1
|
Ofodum NM, Qi Q, Chandradat R, Warfle T, Lu X. Advancing Dynamic Polymer Mechanochemistry through Synergetic Conformational Gearing. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:17700-17711. [PMID: 38888499 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c02066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
Harnessing mechanical force to modulate material properties and enhance biomechanical functions is essential for advancing smart materials and bioengineering. Polymer mechanochemistry provides an emerging toolkit for exploring unconventional chemical transformations and modulating molecular structures through mechanical force. One of the key challenges is developing innovative force-sensing mechanisms for precise and in situ force detection. This study introduces mDPAC, a dynamic and sensitive mechanophore, demonstrating its mechanochromic properties through synergetic conformational gearing. Its unique mechanoresponsive mechanism is based on the simultaneous conformational synergy between its phenazine and phenyl moieties, facilitated by a worm-gear-like structure. We confirm mDPAC's complex mechanochemical response and elucidate its mechanotransduction mechanism through our experimental data and comprehensive simulations. The compatibility of mDPAC with hydrogels is particularly notable, highlighting its potential for applications in aqueous biological environments as a dynamic force sensor. Moreover, mDPAC's multicolored mechanochromic responses facilitate direct force sensing and visual detection, paving the way for precise and real-time mechanical force sensing in bulk materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nnamdi M Ofodum
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, New York 13699, United States
| | - Qingkai Qi
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, New York 13699, United States
| | - Richard Chandradat
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, New York 13699, United States
| | - Theodore Warfle
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, New York 13699, United States
| | - Xiaocun Lu
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Science, Clarkson University, 8 Clarkson Ave, Potsdam, New York 13699, United States
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Flear EJ, Horst M, Yang J, Xia Y. Force Transduction Through Distant Force-Bearing Regioisomeric Linkages Affects the Mechanochemical Reactivity of Cyclobutane. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024:e202406103. [PMID: 38818671 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202406103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Fundamental understanding of mechanochemical reactivity is important for designing new mechanophores. Besides the core structure of mechanophores, substituents on a mechanophore can affect its mechanochemical reactivity through electronic stabilization of the intermediate or effectiveness of force transduction from the polymer backbone to the mechanophore. The latter factor represents a unique mechanical effect in considering polymer mechanochemistry. Here, we show that regioisomeric linkage that is not directly adjacent to the first cleaving bond in cyclobutane can still significantly affect the mechanochemical reactivity of the mechanophore. We synthesized three non-scissile 1,2-diphenyl cyclobutanes, varying their linkage to the polymer backbone via the o, m, or p-position of the diphenyl substituents. Even though the regioisomers share the same substituted cyclobutane core structure and similar electronic stabilization of the diradical intermediate from cleaving the first C-C bond, the p isomer exhibited significantly higher mechanochemical reactivity than the o and m isomers. The observed difference in reactivity can be rationalized as the much more effective force transduction to the scissile bond through the p-position than the other two substitution positions. These findings point to the importance of considering force-bearing linkages that are more distant from the bond to be cleaved when incorporating mechanophores into polymer backbones.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Erica J Flear
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University Stanford, California, 94305, United States
| | - Matías Horst
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University Stanford, California, 94305, United States
| | - Jinghui Yang
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University Stanford, California, 94305, United States
| | - Yan Xia
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University Stanford, California, 94305, United States
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Liu J, Yang J, Xue B, Cao Y, Cheng W, Li Y. Understanding the Mechanochemistry of Mechano-Radicals in Self-Growth Materials by Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy. Chemphyschem 2024:e202300880. [PMID: 38705870 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.202300880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/07/2024]
Abstract
