Methane bioattenuation and implications for explosion risk reduction along the groundwater to soil surface pathway above a plume of dissolved ethanol

Understanding petroleum vapor fate and transport through high resolution analysis of two distinct vapor plumes

No field study has provided a detailed characterization of the molecular composition and spatial distribution of a vadose zone plume of petroleum volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which is critical to improve the current understanding of petroleum VOC transport and fate. This is study reports a high-resolution analysis of two distinct vapor plumes emanating from two different light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) sources (an aliphatic-rich LNAPL for Zone #1vs an aromatic-rich LNAPL for Zone #2) at a large petrochemical site. Although deep soil vapor signatures were similar to the source zone LNAPL signatures, the composition of the shallow soil vapors reflected preferential attenuation of certain hydrocarbons over others during upward transport in the vadose zone. Between deeper and shallower soil gas samples, attenuation of aromatics was observed under all conditions, but important differences were observed in attenuation to aliphatic compound classes. Attenuation of all aliphatic compounds was observed under aerobic conditions but little attenuation of any aliphatics was observed under anoxic conditions without methane. In contrast, under methanogenic conditions, paraffins attenuated more than isoparaffins and naphthenes. These results suggest that isoparafins and naphthenes may present more of a vapor intrusion risk than benzene or other aromatic hydrocarbons commonly considered to be petroleum vapor intrusion risk drivers. While the overall vapor composition changed significantly within the vadose zone, diagnostic ratios of relatively recalcitrant alkylcyclopentanes were preserved in shallow soil vapor samples. These alkylcyclopentanes may be useful for distinguishing between petroleum vapor intrusion and other sources of petroleum VOCs detected in indoor air.

Vapor-phase biodegradation and natural attenuation of petroleum VOCs in the unsaturated zone: A microcosm study

Traditional natural attenuation studies focus on aqueous process in the saturated zone while vapor-phase biodegradation and natural attenuation in the unsaturated zone received much less attention. This study used microcosm experiments to explore the vapor-phase biodegradation and natural attenuation of 23 petroleum VOCs in the unsaturated zone including 7 monoaromatic hydrocarbons, 6 n-alkanes, 4 cycloalkanes, 3 alkylcycloalkanes and 3 fuel ethers. We found that monoaromatic hydrocarbon vapors were easily attenuated with significantly high first-order biodegradation rates (9.48 d^-1-43.20 d^-1) in live yellow earth, of which toluene and benzene had the highest biodegradation rates (43.20 d^-1 and 28.32 d^-1, respectively). The 13 aliphatic hydrocarbons and 3 fuel ethers all have relatively low attenuation rates (<0.54 d^-1) in live soil and negligible biodegradation contribution. We explored the effects of soil types (black soil, yellow earth, lateritic red earth and quartz sand), soil moisture (2, 5, 10, and 17 wt%) contents and temperatures (4, 15, 25, 35 and 45 °C) on the vapor attenuation. Results showed that increasing soil organic matter (SOM) content, silt content, porosity and soil microorganism numbers enhanced contaminant attenuation and remediation efficiency. Increasing moisture content reduced the apparent first-order biodegradation rates of monoaromatic hydrocarbon vapors. The vapor-phase biodegradation had optimal temperature (∼25 °C in yellow earth) and increasing or decreasing temperature slowed down biodegradation rate. Overall, this study enhanced our understanding of vapor-phase biodegradation and natural attenuation of petroleum VOCs in the unsaturated zone, which is critical for the long-term management and remediation of petroleum contaminated site.

Influence of advection on the soil gas radon deficit technique for the quantification of LNAPL

The Radon (Rn) deficit technique is a rapid, low-cost, and non-invasive method to identify and quantify light non-aqueous phase liquids (LNAPL) in the soil. LNAPL saturation is typically estimated from Rn deficit using Rn partition coefficients, assuming equilibrium conditions. This work examines the applicability of this method in the presence of local advective fluxes that can be generated by groundwater fluctuations or biodegradation processes in the source zone. To this end, a one-dimensional analytical model was developed to simulate the steady-state diffusive-advective transport of soil gas Rn in the presence of LNAPL. The analytical solution was first validated against an existing numerical model adapted to include advection. Then a series of simulations to study the effect of advection on Rn profiles were carried out. It was found that in high-permeability soils (such as sandy soils), advective phenomena can significantly affect Rn deficit curves in the subsurface compared with those expected, assuming either equilibrium conditions or a diffusion-dominated transport. Namely, in the presence of pressure gradients generated by groundwater fluctuations, applying the traditional Rn deficit technique (assuming equilibrium conditions) can lead to an underestimation of LNAPL saturation. Furthermore, in the presence of methanogenesis processes (e.g., in the case of a fresh LNAPL of petroleum hydrocarbons), local advective fluxes can be expected above the source zone. In such cases, Rn concentrations above the source zone can be higher than those above background areas without advective phenomena, resulting in Rn deficits higher than 1 (i.e., Rn excess), and thus leading to a wrong interpretation regarding the presence of LNAPL in the subsurface if advection is not considered. Overall, the results obtained suggest that advection should be considered in the presence of pressure gradients in the subsurface to ensure an effective application of the soil gas Rn-deficit technique for quantitative estimation of LNAPL saturation.

