Spectroscopic and Electronic Structural Studies of Blue Copper Model Complexes. 1. Perturbation of the Thiolate−Cu Bond

Trivalent Cations Slow Electron Transfer to Macrocyclic Heterobimetallic Complexes

Incorporation of secondary redox-inactive cations into heterobimetallic complexes is an attractive strategy for modulation of metal-centered redox chemistry, but quantification of the consequences of incorporating strongly Lewis acidic trivalent cations has received little attention. Here, a family of seven heterobimetallic complexes that pair a redox-active nickel center with La3+, Y3+, Lu3+, Sr2+, Ca2+, K+, and Na+ (in the form of their triflate salts) have been prepared on a heteroditopic ligand platform to understand how chemical behavior varies across the comprehensive series. Structural data from X-ray diffraction analysis demonstrate that the positions adopted by the secondary cations in the crown-ether-like site of the ligand relative to nickel are dependent primarily on the secondary cations' ionic radii and that the triflate counteranions are bound to the cations in all cases. Electrochemical data, in concert with electron paramagnetic resonance studies, show that nickel(II)/nickel(I) redox is modulated by the secondary metals; the heterogeneous electron-transfer rate is diminished for the derivatives incorporating trivalent metals, an effect that is dependent on steric crowding about the nickel metal center and that was quantified here with a topographical free-volume analysis. As related analyses carried out here on previously reported systems bear out similar relationships, we conclude that the placement and identity of both the secondary metal cations and their associated counteranions can afford unique changes in the (electro)chemical behavior of heterobimetallic species.

Electrostatic regulation of blue copper sites

In the last 50 years, the blue copper proteins became central targets of investigation. Extensive experiments focused on the Cu coordination to probe the effect of local perturbations on its properties. We found that local electric fields, generated by charged residues evolutionarily placed throughout the protein edifice, mainly second sphere, but also more remotely, constitute an additional significant factor regulating blue copper proteins. These fields are not random, but exhibit a highly specific directionality, negative with respect to the and vectors in the Cu first shell. The field magnitude contributes to fine-tuning of the geometric and electronic properties of Cu sites in individual blue copper proteins. Specifically, the local electric fields evidently control the Cu–S_Met bond distance, Cu(ii)–S_Cys bond covalency, and the energies of the frontier molecular orbitals, which, in turn, govern the Cu(ii/i) reduction potential and the relative absorption intensities at 450 nm and 600 nm.

Intramolecular electric fields in blue copper proteins are oriented in a fixed way to modulate properties of their copper sites: they control the first-shell copper interactions to influence geometric, spectroscopic, and redox behavior.

Bis(μ-thiolato)-dicopper Containing Fully Spin Delocalized Mixed Valence Copper-Sulfur Clusters and Their Electronic Structural Properties with Relevance to the CuA Site

With aromatic and aliphatic thiol-S donor Schiff base ligands, the copper-sulfur clusters, [(L1)₈Cu^I₆Cu^II₂](ClO₄)₂·DMF·0.5CH₃OH (1) and [(L2)₁₂Cu^I₅Cu^II₁₁(μ₄-S)(μ₄-O)₆](ClO₄)·4H₂O, respectively, have been reported ( Chem. Commun. 2017, 53, 3334); HL1/HL2 are 2-(((3-methylthiophen-2-yl)methylene)amino)benzene/ethanethiol). Complex 1 comprises a wheel shaped Cu₈S₈ framework, made up of interlinked Cu₂{μ-S(R)}₂ units. To understand the properties with relevance to the Cu_A site and to check whether self-assembly generates similar type clusters to 1, three complexes, [(L3)₈Cu^I₆Cu^II₂](ClO₄)₂·(C₂H₅)₂O·2.5H₂O (2), [(L3^Cl)₈Cu^I₆Cu^II₂](ClO₄)₂·1.25(C₂H₅)₂O·1.25CH₃OH·2H₂O (3), and [(L3^CF3)₈Cu^I₆Cu^II₂](ClO₄)₂·2(C₂H₅)₂O·H₂O (4) have been synthesized with supporting ligands HL3^X (HL3 = 2-((furan-2-ylmethylene)amino)benzenethiol when X = -H; X = -Cl or -CF₃ para to thiol-S are HL3^Cl and HL3^CF3 ligands, respectively). The X-ray structures of 3 and 4 feature a similar Cu₈S₈ architecture to 1. The spectroscopic properties and the X-ray structures revealed that 2-4 are fully spin delocalized mixed valence (MV) of class-III type clusters. The structural parameters of the N₂Cu₂{μ-S(R)}₂ units of 3 and 4 closely resemble those of the MV binuclear Cu_A site. With the aid of UV-vis-NIR, EPR, and spectroelectrochemical studies, the electronic properties of these complexes have been described in comparison with the MV model complexes and Cu_A site.