Recent research on mechano-radicals has provided valuable insights into self-growth and adaptive responsive materials. Typically, mechanophores must remain inert in the absence of force but respond quickly to external tension before other linkages within the polymer network. Azo compounds exhibit promising combinations of mechanical stability and force-triggered reactivity, making them widely used as mechano-radicals in force-responsive materials. However, the activation conditions and behavior of azo compounds have yet to be quantitatively explored. In this study, we investigated the mechanical strength of three azo compounds using single-molecule force spectroscopy. Our results revealed that these compounds exhibit rupture forces ranging from ~500 to 1000 pN, at a loading rate of 3×104 pN s-1. Importantly, these mechanophores demonstrate distinct kinetic properties. Their unique mechanical attributes enable azo bond scission and free radical generation before causing major polymer backbone damage of entire material during polymer network deformation. This fundamental understanding of mechanophores holds significant promise for the development of self-growth materials and their related applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Liu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China
| | - Jiahui Yang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China
| | - Bin Xue
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China
| | - Yi Cao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China
| | - Wei Cheng
- Department of Oral Implantology, Nanjing Stomatological Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210008, China
| | - Yiran Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, 210093, China
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Ningxia University, Yinchuan, Ningxia, 750021, China
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Cheng X, Hu H, Bu L, Wu Y, Ma Z, Ma Z. Suppressive Photochromism and Promotive Mechanochromism of Rhodamine Mechanophore by the Strategy of Poly(methyl acrylate)/Polyurethane Interpenetrating Polymer Network. ACS Macro Lett 2024; 13:308-314. [PMID: 38373339 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2024]
Abstract
As molecular design and the structure-property relationships of photochemical molecules established in the literature serve as a convenient reference for mechanophore exploration, many typical mechanophores suffer undesired responses to UV light or even sunlight in bulk polymers. We developed a strategy of a poly(methyl acrylate)/polyurethane (PMA/PU) interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) to suppress the photochromic property of the mechanophore and promote its mechanochromic property. A widely used rhodamine mechanophore (Rh-2OH) was first incorporated into polyurethane (P1). Then P1 was swollen in methyl acrylate and photopolymerized to prepare a PMA2.8/PU IPN (P2). Different from photo/force-responsive P1, P2 selectively responded to force because the low free volume in IPN greatly hinders photoisomerization of the rhodamine spirolactam, suggesting that a simple IPN strategy successfully resolves the giant problem of nonselective response to photo/force for photochromic mechanophores. Moreover, PMA/PU IPN enhanced the mechanical property, resulting in a higher mechanochemical activation ratio than PU, and the prestretching effect of PMA/PU IPN promoted the force sensitivity of rhodamine mechanophores significantly. We believe that the strategy can be applied to other mechanophores, promoting their application in more complicated environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Cheng
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Huan Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Lijuan Bu
- Chinese PLA Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Yu Wu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zhimin Ma
- College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhiyong Ma
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Beijing State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ding S, Wang W, Germann A, Wei Y, Du T, Meisner J, Zhu R, Liu Y. Bicyclo[2.2.0]hexene: A Multicyclic Mechanophore with Reactivity Diversified by External Forces. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:6104-6113. [PMID: 38377579 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c13589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
Polymer mechanochemistry has been established as an enabling tool in accessing chemical reactivity and reaction pathways that are distinctive from their thermal counterparts. However, eliciting diversified reaction pathways by activating different constituent chemical bonds from the same mechanophore structure remains challenging. Here, we report the design of a bicyclo[2.2.0]hexene (BCH) mechanophore to leverage its structural simplicity and relatively low molecular symmetry to demonstrate this idea of multimodal activation. Upon changing the attachment points of pendant polymer chains, three different C-C bonds in bicyclo[2.2.0]hexene are specifically activated via externally applied force by sonication. Experimental characterization confirms that in different scenarios of polymer attachment, the regioisomers of BCH undergo different activation reactions, entailing retro-[2+2] cycloreversion, 1,3-allylic migration, and retro-4π ring-opening reactions, respectively. Control experiments with small-molecule analogues reveal that the observed diversified reactivity of BCH regioisomers is possible only with mechanical force. Theoretical studies further elucidate that the differences in the positions of substitution between regioisomers have a minimal impact on the potential energy surface of the parent BCH scaffold. The mechanochemical selectivity between different C-C bonds in each constitutional isomer is a result of selective and effective coupling of force to the aligned C-C bond in each case.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shihao Ding
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Wenkai Wang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Anne Germann
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, 40225, Germany
| | - Yiting Wei
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Tianyi Du
