule templates; however, attempts to extend the same techniques to the macromolecular regime have achieved limited success to date. We employ molecular docking simulations to investigate the interactions between albumin, a common protein template, and frequently employed ligands used in the literature at the molecular level. Specifically, we determine the most favorable binding sites for these ligands on albumin and determine the types of non-covalent interactions taking place based on the amino acids present nearby this binding pocket. Our results show that hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interactions, and hydrophobic interactions occur between amino acids side chains and ligands. Several interactions are also taking place with the polypeptide backbone, potentially disrupting the protein's secondary structure. We show that several of the ligands preferentially bind to the same sites on the protein, which indicates that if multiple monomers are used during synthesis then competition for the same amino acids could lead to non-specific recognition. Both of these results provide rational explanations for the lack of success to date in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R. Kryscio
- The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Yue Shi
- The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Pengyu Ren
- The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX 78712, USA
| | - Nicholas A. Peppas
- The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Austin, TX 78712, USA
- The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Rapuano BE, MacDonald DE. Surface oxide net charge of a titanium alloy: modulation of fibronectin-activated attachment and spreading of osteogenic cells. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2011; 82:95-103. [PMID: 20884181 PMCID: PMC3082475 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2010.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2010] [Revised: 08/13/2010] [Accepted: 08/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
In the current study, we have altered the surface oxide properties of a Ti6Al4V alloy using heat treatment or radiofrequency glow discharge (RFGD) in order to evaluate the relationship between the physico-chemical and biological properties of the alloy's surface oxide. The effects of surface pretreatments on the attachment of cells from two osteogenic cell lines (MG63 and MC3T3) and a mesenchymal stem cell line (C3H10T1/2) to fibronectin adsorbed to the alloy were measured. Both heat and RFGD pretreatments produced a several-fold increase in the number of cells that attached to fibronectin adsorbed to the alloy at a range of coating concentrations (0.001-10nM FN) for each cell line tested. An antibody (HFN7.1) directed against the central integrin binding domain of fibronectin produced a 65-70% inhibition of cell attachment to fibronectin-coated disks, indicating that cell attachment to the metal discs was dependent on fibronectin binding to cell integrin receptors. Both treatments also accelerated the cell spreading response manifested by extensive flattening and an increase in mean cellular area. The treatment-induced increases in the cell attachment activity of adsorbed fibronectin were correlated with previously demonstrated increases in Ti6Al4V oxide negative net surface charge at physiological pH produced by both heat and RFGD pretreatments. Since neither treatment increased the adsorption mass of fibronectin, these findings suggest that negatively charged surface oxide functional groups in Ti6Al4V can modulate fibronectin's integrin receptor activity by altering the adsorbed protein's conformation. Our results further suggest that negatively charged functional groups in the surface oxide can play a prominent role in the osseointegration of metallic implant materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruce E. Rapuano
- Hospital for Special Surgery affiliated with the Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 535 East 70 Street, New York, NY 10021, USA
| | - Daniel E. MacDonald
- Hospital for Special Surgery affiliated with the Weill Medical College of Cornell University, 535 East 70 Street, New York, NY 10021, USA
- General Medical Research, James J. Peters VA Medical Center, 130 West Kingsbridge Road, Bronx, NY, 10468, USA
- Langmuir Center for Colloids and Interfaces, Columbia University, 911 S.W. Mudd Building, Mail Code 4711, 500 West 120 Street, New York, NY 10027, USA
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Surface Nano-patterning of Polymers for Mass-Sensitive Biodetection. NANO-BIO-SENSING 2010. [PMCID: PMC7121887 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4419-6169-3_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
The crafting of sensor material of desired features has always remained a challenging task in the field of material designing and predominantly becomes more interesting when analyte belongs to biospecies. Label-free detection of different bioanalytes such as enzymes, viruses, microorganisms, and blood groups through mass-sensitive transducers has gained considerable importance in the development of modern biosensors. Analyte molecules interact with the surface of sensitive layer coated on these devices and as a result of this interaction, the frequency change is determined, which provides quantitative information about the mass of analyte. One of the most vital elements of these detection systems is to design selective sensor coatings through control surface structuring at nanoscale. Molecular imprinting has proven to be a highly suitable technique to generate selective surfaces that are capable of detecting different analytes, quantitatively and qualitatively as well. The tailor-made synthetic antibody cavities are rigid and stable, which are not immediately collapsed upon analyte interaction; moreover, the different bioanalytes do not undergo any phase change and maintain their original identity during analysis. This chapter will discuss the contribution of imprinting methods to design optimized surfaces for mass-sensitive detection of diverse biological species.
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Zeng Z, Hoshino Y, Rodriguez A, Yoo H, Shea KJ. Synthetic polymer nanoparticles with antibody-like affinity for a hydrophilic peptide. ACS NANO 2010; 4:199-204. [PMID: 20014822 PMCID: PMC2815330 DOI: 10.1021/nn901256s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Synthetic polymer nanoparticles with antibody-like affinity for a hydrophilic peptide have been prepared by inverse microemulsion polymerization. Peptide affinity was achieved in part by incorporating the target (imprint) peptide in the polymerization reaction mixture. Incorporation of the imprint peptide assists in the creation of complementary binding sites in the resulting polymer nanoparticle (NP). To orient the imprint peptide at the interface of the water and oil domains during polymerization, the peptide target was coupled with fatty acid chains of varying length. The peptide--NP binding affinities (ca. 90-900 nM) were quantitatively evaluated by a quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). The optimal chain length was established that created high affinity peptide binding sites on the surface of the nanoparticles. This method can be used for the preparation of nanosized synthetic polymers with antibody-like affinity for hydrophilic peptides and proteins ("plastic antibodies").