Refinement of the gradient method for the estimation of natural source zone depletion at petroleum contaminated sites

Rates of natural source zone depletion (NSZD) are increasingly being used to aid remedial decision making and light non-aqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) longevity estimates at petroleum release sites. Current NSZD estimate methods, based on analyses of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and oxygen (O₂) soil-gas concentration gradients ("gradient method") assume linear concentration profiles with depth. This assumption can underestimate the concentration gradients especially above LNAPL sources that are typically characterized by curvilinear or semi-curvilinear O₂ and CO₂ concentration profiles. In this work, we proposed a new method that relies on calculating the O₂ and CO₂ concentration gradient using a first-order reaction model. The method requires an estimate of the diffusive reaction length that can be easily derived from soil-gas concentration data. A simple step-by-step guide for applying the new method is provided. Nomographs were also developed to facilitate method application. Application of the nomographs using field data from published literature showed that NSZD rates could be underestimated by nearly an order of magnitude if reactivity in the vadose zone is not accounted for. The new method helps refine NSZD rates estimation and improve risk-based decision making at certain petroleum contaminated sites.

Vapor Intrusion Investigations and Decision-Making: A Critical Review

At sites impacted by volatile organic compounds (VOCs), vapor intrusion (VI) is the pathway with the greatest potential to result in actual human exposure. Since sites with VI were first widely publicized in late 1990s, the scientific understanding of VI has evolved considerably. The VI conceptual model has been extended beyond relatively simple scenarios to include nuances, such as biological and hydrogeological factors that may limit the potential for VI and alternative pathways, such as preferential pathways and direct building contact/infiltration that may enhance VI in some cases. Regulatory guidance documents typically recommend initial concentration- or distance-based screening to evaluate whether VI may be a concern, followed by a multiple-lines-of-evidence (MLE) investigation approach for sites that do not screen out. These recommendations for detailed evaluation of VI currently focus on monitoring of VOC concentrations in groundwater, soil gas, and indoor air and can be supplemented by other lines of evidence. In this Critical Review, we summarize key elements important to VI site characterization, provide the status and current understanding, and highlight data interpretation challenges, as well as innovative tools developed to help overcome the challenges. Although there have been significant advances in the understanding of VI in the past 20 years, limitations and knowledge gaps in screening, investigation methods, and modeling approaches still exist. Potential areas for further research include improved initial screening methods that account for the site-specific role of barriers, improved understanding of preferential pathways, and systematic study of buildings and infrastructure other than single-family residences.

High-frequency fluctuations of indoor pressure: A potential driving force for vapor intrusion in urban areas

In this study, we examine the impact of a building's indoor pressure fluctuations in drawing subsurface volatile contaminants into the building, and how the presence of an impervious pavement surrounding the building influences this. Even in the absence of communication between the subsurface soil gas and ambient air fluctuations of building indoor pressure can cause upward advection of contaminated soil gas from the subfoundation zone into a building. For cases with the paved ground surface, the simulated volumetric soil gas entry rates are lower than steady-state cases with constant -5 indoor-outdoor pressure difference, by at least half an order of magnitude. When the indoor pressure fluctuation rate exceeds about 5 Pa/h (which corresponds a sinusoidal fluctuation with a period of 2 h), the predicted indoor air concentration of paved scenarios will be higher than the conventional case. When both the building foundation and surrounding pavement block diffusional escape of the volatile soil gas contaminants to the atmosphere, high subfoundation soil gas contaminant concentrations can exist, and contaminant entry into the building through foundation breaches is enhanced beyond what would be expected from diffusion as the building undergoes normal pressure cycling. Upward advection into the building may be induced even when the indoor pressure appears, based on limited measurements, to be higher than that in the subslab, particularly when the indoor pressure in the building quickly fluctuates. This represents a limitation on VI mitigation approaches that rely on indoor pressurization, if those approaches cannot at the same time control significant fluctuation of indoor pressure.

Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Landfills: A Review and Bibliometric Analysis

The landfill is an important method of disposal of municipal solid waste. In particular, the landfill is especially vital in many developing countries, with it being the main biodegradable waste disposal method due to its simple management and ability for mass manipulation. Landfills have recently been shown to be an important source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by researchers in different countries. However, few reviews have been conducted within the related fields, which means that there is still a lack of comprehensive understanding related to relevant study achievements. In this study, a bibliometric analysis of articles published from 1999 to 2018 on landfill GHG emissions was presented to assess the current trends, using the Web of Science (WOS) database. The most productive countries/territories, authors and journals were analyzed. Moreover, the overall research structure was characterized based on co-cited references, emerging keywords and reference citations by means of bibliometric analysis. Due to the increasing amount of attention being paid to the GHG emissions and their mitigation methods, this study provided comprehensive bibliometric information on GHG emissions from landfills over the past two decades and highlighted the importance of the development and dissemination of updated knowledge frameworks.

Modeling capillary fringe effect on petroleum vapor intrusion from groundwater contamination