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Jan Meisner
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, 40225, Germany
| | - Rong Zhu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Yun Liu
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory of Polymer Chemistry and Physics of Ministry of Education, and College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Li Y, Xue B, Yang J, Jiang J, Liu J, Zhou Y, Zhang J, Wu M, Yuan Y, Zhu Z, Wang ZJ, Chen Y, Harabuchi Y, Nakajima T, Wang W, Maeda S, Gong JP, Cao Y. Azobenzene as a photoswitchable mechanophore. Nat Chem 2024; 16:446-455. [PMID: 38052946 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-023-01389-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023]
Abstract
Azobenzene has been widely explored as a photoresponsive element in materials science. Although some studies have investigated the force-induced isomerization of azobenzene, the effect of force on the rupture of azobenzene has not been explored. Here we show that the light-induced structural change of azobenzene can also alter its rupture forces, making it an ideal light-responsive mechanophore. Using single-molecule force spectroscopy and ultrasonication, we found that cis and trans para-azobenzene isomers possess contrasting mechanical properties. Dynamic force spectroscopy experiments and quantum-chemical calculations in which azobenzene regioisomers were pulled from different directions revealed that the distinct rupture forces of the two isomers are due to the pulling direction rather than the energetic difference between the two isomers. These mechanical features of azobenzene can be used to rationally control the macroscopic fracture behaviours of polymer networks by photoillumination. The use of light-induced conformational changes to alter the mechanical response of mechanophores provides an attractive way to engineer polymer networks of light-regulatable mechanical properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yiran Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
- Medical School, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Bin Xue
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Jiahui Yang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | | | - Jing Liu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yanyan Zhou
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Junsheng Zhang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Mengjiao Wu
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Molecular Optoelectronic Science, Department of Chemistry, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Zhenshu Zhu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Zhi Jian Wang
- Graduate School of Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Yulan Chen
- College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun, China
| | - Yu Harabuchi
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Tasuku Nakajima
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Wei Wang
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| | - Satoshi Maeda
- Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Jian Ping Gong
- Institute for Chemical Reaction Design and Discovery (WPI-ICReDD), Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
- Faculty of Advanced Life Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
| | - Yi Cao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid-State Microstructure, Key Laboratory of Intelligent Optical Sensing and Manipulation, Ministry of Education, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Institute for Brain Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wenzhou, China.
- Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
- MOE Key Laboratory of High Performance Polymer Materials and Technology, Nanjing University, Nanjing, China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Horst M, Meisner J, Yang J, Kouznetsova TB, Craig SL, Martínez TJ, Xia Y. Mechanochemistry of Pterodactylane. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:884-891. [PMID: 38131266 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c11293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2023]
Abstract
Pterodactylane is a [4]-ladderane with substituents on the central rung. Comparing the mechanochemistry of the [4]-ladderane structure when pulled from the central rung versus the end rung revealed a striking difference in the threshold force of mechanoactivation: the threshold force is dramatically lowered from 1.9 nN when pulled on the end rung to 0.7 nN when pulled on the central rung. We investigated the bicyclic products formed from the mechanochemical activation of pterodactylane experimentally and computationally, which are distinct from the mechanochemical products of ladderanes being activated from the end rung. We compared the products of pterodactylane's mechanochemical and thermal activation to reveal differences and similarities in the mechanochemical and thermal pathways of pterodactylane transformation. Interestingly, we also discovered the presence of elementary steps that are accelerated or suppressed by force within the same mechanochemical reaction of pterodactylane, suggesting rich mechanochemical manifolds of multicyclic structures. We rationalized the greatly enhanced mechanochemical reactivity of the central rung of pterodactylane and discovered force-free ground state bond length to be a good low-cost predictor of the threshold force for cyclobutane-based mechanophores. These findings advance our understanding of mechanochemical reactivities and pathways, and they will guide future designs of mechanophores with low threshold forces to facilitate their applications in force-responsive materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matías Horst