Inter- and Intramolecular Electron Transfer in Copper Complexes: Electronic Entatic State with Redox-Active Guanidine Ligands

Fast and efficient electron transfer in blue copper proteins is realized by a structural harmonization between the Cu^I and Cu^II complex pair ("entatic state" model). Herein, we present now a Cu^I /Cu^II complex pair with redox-active guanidine ligands showing almost perfect match between both redox states. By modifying the ligand electron donor strength, the redox chemistry of the copper complex can be controlled to be either metal-centered or to cross the borderline to ligand-centered. This work is the first systematic study of complexes with redox-active ligands within the concept of the entatic state.

[Cu6 (NGuaS)6 ]2+ and its oxidized and reduced derivatives: Confining electrons on a torus

The hexanuclear thioguanidine mixed-valent copper complex cation [Cu₆ (NGuaS)₆ ]⁺² (NGuaS = o-SC₆ H₄ NC(NMe₂ )₂ ) and its oxidized/reduced states are theoretically analyzed by means of density functional theory (DFT) (TPSSh + D3BJ/def2-TZV (p)). A detailed bonding analysis using overlap populations is performed. We find that a delocalized Cu-based ring orbital serves as an acceptor for donated S p electrons. The formed fully delocalized orbitals give rise to a confined electron cloud within the Cu₆ S₆ cage which becomes larger on reduction. The resulting strong electrostatic repulsion might prevent the fully reduced state. Experimental UV/Vis spectra are explained using time-dependent density functional theory (TD-DFT) and analyzed with a natural transition orbital analysis. The spectra are dominated by MLCTs within the Cu₆ S₆ core over a wide range but LMCTs are also found. The experimental redshift of the reduced low energy absorption band can be explained by the clustering of the frontier orbitals. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A QM/MM study of the nature of the entatic state in plastocyanin

Plastocyanin is a copper containing protein that is involved in the electron transfer process in photosynthetic organisms. The active site of plastocyanin is described as an entatic state whereby its structure represents a compromise between the structures favored by the oxidized and reduced forms. In this study, the nature of the entatic state is investigated through density functional theory‐based hybrid quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) molecular dynamics simulations. The strain energy is computed to be 12.8 kcal/mol and 14.5 kcal/mol for the oxidized and reduced forms of the protein, indicating that the active site has an intermediate structure. It is shown that the energy gap between the oxidized and reduced forms varies significantly with the fluctuations in the structure of the active site at room temperature. An accurate determination of the reorganization energy requires averaging over conformation and a large region of the protein around the active site to be treated at the quantum mechanical level. © 2016 The Authors. Journal of Computational Chemistry Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Modular Artificial Cupredoxins

Cupredoxins are electron-transfer proteins that have active sites containing a mononuclear Cu center with an unusual trigonal monopyramidal structure (Type 1 Cu). A single Cu-Scys bond is present within the trigonal plane that is responsible for its unique physical properties. We demonstrate that a cysteine-containing variant of streptavidin (Sav) can serve as a protein host to model the structure and properties of Type 1 Cu sites. A series of artificial Cu proteins are described that rely on Sav and a series of biotinylated synthetic Cu complexes. Optical and EPR measurements highlight the presence of a Cu-Scys bond, and XRD analysis provides structural evidence. We further provide evidence that changes in the linker between the biotin and Cu complex within the synthetic constructs allows for small changes in the placement of Cu centers within Sav that have dramatic effects on the structural and physical properties of the resulting artificial metalloproteins. These findings highlight the utility of the biotin-Sav technology as an approach for simulating active sites of metalloproteins.