At contaminated sites, indoor inhalation of volatile organic compounds from groundwater contamination, known as vapor intrusion (VI), is an important exposure pathway to determine groundwater cleanup level. Based on empirical analysis, US EPA concluded that there is a low probability for vapors from fuel hydrocarbons dissolved in groundwater to induce indoor concentrations that exceed risk-based standards, and recommended 6 feet vertical building-source separation distance as the risk screening tool for such cases. In this study, we examine this recommendation by performing numerical modeling to investigate the detailed effects of the capillary fringe on petroleum vapor biodegradation and attenuation. First, the numerical model is validated by comparison with laboratory data and field measurements in US EPA's database. Then the verified model is used to simulate two scenarios involving the capillary fringe effect, one with a groundwater source at various depth and the other with a soil gas source located above the groundwater level. For a groundwater contaminant source, the capillary fringe plays a significant role in VI by controlling the soil moisture content and oxygen availability, thus affecting the soil gas concentration biodegradation and attenuation. Specifically, the capillary fringe effect can significantly decrease the indoor air concentration by decreasing upward diffusion rates of hydrocarbon, increasing the thickness of the aerobic zone, and enhancing aerobic biodegradation. As a result, it is highly unlikely for sources located at groundwater level to induce unacceptable vapor intrusion risks, supporting US EPA's recommendation. Moreover, the simulations suggest that the vertical smear zone of residual light non-aqueous liquid contamination, induced by temporal fluctuations of groundwater level, may lead to a potential threat to indoor air quality for a short vertical source-building separation distance, and thus requires more attention. The sensitivity test of the numerical model also indicates that it is the vertical separation distance between building foundation and the top of the smear zone instead of the smear zone thickness that should be given more attention during the investigation.

Anaerobic biodegradation of dissolved ethanol in a pilot-scale sand aquifer: Gas phase dynamics

Groundwater contamination from ethanol (e.g., alternative fuels) can support vigorous biodegradation, with many possible reactions producing dissolved gases. The objective of this study was to improve the understanding of the development and evolution of trapped gas phase changes occurring within an ethanol plume undergoing biodegradation. The experiment performed involved highly detailed spatial and temporal monitoring of gas phase saturations using Time Domain Reflectometry probes embedded in a 2-dimensional (175 cm high × 525 cm long) synthetic aquifer (homogeneous sand tank with horizontal groundwater flow). Ethanol injection immediately promoted gas-producing reactions, including: fermentation, denitrification, sulphate-reduction and iron(III)-reduction, with methanogenesis developing between 69 and 109 days. Substantial in situ increases in trapped gas were observed over ~330 days, with maximum gas saturations reaching 27% of the pore volume. Despite sustained gas production, this maximum was never exceeded, likely due to the onset of gas phase mobilization (i.e., ebullition) upon reaching a buoyancy-capillarity threshold. Reductions in the quasi-saturated hydraulic conductivity, resulting from the gas phase accumulation, were restricted by ebullition to a factor of ≤2; but still appeared to alter the groundwater flow field. Overall, trapped gas saturations exhibited high spatial and temporal variability, including declines within the plume and increases outside of the plume. Influential factors included vertically-shifting ethanol inputs and resultant secondary redox reactions, microbial controls on redox zonation, ebullition, and altered groundwater flows. These observations have implications for the transport of gases and volatile compounds within plumes and above the water table at sites with groundwater contamination from ethanol or other highly degradable organics.

Using dynamic flux chambers to estimate the natural attenuation rates in the subsurface at petroleum contaminated sites

In this work, we introduce a screening method for the evaluation of the natural attenuation rates in the subsurface at sites contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons. The method is based on the combination of the data obtained from standard source characterization with dynamic flux chambers measurements. The natural attenuation rates are calculated as difference between the flux of contaminants estimated with a non-reactive diffusive model starting from the concentrations of the contaminants detected in the source (soil and/or groundwater) and the effective emission rate of the contaminants measured using dynamic flux chambers installed at ground level. The reliability of this approach was tested in a contaminated site characterized by the presence of BTEX in soil and groundwater. Namely, the BTEX emission rates from the subsurface were measured in 4 seasonal campaigns using dynamic flux chambers installed in 14 sampling points. The comparison of measured fluxes with those predicted using a non-reactive diffusive model, starting from the source concentrations, showed that, in line with other recent studies, the modelling approach can overestimate the expected outdoor concentration of petroleum hydrocarbons even up to 4 orders of magnitude. On the other hand, by coupling the measured data with the fluxes estimated with the diffusive non-reactive model, it was possible to perform a mass balance to evaluate the natural attenuation loss rates of petroleum hydrocarbons during the migration from the source to ground level. Based on this comparison, the estimated BTEX loss rates in the test site were up to almost 0.5kg/year/m². These rates are in line with the values reported in the recent literature for natural source zone depletion. In short, the method presented in this work can represent an easy-to-use and cost-effective option that can provide a further line of evidence of natural attenuation rates expected at contaminated sites.

Anaerobic biodegradation of dissolved ethanol in a pilot-scale sand aquifer: Variability in plume (redox) biogeochemistry

The use of ethanol in alternative fuels has led to contamination of groundwater with high concentrations of this easily biodegradable organic compound. Previous laboratory and field studies have shown vigorous biodegradation of ethanol plumes, with prevalence of reducing conditions and methanogenesis. The objective of this study was to further our understanding of the dynamic biogeochemistry processes, especially dissolved gas production, that may occur in developing and aging plume cores at sites with ethanol or other organic contamination of groundwater. The experiment performed involved highly-detailed spatial and temporal monitoring of ethanol biodegradation in a 2-dimensional (175cm high×525cm long) sand aquifer tank for 330days, with a vertical shift in plume position and increased nutrient inputs occurring at ~Day 100. Rapid onset of fermentation, denitrification, sulphate-reduction and iron(III)-reduction occurred following dissolved ethanol addition, with the eventual widespread development of methanogenesis. The detailed observations also demonstrate a redox zonation that supports the plume fringe concept, secondary reactions resulting from a changing/moving plume, and time lags for the various biodegradation processes. Additional highlights include: i) the highest dissolved H₂ concentrations yet reported for groundwater, possibly linked to vigorous fermentation in the absence of common terminal electron-acceptors (i.e., dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and sulphate, and iron(III)-minerals) and methanogenesis; ii) evidence of phosphorus nutrient limitation, which stalled ethanol biodegradation and perhaps delayed the onset of methanogenesis; and iii) the occurrence of dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonium, which has not been reported for ethanol biodegradation to date.