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Jan Meisner
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- Institute for Physical Chemistry, Department of Chemistry, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf D-40225, Germany
| | - Jinghui Yang
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Tatiana B Kouznetsova
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Stephen L Craig
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, United States
| | - Todd J Martínez
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Yan Xia
- Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Chang HC, Liang MC, Luc VS, Davis C, Chang CC. Mechanochemical Reactivity of a 1,2,4-Triazoline-3,5-dione-Anthracene Diels-Alder Adduct. Chem Asian J 2024; 19:e202300850. [PMID: 37938167 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202300850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023]
Abstract
Force-responsive molecules that produce fluorescent moieties under stress provide a means for stress-sensing and material damage assessment. In this work, we report a mechanophore based on Diels-Alder adduct TAD-An of 4,4'-(4,4'-diphenylmethylene)-bis-(1,2,4-triazoline-3,5-dione) and initiator-substituted anthracene that can undergo retro-Diels-Alder (rDA) reaction by pulsed ultrasonication and compressive activation in bulk materials. The influence of having C-N versus C-C bonds at the sites of bond scission is elucidated by comparing the relative mechanical strength of TAD-An to another Diels-Alder adduct MAL-An obtained from maleimide and anthracene. The susceptibility to undergo rDa reaction correlates well with bond energy, such that C-N bond containing TAD-An degrades faster C-C bond containing MAL-An because C-N bond is weaker than C-C bond. Specifically, the results from polymer degradation kinetics under pulsed ultrasonication shows that polymer containing TAD-An has a rate constant of 1.59×10-5 min-1 , while MAL-An (C-C bond) has a rate constant of 1.40×10-5 min-1 . Incorporation of TAD-An in a crosslinked polymer network demonstrates the feasibility to utilize TAD-An as an alternative force-responsive probe to visualize mechanical damage where fluorescence can be "turned-on" due to force-accelerated retro-Diels-Alder reaction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hao-Chun Chang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, No. 1001, Daxue Rd. East Dist., Hsinchu City, 300093, Taiwan
- Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan
| | - Min-Chieh Liang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, No. 1001, Daxue Rd. East Dist., Hsinchu City, 300093, Taiwan
- Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan
| | - Van-Sieu Luc
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, No. 1001, Daxue Rd. East Dist., Hsinchu City, 300093, Taiwan
- Sustainable Chemical Science and Technology (SCST), Taiwan International Graduate Program (TIGP), Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
- Institute of Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei, 11529, Taiwan
| | - Chelsea Davis
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716, U.S.A
| | - Chia-Chih Chang
- Department of Applied Chemistry, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, Taiwan, No. 1001, Daxue Rd. East Dist., Hsinchu City, 300093, Taiwan
- Center for Emergent Functional Matter Science, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu, 300093, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
He X, Tian Y, O’Neill RT, Xu Y, Lin Y, Weng W, Boulatov R. Coumarin Dimer Is an Effective Photomechanochemical AND Gate for Small-Molecule Release. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:23214-23226. [PMID: 37821455 PMCID: PMC10603814 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c07883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Stimulus-responsive gating of chemical reactions is of considerable practical and conceptual interest. For example, photocleavable protective groups and gating mechanophores allow the kinetics of purely thermally activated reactions to be controlled optically or by mechanical load by inducing the release of small-molecule reactants. Such release only in response to a sequential application of both stimuli (photomechanochemical gating) has not been demonstrated despite its unique expected benefits. Here, we describe computational and experimental evidence that coumarin dimers are highly promising moieties for realizing photomechanochemical control of small-molecule release. Such dimers are transparent and photochemically inert at wavelengths >300 nm but can be made to dissociate rapidly under tensile force. The resulting coumarins are mechanochemically and thermally stable, but rapidly release their payload upon irradiation. Our DFT calculations reveal that both strain-free and mechanochemical kinetics of dimer dissociation are highly tunable over an unusually broad range of rates by simple substitution. In head-to-head dimers, the phenyl groups act as molecular levers to allow systematic and predictable variation in the force sensitivity of the dissociation barriers by choice of the pulling axis. As a proof-of-concept, we synthesized and characterized the reactivity of one such dimer for photomechanochemically controlled release of aniline and its application for controlling bulk gelation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun He
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
| | - Yancong Tian
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K.
| | - Robert T. O’Neill
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K.