Optical response of the Cu2 S2 diamond core in Cu2II(NGuaS)2 Cl2

Density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations are presented for the dicopper thiolate complex Cu2 (NGuaS)2 Cl2 [NGuaS=2-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylguanidino) benzenethiolate] with a special focus on the bonding mechanism of the Cu2 S2 Cl2 core and the spectroscopic response. This complex is relevant for the understanding of dicopper redox centers, for example, the CuA center. Its UV/Vis absorption is theoretically studied and found to be similar to other structural CuA models. The spectrum can be roughly divided in the known regions of metal d-d absorptions and metal to ligand charge transfer regions. Nevertheless the chloride ions play an important role as electron donors, with the thiolate groups as electron acceptors. The bonding mechanism is dissected by means of charge decomposition analysis which reveals the large covalency of the Cu2 S2 diamond core mediated between Cu dz2 and S-S π and π* orbitals forming Cu-S σ bonds. Measured resonant Raman spectra are shown for 360- and 720-nm excitation wavelength and interpreted using the calculated vibrational eigenmodes and frequencies. The calculations help to rationalize the varying resonant behavior at different optical excitations. Especially the phenylene rings are only resonant for 720 nm. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Electronic Structure of a Cu(II)-Alkoxide Complex Modeling Intermediates in Copper-Catalyzed Alcohol Oxidations

In the copper-catalyzed oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes, a Cu(II)-alkoxide (Cu(II)-OR) intermediate is believed to modulate the αC-H bond strength of the deprotonated substrate to facilitate the oxidation. As a structural model for these intermediates, we characterized the electronic structure of the stable compound Tp(tBu)Cu(II)(OCH2CF3) (Tp(tBu) = hydro-tris(3-tert-butyl-pyrazolyl)borate) and investigated the influence of the trifluoroethoxide ligand on the electronic structure of the complex. The compound exhibits an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrum with an unusually large gzz value of 2.44 and a small copper hyperfine coupling Azz of 40 × 10(-4) cm(-1) (120 MHz). Single-crystal electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectra show that the unpaired spin population is highly localized on the copper ion (≈68%), with no more than 15% on the ethoxide oxygen. Electronic absorption and magnetic circular dichroism (MCD) spectra show weak ligand-field transitions between 5000 and 12,000 cm(-1) and an intense ethoxide-to-copper charge transfer (LMCT) transition at 24,000 cm(-1), resulting in the red color of this complex. Resonance Raman (rR) spectroscopy reveals a Cu-O stretch mode at 592 cm(-1). Quantum chemical calculations support the interpretation and assignment of the experimental data. Compared to known Cu(II)-thiolate and Cu(II)-alkylperoxo complexes from the literature, we found an increased σ interaction in the Cu(II)-OR bond that results in the spectroscopic features. These insights lay the basis for further elucidating the mechanism of copper-catalyzed alcohol oxidations.

Efficient Biomimetic Hydroxylation Catalysis with a Bis(pyrazolyl)imidazolylmethane Copper Peroxide Complex

Bis(pyrazolyl)methane ligands are excellent components of model complexes used to investigate the activity of the enzyme tyrosinase. Combining the N donors 3-tert-butylpyrazole and 1-methylimidazole results in a ligand that is capable of stabilising a (μ-η(2) :η(2) )-dicopper(II) core that resembles the active centre of tyrosinase. UV/Vis spectroscopy shows blueshifted UV bands in comparison to other known peroxo complexes, due to donor competition from different ligand substituents. This effect was investigated with the help of theoretical calculations, including DFT and natural transition orbital analysis. The peroxo complex acts as a catalyst capable of hydroxylating a variety of phenols by using oxygen. Catalytic conversion with the non-biological phenolic substrate 8-hydroxyquinoline resulted in remarkable turnover numbers. In stoichiometric reactions, substrate-binding kinetics was observed and the intrinsic hydroxylation constant, kox , was determined for five phenolates. It was found to be the fastest hydroxylation model system determined so far, reaching almost biological activity. Furthermore, Hammett analysis proved the electrophilic character of the reaction. This sheds light on the subtle role of donor strength and its influence on hydroxylation activity.