Vapor intrusion risk of fuel ether oxygenates methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME) and ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE): A modeling study

Vapor intrusion of synthetic fuel additives represents a critical yet still neglected problem at sites contaminated by petroleum fuel releases. This study used an advanced numerical model to investigate the vapor intrusion potential of fuel ether oxygenates methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), tert-amyl methyl ether (TAME), and ethyl tert-butyl ether (ETBE). Simulated indoor air concentration of these compounds can exceed USEPA indoor air screening level for MTBE (110μg/m³). Our results also reveal that MTBE has much higher chance to cause vapor intrusion problems than TAME and ETBE. This study supports the statements made by USEPA in the Petroleum Vapor Intrusion (PVI) Guidance that the vertical screening criteria for petroleum hydrocarbons may not provide sufficient protectiveness for fuel additives, and ether oxygenates in particular. In addition to adverse impacts on human health, ether oxygenate vapor intrusion may also cause aesthetic problems (i.e., odour and flavour). Overall, this study points out that ether oxygenates can cause vapor intrusion problems. We recommend that USEPA consider including the field measurement data of synthetic fuel additives in the existing PVI database and possibly revising the PVI Guidance as necessary.

Bubble-Facilitated VOC Transport from LNAPL Smear Zones and Its Potential Effect on Vapor Intrusion

Most conceptual and mathematical models of soil vapor intrusion assume that the transport of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from a source toward a building is limited by diffusion through the soil gas. Under conditions where advection occurs, transport rates are higher and can lead to higher indoor air concentrations. Advection-dominated conditions can be created by gas bubble flow in the saturated zone. A series of laboratory column experiments were conducted to measure mass flux due to bubble-facilitated VOC transport from light nonaqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) smear zones. Smear zones that contained both LNAPL residual and trapped gas, as well as those that contained only LNAPL residual, were investigated. Results showed that the VOC mass flux due to bubble-facilitated transport was orders-of-magnitude higher than under diffusion-limited conditions. Results also showed that the mass flux due to bubble-facilitated transport was intermittent, and increased with an increased supply of dissolved gases.

Comparison between PVI2D and Abreu-Johnson's Model for Petroleum Vapor Intrusion Assessment

Recently, we have developed a two-dimensional analytical petroleum vapor intrusion model, PVI2D (petroleum vapor intrusion, two-dimensional), which can help users to easily visualize soil gas concentration profiles and indoor concentrations as a function of site-specific conditions such as source strength and depth, reaction rate constant, soil characteristics, and building features. In this study, we made a full comparison of the results returned by PVI2D and those obtained using Abreu and Johnson's three-dimensional numerical model (AJM). These comparisons, examined as a function of the source strength, source depth, and reaction rate constant, show that PVI2D can provide similar soil gas concentration profiles and source-to-indoor air attenuation factors (within one order of magnitude difference) as those by the AJM. The differences between the two models can be ascribed to some simplifying assumptions used in PVI2D and to some numerical limitations of the AJM in simulating strictly piecewise aerobic biodegradation and no-flux boundary conditions. Overall, the obtained results show that for cases involving homogenous source and soil, PVI2D can represent a valid alternative to more rigorous three-dimensional numerical models.

Estimating the oxygenated zone beneath building foundations for petroleum vapor intrusion assessment

Previous studies show that aerobic biodegradation can effectively reduce hydrocarbon soil gas concentrations by orders of magnitude. Increasingly, oxygen limited biodegradation is being included in petroleum vapor intrusion (PVI) guidance for risk assessment at leaking underground storage tank sites. The application of PVI risk screening tools is aided by the knowledge of subslab oxygen conditions, which, however, are not commonly measured during site investigations. Here we introduce an algebraically explicit analytical method that can estimate oxygen conditions beneath the building slab, for PVI scenarios with impervious or pervious building foundations. Simulation results by this new model are then used to illustrate the role of site-specific conditions in determining the oxygen replenishment below the building for both scenarios. Furthermore, critical slab-width-to-source-depth ratios and critical source depths for the establishment of a subslab "oxygen shadow" (i.e. anoxic zone below the building) are provided as a function of key parameters such as vapor source concentration, effective diffusion coefficients of concrete and building depth. For impervious slab scenarios the obtained results are shown in good agreement with findings by previous studies and further support the recommendation by U.S. EPA about the inapplicability of vertical exclusion distances for scenarios involving large buildings and high source concentrations. For pervious slabs, results by this new model indicate that even relatively low effective diffusion coefficients of concrete can facilitate the oxygen transport into the subsurface below the building and create oxygenated conditions below the whole slab foundation favorable for petroleum vapor biodegradation.