| | - Yuanze Xu
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
| | - Yangju Lin
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
| | - Wengui Weng
- Department
of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China
| | - Roman Boulatov
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Sun Y, McFadden ME, Osler SK, Barber RW, Robb MJ. Anomalous photochromism and mechanochromism of a linear naphthopyran enabled by a polarizing dialkylamine substituent. Chem Sci 2023; 14:10494-10499. [PMID: 37800007 PMCID: PMC10548511 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03790h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
In contrast to common angular naphthopyrans that exhibit strong photochromic and mechanochromic behavior, constitutionally isomeric linear naphthopyrans are typically not photochromic, due to the putative instability of the completely dearomatized merocyanine product. The photochemistry of linear naphthopyrans is thus relatively understudied compared to angular naphthopyrans, while the mechanochromism of linear naphthopyrans remains completely unexplored. Here we demonstrate that the incorporation of a polarizing dialkylamine substituent enables photochromic and mechanochromic behavior from polymers containing a novel linear naphthopyran motif. In solution phase experiments, a Lewis acid trap was necessary to observe accumulation of the merocyanine product upon photochemical and ultrasound-induced mechanochemical activation. However, the same linear naphthopyran molecule incorporated as a crosslinker in polydimethylsiloxane elastomers renders the materials photochromic and mechanochromic without the addition of any trapping agent. This study provides insights into the photochromic and mechanochromic reactivity of linear naphthopyrans that have conventionally been considered functionally inert, adding a new class of naphthopyran molecular switches to the repertoire of stimuli-responsive polymers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yan Sun
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Molly E McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Skylar K Osler
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Ross W Barber
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Li Z, Wang Z, Wang C, Li W, Fan W, Zhao R, Feng H, Peng D, Huang W. Mechanoluminescent Materials Enable Mechanochemically Controlled Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization and Polymer Mechanotransduction. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2023; 6:0243. [PMID: 37795336 PMCID: PMC10546606 DOI: 10.34133/research.0243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/13/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Organic mechanophores have been widely adopted for polymer mechanotransduction. However, most examples of polymer mechanotransduction inevitably experience macromolecular chain rupture, and few of them mimic mussel's mechanochemical regeneration, a mechanically mediated process from functional units to functional materials in a controlled manner. In this paper, inorganic mechanoluminescent (ML) materials composed of CaZnOS-ZnS-SrZnOS: Mn2+ were used as a mechanotransducer since it features both piezoelectricity and mechanolunimescence. The utilization of ML materials in polymerization enables both mechanochemically controlled radical polymerization and the synthesis of ML polymer composites. This procedure features a mechanochemically controlled manner for the design and synthesis of diverse mechanoresponsive polymer composites.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Zexuan Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Zhenhua Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Chen Wang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Wenxi Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Wenru Fan
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Ruoqing Zhao
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Haoyang Feng
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| | - Dengfeng Peng
- Key Laboratory of Optoelectronic Devices and Systems of Ministry of Education and Guangdong Province, College of Physics and Optoelectronic Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China
| | - Wei Huang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Institute of Flexible Electronics, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, China
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
McFadden ME, Barber RW, Overholts AC, Robb MJ. Naphthopyran molecular switches and their emergent mechanochemical reactivity. Chem Sci 2023; 14:10041-10067. [PMID: 37772118 PMCID: PMC10530568 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc03729k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Naphthopyran molecular switches undergo a ring-opening reaction upon external stimulation to generate intensely colored merocyanine dyes. Their unique modularity and synthetic accessibility afford exceptional control over their properties and stimuli-responsive behavior. Commercial applications of naphthopyrans as photoswitches in photochromic ophthalmic lenses have spurred an extensive body of work exploring naphthopyran-merocyanine structure-property relationships. The recently discovered mechanochromic behavior of naphthopyrans has led to their emergent application in the field of polymer mechanochemistry, enabling advances in the design of force-responsive materials as well as fundamental insights into mechanochemical reactivity. The structure-property relationships established in the photochemical literature serve as a convenient blueprint for the design of naphthopyran molecular force probes with precisely tuned properties. On the other hand, the mechanochemical reactivity of naphthopyran diverges in many cases from the conventional photochemical pathways, resulting in unexpected properties and opportunities for deeper understanding and innovation in polymer mechanochemistry. Here, we highlight the features of the naphthopyran scaffold that render it a powerful platform for the design of mechanochromic materials and review recent advances in naphthopyran mechanochemistry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Molly E McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Ross W Barber