DFT studies of structural and some spectral parameters of copper(II) complexes with N,N,N',N″-tetrakis (2-hydroxyethyl/propyl) ethylenediamine and tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine

The structures and some spectral parameters of three copper(II) complexes; [Cu(THEEN)(H2O)](PIC)2 (1), [Cu(THPEN)] (PIC)2 C3H8O (2) and [Cu(TEAH3)(PIC)] (PIC)⋅(H2O) (3), previously synthesized and characterized by X-ray diffraction, are here computationally studied by using density functional theory (DFT) in its hybrid form B3LYP. In these complexes, THEEN is N,N,N',N″-tetrakis(2-hydroxyethyl) ethylenediamine and THPEN is N,N,N',N″-tetrakis(2-hydroxypropyl) ethylenediamine, tetrapodal ligands and TEAH3 is tris(2-hydroxyethyl)amine, a tripodal ligand. The primary coordination sphere of copper(II) ion in complexes (1), (2) and (3) are optimized, structural parameters are calculated, vibrational bands are assigned and energy gaps of frontier orbital (HOMO-LUMO) have been calculated with B3LYP/6-31G/LANL2DZ level of theory using DMSO as solvent. The calculated geometric and spectral results reproduced the experimental data with well agreement. Theoretical calculated molecular orbitals (HOMO-LUMO) and their energies have been calculated that suggest charge transfer occurs within the complexes.

Copper(I) nitrosyls from reaction of copper(II) thiolates with S-nitrosothiols: mechanism of NO release from RSNOs at Cu

S-nitrosothiols (RSNOs) serve as ready sources of biological nitric oxide activity, especially in conjunction with copper centers. We report a novel pathway for the generation of NO within the coordination sphere of copper model complexes from reaction of copper(II) thiolates with S-nitrosothiols. Reaction of tris(pyrazolyl)borate copper(II) thiolates (iPr2)TpCu-SR (R = C6F5 or CPh3) with (t)BuSNO leads to formation of (iPr2)TpCu(NO) and the unsymmetrical disulfide RS-S(t)Bu. Quantum mechanical investigations with B3LYP-D3/6-311G(d) suggest formation of a κ(1)-N-RSNO adduct (iPr2)TpCu(SR)(R'SNO) that precedes release of RSSR' to deliver (iPr2)TpCu(NO). This process is reversible; reaction of (iPr2)TpCu(NO) (but not (iPr2)TpCu(NCMe)) with C6F5S-SC6F5 forms (iPr2)TpCu-SC6F5. Coupled with the facile, reversible reaction between (iPr2)TpCu(NO) and C6F5SNO to give (iPr2)TpCu-SC6F5 and 2 equiv NO, we outline a new, detailed catalytic cycle for NO generation from RSNOs at Cu.

[Bis(3,5-diisopropylpyrazol-1-yl-κN2)dihydroborato](triphenylphosphane-κP)copper(I)

In the title compound, [Cu(C18H32BN4)(C18H15P)], the CuIion is coordinated by two N atoms from the anionic bidentate chelating bis(3,5-diisopropylpyrazol-1-yl)dihydroborate ligand [average Cu—N distance = 1.994 (3) Å] and the P atom from a triphenylphosphane ligand [Cu—P distance = 2.1676 (8) Å] in a trigonal geometry [the sum of the angles around the CuIatom is 359.6 (1)°]. The N—Cu—N angle between adjacent coordinated pyrazole-ring N atoms is 98.99 (9)°, while the average N—Cu—P angle between the coordinated pyrazole N atom and the triphenylphosphane P atom is 130.3 (1)°.