Vapor intrusion risk of lead scavengers 1,2-dibromoethane (EDB) and 1,2-dichloroethane (DCA)

Vapor intrusion of synthetic fuel additives represented a critical yet still neglected problem at sites impacted by petroleum fuel releases. This study used an advanced numerical model to simulate the vapor intrusion risk of lead scavengers 1,2-dibromoethane (ethylene dibromide, EDB) and 1,2-dichloroethane (DCA) under different site conditions. We found that simulated EDB and DCA indoor air concentrations can exceed USEPA screening level (4.7 × 10(-3) μg/m(3) for EDB and 1.1 × 10(-1) μg/m(3) for DCA) if the source concentration is high enough (is still within the concentration range found at leaking UST site). To evaluate the chance that vapor intrusion of EDB might exceed the USEPA screening levels for indoor air, the simulation results were compared to the distribution of EDB at leaking UST sites in the US. If there is no degradation of EDB or only abiotic degradation of EDB, from 15% to 37% of leaking UST sites might exceed the USEPA screening level. This study supports the statements made by USEPA in the Petroleum Vapor Intrusion (PVI) Guidance that the screening criteria for petroleum hydrocarbon may not provide sufficient protectiveness for fuel releases containing EDB and DCA. Based on a thorough literature review, we also compiled previous published data on the EDB and DCA groundwater source concentrations and their degradation rates. These data are valuable in evaluating EDB and DCA vapor intrusion risk. In addition, a set of refined attenuation factors based on site-specific information (e.g., soil types, source depths, and degradation rates) were provided for establishing site-specific screening criteria for EDB and DCA. Overall, this study points out that lead scavengers EDB and DCA may cause vapor intrusion problems. As more field data of EDB and DCA become available, we recommend that USEPA consider including these data in the existing PVI database and possibly revising the PVI Guidance as necessary.

Sensitivity and uncertainty analysis for Abreu & Johnson numerical vapor intrusion model

This study conducted one-at-a-time (OAT) sensitivity and uncertainty analysis for a numerical vapor intrusion model for nine input parameters, including soil porosity, soil moisture, soil air permeability, aerobic biodegradation rate, building depressurization, crack width, floor thickness, building volume, and indoor air exchange rate. Simulations were performed for three soil types (clay, silt, and sand), two source depths (3 and 8m), and two source concentrations (1 and 400 g/m(3)). Model sensitivity and uncertainty for shallow and high-concentration vapor sources (3m and 400 g/m(3)) are much smaller than for deep and low-concentration sources (8m and 1g/m(3)). For high-concentration sources, soil air permeability, indoor air exchange rate, and building depressurization (for high permeable soil like sand) are key contributors to model output uncertainty. For low-concentration sources, soil porosity, soil moisture, aerobic biodegradation rate and soil gas permeability are key contributors to model output uncertainty. Another important finding is that impacts of aerobic biodegradation on vapor intrusion potential of petroleum hydrocarbons are negligible when vapor source concentration is high, because of insufficient oxygen supply that limits aerobic biodegradation activities.

A two-dimensional analytical model of petroleum vapor intrusion

In this study we present an analytical solution of a two-dimensional petroleum vapor intrusion model, which incorporates a steady-state diffusion-dominated vapor transport in a homogeneous soil and piecewise first-order aerobic biodegradation limited by oxygen availability. This new model can help practitioners to easily generate two-dimensional soil gas concentration profiles for both hydrocarbons and oxygen and estimate hydrocarbon indoor air concentrations as a function of site-specific conditions such as source strength and depth, reaction rate constant, soil characteristics and building features. The soil gas concentration profiles generated by this new model are shown in good agreement with three-dimensional numerical simulations and two-dimensional measured soil gas data from a field study. This implies that for cases involving diffusion dominated soil gas transport, steady state conditions and homogenous source and soil, this analytical model can be used as a fast and easy-to-use risk screening tool by replicating the results of 3-D numerical simulations but with much less computational effort.

Potential application of biocover soils to landfills for mitigating toluene emission

Biocover soils have been demonstrated to be a good alternative cover material to mitigate CH4 emission from landfills. To evaluate the potential of biocover soil in mitigating emissions of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) from landfills, simulated cover soil columns with the influx of toluene (chosen as typical of NMVOCs) concentrations of 102-1336 mg m(-3) in the presence or absence of the major landfill gas components (i.e., CH4 and CO2) were conducted in this study. In the two experimental materials (waste biocover soils (WBS) and landfill cover soils (LCS)), higher toluene reduction was observed in WBS with respect to LCS. After the introduction of landfill gas, an increase of microbial diversity and relative abundance of toluene-degrading bacteria and methanotrophs occurred in WBS. To illustrate the role of toluene-degrading activity in mitigating toluene emissions through landfill covers, an analytical model was developed by incorporating the steady-state vapor transport with the first-order kinetics of aerobic biodegradation limited by O2 availability. This study demonstrated that biocover soils have great potential in applying to landfills for mitigating toluene emission to the atmosphere.

Relating subsurface temperature changes to microbial activity at a crude oil-contaminated site

Crude oil at a spill site near Bemidji, Minnesota has been undergoing aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation for over 30 years, creating a 150-200 m plume of primary and secondary contaminants. Microbial degradation generates heat that should be measurable under the right conditions. To measure this heat, thermistors were installed in wells in the saturated zone and in water-filled monitoring tubes in the unsaturated zone. In the saturated zone, a thermal groundwater plume originates near the residual oil body with temperatures ranging from 2.9°C above background near the oil to 1.2°C down gradient. Temperatures in the unsaturated zone above the oil body were up to 2.7°C more than background temperatures. Previous work at this site has shown that methane produced from biodegradation of the oil migrates upward and is oxidized in a methanotrophic zone midway between the water table and the surface. Enthalpy calculations and observations demonstrate that the temperature increases primarily result from aerobic methane oxidation in the unsaturated zone above the oil. Methane oxidation rates at the site independently estimated from surface CO2 efflux data are comparable to rates estimated from the observed temperature increases. The results indicate that temperature may be useful as a low-cost measure of activity but care is required to account for the correct heat-generating reactions, other heat sources and the effects of focused recharge.