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Anna C Overholts
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Imato K, Ishii A, Kaneda N, Hidaka T, Sasaki A, Imae I, Ooyama Y. Thermally Stable Photomechanical Molecular Hinge: Sterically Hindered Stiff-Stilbene Photoswitch Mechanically Isomerizes. JACS AU 2023; 3:2458-2466. [PMID: 37772185 PMCID: PMC10523368 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.3c00213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2023] [Revised: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/13/2023] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Molecular photoswitches are extensively used as molecular machines because of the small structures, simple motions, and advantages of light including high spatiotemporal resolution. Applications of photoswitches depend on the mechanical responses, in other words, whether they can generate motions against mechanical forces as actuators or can be activated and controlled by mechanical forces as mechanophores. Sterically hindered stiff stilbene (HSS) is a promising photoswitch offering large hinge-like motions in the E/Z isomerization, high thermal stability of the Z isomer, which is relatively unstable compared to the E isomer, with a half-life of ca. 1000 years at room temperature, and near-quantitative two-way photoisomerization. However, its mechanical response is entirely unexplored. Here, we elucidate the mechanochemical reactivity of HSS by incorporating one Z or E isomer into the center of polymer chains, ultrasonicating the polymer solutions, and stretching the polymer films to apply elongational forces to the embedded HSS. The present study demonstrated that HSS mechanically isomerizes only in the Z to E direction and reversibly isomerizes in combination with UV light, i.e., works as a photomechanical hinge. The photomechanically inducible but thermally irreversible hinge-like motions render HSS unique and promise unconventional applications differently from existing photoswitches, mechanophores, and hinges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Keiichi Imato
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Akira Ishii
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Naoki Kaneda
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Taichi Hidaka
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Ayane Sasaki
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Ichiro Imae
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| | - Yousuke Ooyama
- Applied Chemistry
Program,
Graduate School of Advanced Science and Engineering, Hiroshima University, 1-4-1 Kagamiyama, Higashihiroshima 739-8527, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Fauvel S, Riquelme AJ, Andrés Castán JM, Mwalukuku VM, Kervella Y, Challuri VK, Sauvage F, Narbey S, Maldivi P, Aumaître C, Demadrille R. Push-pull photochromic dyes for semi-transparent solar cells with light-adjustable optical properties and high color-rendering index. Chem Sci 2023; 14:8497-8506. [PMID: 37592994 PMCID: PMC10430641 DOI: 10.1039/d3sc02328a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the design, synthesis and characterization of push-pull photochromic naphthopyran dyes, incorporating different carbazole moieties as the electron-donor group for use in dye-sensitized solar cells. Compared to a reference dye incorporating a diphenylamine-type donor moiety, the introduction of functionalized carbazoles allows for a hypsochromic shift of the absorption of the coloured isomers of the dyes in the visible region and a better tuning of their spectra to the photopic response of the human eye. Under illumination, the molecules exhibit a broad absorption with a maximum comprised between 546 nm and 571 nm in solution and they reveal relatively fast discoloration kinetics. By using these dyes to fabricate photochromic solar cells whose optical and photovoltaic properties vary with the light exposure, we have achieved a PCE of up to 3% in opaque cells. Using these molecules in semi-transparent solar cells with different electrolytes, a PCE of 2.3% was achieved. We also produced a semi-transparent mini-module with an average visible transmittance varying between 66% and 50% and a colour rendering index around 95 in both the uncoloured and coloured states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Fauvel
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| | - Antonio J Riquelme
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| | | | | | - Yann Kervella
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| | | | - Frédéric Sauvage
- Laboratoire de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, CNRS UMR7314, Université de Picardie Jules Verne, Hub de l'énergie 15 Rue Baudelocque 80039 Amiens France
| | | | - Pascale Maldivi
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| | - Cyril Aumaître
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| | - Renaud Demadrille
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, CNRS, IRIG-SyMMES F-38000 Grenoble France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
McFadden ME, Overholts AC, Osler SK, Robb MJ. Validation of an Accurate and Expedient Initial Rates Method for Characterizing Mechanophore Reactivity. ACS Macro Lett 2023; 12:440-445. [PMID: 36944217 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Understanding structure-mechanochemical reactivity relationships is important for informing the rational design of new stimuli-responsive polymers. To this end, establishing accurate reaction kinetics for mechanophore activation is a key objective. Here, we validate an initial rates method that enables the accurate and rapid determination of rate constants for ultrasound-induced mechanochemical transformations. Experimental reaction profiles are well-aligned with theoretical models, which support that the initial rates method effectively deconvolutes the kinetics of specific mechanophore activation from the competitive process of nonspecific chain scission.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Molly E McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Anna C Overholts
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Skylar K Osler