Comparative analysis of the performance of commonly available density functionals in the determination of geometrical parameters for copper complexes

In this study, a set of 50 transition-metal complexes of Cu(I) and Cu(II), were used in the evaluation of 18 density functionals in geometry determination. In addition, 14 different basis sets were considered, including four commonly used Pople's all-electron basis sets; four basis sets including popular types of effective-core potentials: Los Alamos, Steven-Basch-Krauss, and Stuttgart-Dresden; and six triple-ζ basis sets. The results illustrate the performance of different methodological alternatives for the treatment of geometrical properties in relevant copper complexes, pointing out Double-Hybrid (DH) and Long-range Correction (LC) Generalized Gradient Approximation (GGA) methods as better descriptors of the geometry of the evaluated systems. These however, are associated with a computational cost several times higher than some of the other methods employed, such as the M06 functional, which has also demonstrated a comparable performance. Regarding the basis sets, 6-31+G(d) and 6-31+G(d,p) were the best performing approaches. In addition, the results show that the use of effective-core potentials has a limited impact, in terms of the accuracy in the determination of metal-ligand bond-lengths and angles in our dataset of copper complexes. Hence, these could become a good alternative for the geometrical description of these systems, particularly CEP-121G and SDD basis sets, if one is considering larger copper complexes where the computational cost could be an issue.

Type 1 copper site synthetic model complexes with increased redox potentials

Reactions of NaSCPh(3) with (R(3)tacn)Cu(OTf)(2) (R is Me, iPr; tacn is 1,4,7-triazacyclononane; OTf is CF(3)SO(3)(-)) yield blue complexes identified as ((R(3)tacn)CuSCPh(3))(OTf) on the basis of UV-vis, resonance Raman, and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry. These complexes exhibit spectroscopic properties typical of type 1 copper sites in proteins, including diagnostic Sπ → Cu(d(x(2)-y(2))) ligand-to-metal charge transfer transitions at approximately 610-630 nm and small A(||) values in EPR spectra of less than 100 × 10(-4) cm(-1). Cyclic voltammetry experiments revealed redox potentials for the complexes similar to those of several low-potential type 1 copper proteins (e.g., azurin, stellacyanin) and approximately 0.5 V higher than those of previously reported model compounds. Thus, the new complexes mimic key aspects of both the structure and the function of type 1 copper sites.

Spectroscopic and electronic structure studies of phenolate Cu(II) complexes: phenolate ring orientation and activation related to cofactor biogenesis

A combination of spectroscopies and DFT calculations have been used to define the electronic structures of two crystallographically defined Cu(II)-phenolate complexes. These complexes differ in the orientation of the phenolate ring which results in different bonding interactions of the phenolate donor orbitals with the Cu(II), which are reflected in the very different spectroscopic properties of the two complexes. These differences in electronic structures lead to significant differences in DFT calculated reactivities with oxygen. These calculations suggest that oxygen activation via a Cu(I) phenoxyl ligand-to-metal charge transfer complex is highly endergonic (>50 kcal/mol), hence an unlikely pathway. Rather, the two-electron oxidation of the phenolate forming a bridging Cu(II) peroxoquinone complex is more favorable (11.3 kcal/mol). The role of the oxidized metal in mediating this two-electron oxidation of the coordinated phenolate and its relevance to the biogenesis of the covalently bound topa quinone in amine oxidase are discussed.

Spectroscopic and computational studies of nitrite reductase: proton induced electron transfer and backbonding contributions to reactivity

A combination of spectroscopy and DFT calculations has been used to define the geometric and electronic structure of the nitrite bound type 2 (T2) copper site at high and low pH in nitrite reductase from Rhodobacter sphaeroides. At high pH there is no electron transfer from reduced type 1 (T1) to the nitrite bound T2 copper, while protonation triggers T1 --> T2 electron transfer and generation of NO. The DFT calculated reaction coordinate for the N-O bond cleavage in nitrite reduction by the reduced T2 copper suggests that the process is best described as proton transfer triggering electron transfer. Bidentate nitrite binding to copper is calculated to play a major role in activating the reductive cleavage of the nitrite bond through backbonding combined with stabilization of the (-)OH product by coordination to the Cu(2+).