A Petroleum Vapor Intrusion Model Involving Upward Advective Soil Gas Flow Due to Methane Generation

At petroleum vapor intrusion (PVI) sites at which there is significant methane generation, upward advective soil gas transport may be observed. To evaluate the health and explosion risks that may exist under such scenarios, a one-dimensional analytical model describing these processes is introduced in this study. This new model accounts for both advective and diffusive transport in soil gas and couples this with a piecewise first-order aerobic biodegradation model, limited by oxygen availability. The predicted results from the new model are shown to be in good agreement with the simulation results obtained from a three-dimensional numerical model. These results suggest that this analytical model is suitable for describing cases involving open ground surface beyond the foundation edge, serving as the primary oxygen source. This new analytical model indicates that the major contribution of upward advection to indoor air concentration could be limited to the increase of soil gas entry rate, since the oxygen in soil might already be depleted owing to the associated high methane source vapor concentration.

Groundwater ecosystem resilience to organic contaminations: microbial and geochemical dynamics throughout the 5-year life cycle of a surrogate ethanol blend fuel plume

The capacity of groundwater ecosystem to recover from contamination by organic chemicals is a vital concern for environmental scientists. A pilot-scale aquifer system was used to investigate the long-term dynamics of contaminants, groundwater geochemistry, and microbial community structure (by 16S rRNA gene pyrosequencing and quantitative real-time PCR) throughout the 5-year life cycle of a surrogate ethanol blend fuel plume (10% ethanol + 50 mg/L benzene + 50 mg/L toluene). Two-year continuous ethanol-blended release significantly changed the groundwater geochemistry (resulted in anaerobic, low pH, and organotrophic conditions) and increased bacterial and archaeal populations by 82- and 314-fold respectively. Various anaerobic heterotrophs (fermenters, acetogens, methanogens, and hydrocarbon degraders) were enriched. Two years after the release was shut off, all contaminants and their degradation byproducts disappeared and groundwater geochemistry completely restored to the pre-release states (aerobic, neutral pH, and oligotrophic). Bacterial and archaeal populations declined by 18- and 45-fold respectively (relative to the time of shut off). Microbial community structure reverted towards the pre-release states and alpha diversity indices rebounded, suggesting the resilience of microbial community to ethanol blend releases. We also found shifts from O2-sensitive methanogens (e.g., Methanobacterium) to methanogens that are not so sensitive to O2 (e.g., Methanosarcina and Methanocella), which is likely to contribute to the persistence of methanogens and methane generation following the source removal. Overall, the rapid disappearance of contaminants and their metabolites, rebound of geochemical footprints, and resilience of microbial community unequivocally document the natural capacity of groundwater ecosystem to attenuate and recover from a large volume of catastrophic spill of ethanol-based biofuel.

Succession of microbial functional communities in response to a pilot-scale ethanol-blended fuel release throughout the plume life cycle

GeoChip, a comprehensive gene microarray, was used to examine changes in microbial functional gene structure throughout the 4-year life cycle of a pilot-scale ethanol blend plume, including 2-year continuous released followed by plume disappearance after source removal. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) and Mantel tests showed that dissolved O2 (which was depleted within 5 days of initiating the release and rebounded 194 days after source removal) was the most influential environmental factor on community structure. Initially, the abundance of anaerobic BTEX degradation genes increased significantly while that of aerobic BTEX degradation genes decreased. Gene abundance for N fixation, nitrification, P utilization, sulfate reduction and S oxidation also increased, potentially changing associated biogeochemical cycle dynamics. After plume disappearance, most genes returned to pre-release abundance levels, but the final functional structure significantly differed from pre-release conditions. Overall, observed successions of functional structure reflected adaptive responses that were conducive to biodegradation of ethanol-blend releases.

Increased fermentation activity and persistent methanogenesis in a model aquifer system following source removal of an ethanol blend release

The increased probability of groundwater contamination by ethanol-blended fuel calls for improved understanding of how remediation efforts affect the fate and transport of constituents of concern, including the generation and fate of fermentation byproducts. A pilot-scale (8 m³) model aquifer was used to investigate changes in the concentrations of ethanol and its metabolites (methane and volatile fatty acids) after removal of the contamination source. Following the shut-off of a continuous release of a dissolved ethanol blend (10% v:v ethanol, 50 mg/L benzene, and 50 mg/L toluene), fermentation activity was surprisingly stimulated and the concentrations of ethanol metabolites increased. A microcosm experiment showed that this result was due to a decrease in the dissolved ethanol concentration below its toxicity threshold (∼2000 mg/L for this system). Methane generation (>1.5 mg/L of dissolved methane) persisted for more than 100 days after the disappearance of ethanol, despite clean air-saturated water flowing continuously through the tank at a relative high seepage velocity (0.76 m/day). Quantitative real-time PCR showed that functional genes associated with methane metabolism (mcrA for methanogenesis and pmoA for methanotrophy) also persisted in the aquifer material. Persistent methanogenesis was apparently due to the anaerobic degradation of soil-bound organic carbon (e.g., biomass grown on ethanol and other substrates). Overall, this study reflects the complex plume dynamics following source removal, and suggests that monitoring for increases in the concentration of ethanol metabolites that impact groundwater quality should be considered.