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Willis-Fox N, Watchorn-Rokutan E, Rognin E, Daly R. Technology pull: scale-up of polymeric mechanochemical force sensors. TRENDS IN CHEMISTRY 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trechm.2023.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
|
17
|
Lai Y, Li J, Chen M, Wu Y, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Chen Z. Multicolor Mechanochromic Epoxy Thermosets That Recognize the Intensity, Type, and Duration of Mechanical Stimulation. Macromol Rapid Commun 2023; 44:e2200821. [PMID: 36479907 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202200821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromic polymers that exhibit multiple color changes under external mechanical stimulation show great potential for sensor applications. Herein, an epoxy thermoset that can reveal the intensity, type, and duration of mechanical stimulation via a combination of disulfide (DS) and rhodamine (Rh) mechanochromophores is reported. A unique multicolor transition occurs upon ball mill or manual grinding because of the different activation energies of DS and Rh. The epoxy changes color depending on the ball mill grinding duration. Simultaneous activation occurs with a mechanochromic time lag between DS and Rh, and the collision energy strongly affects the relative intensity. A more dramatic multicolor response is observed using a mortar and pestle, as sequential activation occurs upon gentle and strong grinding. Various types of mechanical stimulation can cause different aggregates of the activated Rh moiety and vary the relative mechanosensitivities of Rh and DS, which lead to a different color response.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yingsheng Lai
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Jiajun Li
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Mao Chen
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Yeping Wu
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Yinyu Zhang
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Xiuli Zhao
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| | - Zhongtao Chen
- Institute of Chemical Materials, China Academy of Engineering Physics, Mianyang, 621900, China
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Zhu G, Yu T, Chen J, Hu R, Yang G, Zeng Y, Li Y. Dipyrene-Terminated Oligosilanes Enable Ratiometric Fluorescence Response in Polymers toward Mechano- and Thermo-Stimuli. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:11033-11041. [PMID: 36802470 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c21560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Developing fluorescent motifs capable of displaying mechano- and thermo-stimuli reversibly and ratiometrically is appealing for monitoring the deformation or temperature to which polymers are subjected. Here, a series of excimer-type chromophores Sin-Py (n = 1-3) consisting of two pyrenes linked with oligosilanes of one to three silicon atoms is developed as the fluorescent motif incorporated in a polymer. The fluorescence of Sin-Py is steered with the linker length where Si2-Py and Si3-Py with disilane and trisilane linkers display prominent excimer emission accompanied by pyrene monomer emission. Covalent incorporation of Si2-Py and Si3-Py in polyurethane gives fluorescent polymers PU-Si2-Py and PU-Si3-Py, respectively, where intramolecular pyrene excimers and corresponding combined emission of excimer and monomer are obtained. Polymer films of PU-Si2-Py and PU-Si3-Py display instant and reversible ratiometric fluorescence change during the uniaxial tensile test. The mechanochromic response arises from the reversible suppression of excimer formation during the mechanically induced separation of the pyrene moieties and relaxation. Furthermore, PU-Si2-Py and PU-Si3-Py show thermochromic response toward temperature, and the inflection point from the ratiometric emission as a function of temperature gives an indication of the glass transition temperature (Tg) of the polymers. The design of the excimer-based mechanophore with oligosilane provides a generally implementable way to develop mechano- and thermo-dual-responsive polymers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guohua Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tianjun Yu
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jinping Chen
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Rui Hu
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Guoqiang Yang
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
- Key Laboratory of Photochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
| | - Yi Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yi Li
- Key Laboratory of Photochemical Conversion and Optoelectronic Materials, Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing 100049, China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Sugita H, Lu Y, Aoki D, Otsuka H, Mikami K. Theoretical and Experimental Investigations of Stable Arylfluorene-Based Radical-Type Mechanophores. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203249. [PMID: 36575130 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Radical-type mechanophores (RMs) can undergo homolytic cleavage of their central C-C bonds upon exposure to mechanical forces, which affords radical species. Understanding the characteristics of these radical species allows bespoke mechanoresponsive materials to be designed and developed. The thermal stability of the central C-C bonds and the oxygen tolerance of the generated radical species are crucial characteristics that determine the functions and applicability of such RM-containing mechanoresponsive materials. In this paper, we report the synthesis and characterization of two series of arylfluorene-based RM derivatives, that is, 9,9'-bis(5-methyl-2-pyridyl)-9,9'-bifluorene (BPyF) and 9,9'-bis(4,6-diphenyl-2-triazyl)-9,9'-bifluorene (BTAF). BPyF and BTAF derivatives were synthesized without generating any peroxides initially, albeit that BPyF slowly converted to the corresponding peroxide in solution. DFT calculations revealed the importance of the thermodynamic stability and the values of the α-SOMO levels of the corresponding radical species for their thermal stability and oxygen tolerance. Furthermore, the mechanochromism of BTAF was demonstrated by ball-milling a BTAF-centered polymer, which was synthesized by atom-transfer radical polymerization (ATRP).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hajime Sugita