Comparison of Structurally-Related Alkoxide, Amine, and Thiolate-Ligated M (M= Fe, Co) Complexes: the Influence of Thiolates on the Properties of Biologically Relevant Metal Complexes

Mechanistic pathways of metalloenzymes are controlled by the metal ion's electronic and magnetic properties, which are tuned by the coordinated ligands. The functional advantage gained by incorporating cysteinates into the active site of non-heme iron enzymes such as superoxide reductase (SOR) is not entirely understood. Herein we compare the structural and redox properties of a series of structurally-related thiolate, alkoxide, and amine-ligated Fe(II) complexes in order to determine how the thiolate influences properties critical to function. Thiolates are shown to reduce metal ion Lewis acidity relative to alkoxides and amines, and have a strong trans influence thereby helping to maintain an open coordination site. Comparison of the redox potentials of the structurally analogous compounds described herein indicates that alkoxide ligands favor the higher-valent Fe(3+) oxidation state, amine ligands favor the reduced Fe(2+) oxidation state, and thiolates fall somewhere in between. These properties provide a functional advantange for substrate reducing enzymes in that they provide a site at the metal ion for substrate to bind, and a moderate potential that facilitates both substrate reduction, and regeneration of the catalytically active reduced state. Redox potentials for structurally-related Co(II) complexes are shown to be cathodically-shifted relative to their Fe(II) analogues, making them ineffective reducing agents for substrates such as superoxide.

Copper Cation Interactions with Biologically Essential Types of Ligands: A Computational DFT Study

This work presents a systematic theoretical study on Cu(I) and Cu(II) cations in variable hydrogen sulfide-aqua-ammine ligand fields. These ligands model the biologically most common environment for Cu ions. Molecular structures of the complexes were optimized at the density functional theory (DFT) level. Subsequent thorough energy analyses revealed the following trends: (i) The ammine complexes are the most stable, followed by those containing the aqua and hydrogen sulfide ligands, which are characterized by similar stabilization energies. (ii) The most preferred Cu(I) coordination number is 2 in ammine or aqua ligand fields. A qualitatively different binding picture was obtained for complexes with H(2)S ligands where the 4-coordination is favored. (iii) The 4- and 5-coordinated structures belong to the most stable complexes for Cu(II), regardless of the ligand types. Vertical and adiabatic ionization potentials of Cu(I) complexes were calculated. Charge distribution (using the natural population analysis (NPA) method) and molecular orbital analyses were performed to elucidate the nature of bonding in the examined systems. The results provide in-depth insight into the Cu-binding properties and can be, among others, used for the calibration of bioinorganic force fields.

Synthesis and Characterization of Rhenium−Copper Sulfide Cluster Complexes [(Ph3P)2N][Re3(CuX)(μ3-S)4Cl6(PMe2Ph)3] (X = Cl, Br, I)

The reaction of a trinuclear rhenium sulfide cluster compound Re3S7Cl7 with dimethylphenylphosphine and CuX2 (X = Cl or Br) or CuX (X = Cl, Br, or I) formed tetranuclear cluster complexes [(Ph3P)2N][Re3(CuX)(mu3-S)4Cl6(PMe2Ph)3] (X = Cl, Br, or I). Their solutions have the characteristic intense blue color with visible spectral bands near 600 nm. Single-crystal X-ray structures show that three mu-S atoms in the intermediate trinuclear rhenium complex coordinate to a copper atom, forming elongated tetrahedral structures in which Re-Cu bonding interaction is negligible (Re-Cu distances are 3.50 to approximately 3.54 A as compared with Re-Re distances ranging from 2.69 to 2.81 A).

The alkaline transition of blue copper proteins,Cucumis sativusplastocyanin andPseudomonas aeruginosaazurin

Autoreduction of Cucumis sativus plastocyanin and Pseudomonas aeruginosa azurin took place at alkaline pHs, having been accompanied by the decrease in the intensities of the charge transfer band, Cys-S- (pi)-->Cu(II) at 597 and 626 nm, and the Cu(II)-EPR signals with small AII values of 6.5 x 10(-3) and 5.3 x 10(-3) cm(-1) for plastocyanin and azurin, respectively. Further, an extra Cu(II)-EPR signal with a large AII value of 21 x 10(-3) cm(-1) also reversibly emerged with increasing pH. Plastocyanin and azurin are in an equilibrium of the three forms at alkaline pHs.