Vapor intrusion screening model for the evaluation of risk-based vertical exclusion distances at petroleum contaminated sites

The key role of biodegradation in attenuating the migration of petroleum hydrocarbon vapors into the indoor environments has been deeply investigated in the last decades. Very recently, empirical screening levels for the separation distance from the source, above which the potential for vapor intrusion can be considered negligible, were defined. In this paper, an analytical solution that allows one to predict risk-based vertical screening distances for hydrocarbons compounds is presented. The proposed solution relies on a 1-D vapor intrusion model that incorporates a piecewise first-order aerobic biodegradation limited by oxygen availability and accounts also for the effect of the building footprint. The model predictions are shown to be consistent with the results obtained using a 3-D numerical model and with the empirical screening criteria defined by U.S.EPA and CRC care. However, the different simulations carried out show that in some specific cases (e.g., large building footprint, high methane concentration, and low attenuation in the capillary fringe), the respect of these empirical screening criteria could be insufficient to guarantee soil-gas concentrations below acceptable risk-based levels.

Numerical model investigation for potential methane explosion and benzene vapor intrusion associated with high-ethanol blend releases

Ethanol-blended fuel releases usually stimulate methanogenesis in the subsurface, which could pose an explosion risk if methane accumulates in a confined space above the ground where ignitable conditions exist. Ethanol-derived methane may also increase the vapor intrusion potential of toxic fuel hydrocarbons by stimulating the depletion of oxygen by methanotrophs, and thus inhibiting aerobic biodegradation of hydrocarbon vapors. To assess these processes, a three-dimensional numerical vapor intrusion model was used to simulate the degradation, migration, and intrusion pathway of methane and benzene under different site conditions. Simulations show that methane is unlikely to build up to pose an explosion hazard (5% v/v) if diffusion is the only mass transport mechanism through the deeper vadose zone. However, if methanogenic activity near the source zone is sufficiently high to cause advective gas transport, then the methane indoor concentration may exceed the flammable threshold under simulated conditions. During subsurface migration, methane biodegradation could consume soil oxygen that would otherwise be available to support hydrocarbon degradation, and increase the vapor intrusion potential for benzene. Vapor intrusion would also be exacerbated if methanogenic activity results in sufficiently high pressure to cause advective gas transport in the unsaturated zone. Overall, our simulations show that current approaches to manage the vapor intrusion risk for conventional fuel released might need to be modified when dealing with some high ethanol blend fuel (i.e., E20 up to E95) releases.

A numerical investigation of oxygen concentration dependence on biodegradation rate laws in vapor intrusion

In subsurface vapor intrusion, aerobic biodegradation has been considered as a major environmental factor that determines the soil gas concentration attenuation factors for contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons. The site investigation has shown that oxygen can play an important role in this biodegradation rate, and this paper explores the influence of oxygen concentration on biodegradation reactions included in vapor intrusion (VI) models. Two different three dimensional (3-D) numerical models of vapor intrusion were explored for their sensitivity to the form of the biodegradation rate law. A second order biodegradation rate law, explicitly including oxygen concentration dependence, was introduced into one model. The results indicate that the aerobic/anoxic interface depth is determined by the ratio of contaminant source vapor to atmospheric oxygen concentration, and that the contaminant concentration profile in the aerobic zone was significantly influenced by the choice of rate law.

Methane emissions and contaminant degradation rates at sites affected by accidental releases of denatured fuel-grade ethanol

The recent increase in the use of denatured fuel-grade ethanol (DFE) has enhanced the probability of its environmental release. Due to the highly labile nature of ethanol (EtOH), it is expected to rapidly biodegrade, increasing the potential for inducing methanogenic conditions in the subsurface. As environmental releases of DFE can be expected to occur at the ground surface or in the vadose zone (e.g., due to surficial spills from rail lines or tanker trucks and leaking underground storage tanks), the potential for methane (CH4) generation at DFE spill sites requires evaluation. An assessment is needed because high CH4 generation rates may lead to CH4 fluxes towards the ground surface, which is of particular concern if spills are located close to human habitation-related to concerns of soil vapor intrusion (SVI). This work demonstrates, for the first time, the measurement of surficial gas release rates at large volume DFE spill sites. Two study sites, near Cambria and Balaton, in MN are investigated. Total carbon emissions at the ground surface (summing carbon dioxide (CO2) and CH4 emissions) are used to quantify depth-integrated DFE degradation rates. Results from both sites demonstrate that substantial CO2 and CH4 emissions do occur-even years after a spill. However, large total carbon fluxes, and CH4 emissions in particular, were restricted to a localized area within the DFE source zone. At the Balaton site, estimates of total DFE carbon losses in the source zone ranged between 5 and 174 μmol m(-2) s(-1), and CH4 effluxes ranged between non-detect and 9 μmol m(-2) s(-1). At the Cambria site estimates of total DFE carbon losses in the source zone ranged between 8 and 500 μmol m(-2) s(-1), and CH4 effluxes ranged between non-detect and 393 μmol m(-2) s(-1). Substantial CH4 accumulation, coupled with oxygen (O2) depletion, measured in samples collected from custom-designed gas collection chambers at the Cambria site suggests that the development of explosion or asphyxiation hazards is possible in confined spaces above a rapidly degrading DFE release. However, the results also indicate that the development of such hazards is locally constrained, will require a high degree of soil moisture, close proximity to the source zone, a good connection between the soil and the confined space, and poorly aerated conditions.