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyang Zeng
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, California 92697, USA
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Kryscio DR, Peppas NA. Mimicking Biological Delivery Through Feedback-Controlled Drug Release Systems Based on Molecular Imprinting. AIChE J 2009; 55:1311-1324. [PMID: 26500352 DOI: 10.1002/aic.11779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Intelligent drug delivery systems (DDS) are able to rapidly detect a biological event and respond appropriately by releasing a therapeutic agent; thus, they are advantageous over their conventional counterparts. Molecular imprinting is a promising area that generates a polymeric network which can selectively recognize a desired analyte. This field has been studied for a variety of applications over a long period of time, but only recently has it been investigated for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications. Recent work in the area of molecularly imprinted polymers in drug delivery highlights the potential of these recognitive networks as environmentally responsive DDS that can ultimately lead to feedback controlled recognitive release systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David R Kryscio
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Austin, TX 78712
| | - Nicholas A Peppas
- Dept. of Chemical Engineering and Dept. of Biomedical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Cockrell School of Engineering, Austin, TX 78712 Dept. of Pharmaceutics, The University of Texas at Austin, College of Pharmacy, Austin, TX 78712
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SUMAOKA J, KOMIYAMA M. Molecularly Imprinted Polymers for the Recognition of Bimolecules in Water. KOBUNSHI RONBUNSHU 2009. [DOI: 10.1295/koron.66.191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Turner NW, Liu X, Piletsky SA, Hlady V, Britt DW. Recognition of conformational changes in beta-lactoglobulin by molecularly imprinted thin films. Biomacromolecules 2007; 8:2781-7. [PMID: 17665947 PMCID: PMC2637992 DOI: 10.1021/bm7004774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenesis in protein conformational diseases is initiated by changes in protein secondary structure. This molecular restructuring presents an opportunity for novel shape-based detection approaches, as protein molecular weight and chemistry are otherwise unaltered. Here we apply molecular imprinting to discriminate between distinct conformations of the model protein beta-lactoglobulin (BLG). Thermal- and fluoro-alcohol-induced BLG isoforms were imprinted in thin films of 3-aminophenylboronic acid on quartz crystal microbalance chips. Enhanced rebinding of the template isoform was observed in all cases when compared to the binding of nontemplate isoforms over the concentration range of 1-100 microg mL(-1). Furthermore, it was observed that the greater the changes in the secondary structure of the template protein the lower the binding of native BLG challenges to the imprint, suggesting a strong steric influence in the recognition system. This feasibility study is a first demonstration of molecular imprints for recognition of distinct conformations of the same protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W. Turner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
- Cranfield Health, Cranfield University at Silsoe, Silsoe, Bedfordshire, MK45 4DT, U.K
| | - Xiao Liu
- Department of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan Utah 84322
| | - Sergey A. Piletsky
- Cranfield Health, Cranfield University at Silsoe, Silsoe, Bedfordshire, MK45 4DT, U.K
| | - Vladimir Hlady
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112
| | - David W. Britt
- Department of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan Utah 84322
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Turner NW, Wright BE, Hlady V, Britt DW. Formation of protein molecular imprints within Langmuir monolayers: a quartz crystal microbalance study. J Colloid Interface Sci 2006; 308:71-80. [PMID: 17204279 PMCID: PMC2632306 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2006.12.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2006] [Revised: 12/13/2006] [Accepted: 12/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Protein imprinting leading to enhanced rebinding of ferritin to ternary lipid monolayers is demonstrated using a quartz crystal microbalance. Monolayers consisting of cationic dioctadecyldimethylammonium bromide, non-ionic methyl stearate, and poly(ethylene glycol) bearing phospholipids were imprinted with ferritin at the air/water interface of a Langmuir-Blodgett trough and transferred hydrated to hydrophobic substrates for study. This immobilization was shown by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy to significantly hinder any further diffusion of lipids, while rebinding studies demonstrated up to a six-fold increase in ferritin adsorption to imprinted versus control monolayers. A diminished rebinding of ferritin to its imprint was observed through pH reduction to below the protein isoelectric point, demonstrating the electrostatic nature of the interaction. Rebinding to films where imprint pockets remained occupied by the template protein was also minimal. Studies with a smaller acidic protein revealed the importance of the steric influence of poly(ethylene glycol) in forming the protein binding pockets, as albumin-imprinted monolayers showed low binding of ferritin, while ferritin-imprinted monolayers readily accommodated albumin. The controllable structure-function relationship and limitations of this system are discussed with respect to the application of protein imprinting in sensor development as well as fundamental studies of proteins at dynamic interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas W. Turner
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Bryon E. Wright
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
| | - Vladimir Hlady
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
- Corresponding authors. Fax: +1 801 585 5151, +1 435 797 1248. E-mail addresses: (V. Hlady), (D.W. Britt)
| | - David W. Britt
- Department of Biological Engineering, Utah State University, 4105 Old Main Hill, Logan UT 84322, USA
- Corresponding authors. Fax: +1 801 585 5151, +1 435 797 1248. E-mail addresses: (V. Hlady), (D.W. Britt)
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