Using synthetic chemistry to understand copper protein active sites: a personal perspective

The results of studies performed in the author's laboratory are surveyed, with particular emphasis on demonstrating the value of a multidisciplinary synthetic modeling approach for discovering new and unusual chemistry helpful for understanding the properties of the active sites of copper proteins or assessing the feasibility of mechanistic pathways they might follow during catalysis. The discussion focuses on the progress made to date toward comprehending the nitrite reductase catalytic site and mechanism, the electronic structures of copper thiolate electron transfer centers, the sulfido-bridged "CuZ" site in nitrous oxide reductase, and the processes of dioxygen binding and activation by mono- and dicopper centers in oxidases and oxygenases.

Blue copper model complexes with distorted tetragonal geometry acting as effective electron-transfer mediators in dye-sensitized solar cells

The electron self-exchange rate constants of blue copper model complexes, [(-)-sparteine-N,N'](maleonitriledithiolato-S,S')copper ([Cu(SP)(mmt)])(0/)(-), bis(2,9-dimethy-1,10-phenanthroline)copper ([Cu(dmp)(2)](2+/+)), and bis(1,10-phenanthroline)copper ([Cu(phen)(2)](2+/+)) have been determined from the rate constants of electron transfer from a homologous series of ferrocene derivatives to the copper(II) complexes in light of the Marcus theory of electron transfer. The resulting electron self-exchange rate constant increases in the order: [Cu(phen)(2)](2+/+) < [Cu(SP)(mmt)](0/)(-) < [Cu(dmp)(2)](2+/+), in agreement with the order of the smaller structural change between the copper(II) and copper(I) complexes due to the distorted tetragonal geometry. The dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC) were constructed using the copper complexes as redox couples to compare the photoelectrochemical responses with those using the conventional I(3)(-)/I(-) couple. The light energy conversion efficiency (eta) values under illumination of simulated solar light irradiation (100 mW/cm(2)) of DSSCs using [Cu(phen)(2)](2+/+), [Cu(dmp)(2)](2+/+), and [Cu(SP)(mmt)](0/)(-) were recorded as 0.1%, 1.4%, and 1.3%, respectively. The maximum eta value (2.2%) was obtained for a DSSC using the [Cu(dmp)(2)](2+/+) redox couple under the light irradiation of 20 mW/cm(2) intensity, where a higher open-circuit voltage of the cell was attained as compared to that of the conventional I(3)(-)/I(-) couple.

Spectroscopic and DFT investigation of [M{HB(3,5-iPr2pz)3}(SC6F5)] (M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) model complexes: periodic trends in metal-thiolate bonding

A series of metal-varied [ML(SC6F5)] model complexes (where L = hydrotris(3,5-diisopropyl-1-pyrazolyl)borate and M = Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, and Zn) related to blue copper proteins has been studied by a combination of absorption, MCD, resonance Raman, and S K-edge X-ray absorption spectroscopies. Density functional calculations have been used to characterize these complexes and calculate their spectra. The observed variations in geometry, spectra, and bond energies are interpreted in terms of changes in the nature of metal-ligand bonding interactions. The metal 3d-ligand orbital interaction, which contributes to covalent bonding in these complexes, becomes stronger going from Mn(II) to Co(II) (the sigma contribution) and to Cu(II) (the pi contribution). This change in the covalency results from the increased effective nuclear charge of the metal atom in going from Mn(II) to Zn(II) and the change in the 3d orbital populations (d5-->d10). Ionic bonding also plays an important role in determining the overall strength of the ML(+)-SC6F5(-) interaction. However, there is a compensating effect: as the covalent contribution to the metal-ligand bonding increases, the ionic contribution decreases. These results provide insight into the Irving-Williams series, where it is found that the bonding of the ligand being replaced by the thiolate makes a major contribution to the observed order of the stability constants over the series of metal ions.