Impacts of an ethanol-blended fuel release on groundwater and fate of produced methane: Simulation of field observations

In a field experiment at Vandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB) designed to mimic the impact of a small-volume release of E10 (10% ethanol and 90% conventional gasoline), two plumes were created by injecting extracted groundwater spiked with benzene, toluene, and o-xylene, abbreviated BToX (No-Ethanol Lane) and BToX plus ethanol (With-Ethanol Lane) for 283 days. We developed a reactive transport model to understand processes controlling the fate of ethanol and BToX. The model was calibrated to the extensive field dataset and accounted for concentrations of sulfate, iron, acetate, and methane along with iron-reducing bacteria, sulfate-reducing bacteria, fermentative bacteria, and methanogenic archaea. The benzene plume was about 4.5 times longer in the With-Ethanol Lane than in the No-Ethanol Lane. Matching this different behavior in the two lanes required inhibiting benzene degradation in the presence of ethanol. Inclusion of iron reduction with negligible growth of iron-reducers was required to reproduce the observed constant degradation rate of benzene. Modeling suggested that vertical dispersion and diffusion of sulfate from an adjacent aquitard were important sources of sulfate in the aquifer. Matching of methane data required incorporating initial fermentation of ethanol to acetate, methane loss by outgassing, and methane oxidation coupled to sulfate and iron reduction. Simulation of microbial growth using dual Monod kinetics, and including inhibition by more favorable electron acceptors, generally resulted in reasonable yields for microbial growth of 0.01-0.05.

Biodegradation of chlorobenzene, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, and 1,4-dichlorobenzene in the vadose zone

Much of the microbial activity in nature takes place at interfaces, which are often associated with redox discontinuities. One example is the oxic/anoxic interface where polluted groundwater interacts with the overlying vadose zone. We tested whether microbes in the vadose zone can use synthetic chemicals as electron donors and thus protect the overlying air and buildings from groundwater pollutants. Samples from the vadose zone of a site contaminated with chlorobenzene (CB), 1,2-dichlorobenzene (12DCB), and 1,4-dichlorobenzene (14DCB) were packed in a multiport column to simulate the interface of the vadose zone with an underlying groundwater plume. A mixture of CB, 12DCB, and 14DCB in anoxic water was pumped continuously through the bottom of column to an outlet below the first sampling port to create an oxic/anoxic interface and a capillary fringe. Removal to below the detection limits by rapid biodegradation with rates of 21 ± 1 mg of CB • m(-2) • d(-1), 3.7 ± 0.5 mg of 12DCB • m(-2) • d(-1), and 7.4 ± 0.7 mg of 1.4 DCB • m(-2) • d(-1) indicated that natural attenuation in the capillary fringe can prevent the migration of CB, 12DCB, and 14DCB vapors. Enumeration of bacteria capable of degrading chlorobenzenes suggested that most of the biodegradation takes place within the first 10 cm above the saturated zone. Biodegradation also increased the upward flux of contaminants and thus enhanced their elimination from the underlying water. The results revealed a substantial biodegradation capacity for chlorinated aromatic compounds at the oxic/anoxic interface and illustrate the role of microbes in creating steep redox gradients.

Adaptive microbial population shifts in response to a continuous ethanol blend release increases biodegradation potential

The fate of fuel releases largely depends on the poorly-understood response in microbial community structure and function. Here, we evaluate the impacts to the microbial community resulting from a pilot-scale continuous release (10 months) of a 10% v:v ethanol solution mixed with benzene and toluene (50 mg/L each). Microbial population shifts were characterized by pyrosequencing-based 16S rRNA analysis and by quantitative PCR targeting Bacteria, Archaea, and functional genes for methanogenesis (mcrA), acetogenesis (fhs) and aerobic degradation of aromatic hydrocarbons (PHE), which could occur in hypoxic micro-environments. The release stimulated microbial growth, increased species richness and diversity, and selected for genotypes involved in fermentative degradation (the relative abundance of mcrA and fhs increased 18- and 6-fold, respectively). The growth of putative hydrocarbon degraders and commensal anaerobes, and increases in microbial diversity and in degradation rates suggest an adaptive response that increases the potential for natural attenuation of ethanol blend releases.

Analytical model for BTEX natural attenuation in the presence of fuel ethanol and its anaerobic metabolite acetate

Flow-through column studies were conducted to mimic the natural attenuation of ethanol and BTEX mixtures, and to consider potential inhibitory effects of ethanol and its anaerobic metabolite acetate on BTEX biodegradation. Results were analyzed using a one-dimensional analytical model that was developed using consecutive reaction differential equations based on first-order kinetics. Decrease in pH due to acetogenesis was also modeled, using charge balance equations under CaCO(3) dissolution conditions. Delay in BTEX removal was observed and simulated in the presence of ethanol and acetate. Acetate was the major volatile fatty acid intermediate produced during anaerobic ethanol biodegradation (accounting for about 58% of the volatile fatty acid mass) as suggested by the model data fit. Acetate accumulation (up to 1.1 g/L) near the source zone contributed to a pH decrease by almost one unit. The anaerobic degradation of ethanol (2 g/L influent concentration) at the source zone produced methane at concentrations exceeding its solubility (~/=26mg/L). Overall, this simple analytical model adequately described ethanol degradation, acetate accumulation and methane production patterns, suggesting that it could be used as a screening tool to simulate lag times in BTEX biodegradation, changes in groundwater pH and methane generation following ethanol-blended fuel releases.