- Sagami Chemical Research Institute, 2743-1 Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa, 252-1193, Japan.,Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Yi Lu
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Daisuke Aoki
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Hideyuki Otsuka
- Department of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, 152-8550, Japan
| | - Koichiro Mikami
- Sagami Chemical Research Institute, 2743-1 Hayakawa, Ayase, Kanagawa, 252-1193, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Lloyd EM, Vakil JR, Yao Y, Sottos NR, Craig SL. Covalent Mechanochemistry and Contemporary Polymer Network Chemistry: A Marriage in the Making. J Am Chem Soc 2023; 145:751-768. [PMID: 36599076 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c09623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Over the past 20 years, the field of polymer mechanochemistry has amassed a toolbox of mechanophores that translate mechanical energy into a variety of functional responses ranging from color change to small-molecule release. These productive chemical changes typically occur at the length scale of a few covalent bonds (Å) but require large energy inputs and strains on the micro-to-macro scale in order to achieve even low levels of mechanophore activation. The minimal activation hinders the translation of the available chemical responses into materials and device applications. The mechanophore activation challenge inspires core questions at yet another length scale of chemical control, namely: What are the molecular-scale features of a polymeric material that determine the extent of mechanophore activation? Further, how do we marry advances in the chemistry of polymer networks with the chemistry of mechanophores to create stress-responsive materials that are well suited for an intended application? In this Perspective, we speculate as to the potential match between covalent polymer mechanochemistry and recent advances in polymer network chemistry, specifically, topologically controlled networks and the hierarchical material responses enabled by multi-network architectures and mechanically interlocked polymers. Both fundamental and applied opportunities unique to the union of these two fields are discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Evan M Lloyd
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States
| | - Jafer R Vakil
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States.,NSF Center for the Chemistry of Molecularly Optimized Networks, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States
| | - Yunxin Yao
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States.,NSF Center for the Chemistry of Molecularly Optimized Networks, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States
| | - Nancy R Sottos
- NSF Center for the Chemistry of Molecularly Optimized Networks, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois61801, United States
| | - Stephen L Craig
- Department of Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States.,NSF Center for the Chemistry of Molecularly Optimized Networks, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina27708, United States
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
McFadden ME, Osler SK, Sun Y, Robb MJ. Mechanical Force Enables an Anomalous Dual Ring-Opening Reaction of Naphthodipyran. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:22391-22396. [PMID: 36459076 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c08817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Multimodal mechanophores that exhibit complex mechanochromic behavior beyond the typical binary response are capable of distinguishing between multiple stress states through discrete changes in color. Naphthodipyran photoswitches contain two pyran rings fused to a central naphthalene core and represent a potentially promising framework for multimodal reactivity. However, the concurrent ring opening of both pyran moieties has previously proven inaccessible via photochemical activation. Here, we demonstrate that mechanical force supplied to naphthodipyran through covalently linked polymer chains generates the elusive dual ring-opened dimerocyanine product with unique near-infrared absorption properties. Trapping with boron trifluoride renders the merocyanine dyes thermally persistent and reveals apparent sequential ring-opening behavior that departs from the reactivity of previously studied mechanophores under the high strain rates imposed by ultrasound-induced solvodynamic chain extension.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Molly E McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Skylar K Osler
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Yan Sun
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Hertel R, Maftuhin W, Walter M, Sommer M. Conformer Ring Flip Enhances Mechanochromic Performance of ansa-Donor-Acceptor-Donor Mechanochromic Torsional Springs. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:21897-21907. [PMID: 36414534 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c06712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromophores based on conformational changes of donor-acceptor-donor (DAD) springs allow sensing of forces acting on polymer chains by monotonic changes of absorbance or photoluminescence (PL) wavelength. Here, we identify a series of thiophene (D)-flanked quinoxalines (A) as molecular torsional springs for force sensing in bulk polymers at room temperature. The mode of DAD linkage to the polymer matrix and linker rigidity are key parameters that influence the efficacy of force transduction to the DAD spring and thus mechanochromic response, as probed by in situ PL spectroscopy of bulk films during stress-strain experiments. The largest shift of the PL maximum, and thus the highest sensitivity, is obtained from an ansa-DAD spring exhibiting bridged D units and a stiff A linker. Using detailed spectroscopy and density functional theory calculations, we reveal conformer redistribution in the form of a thiophene ring flip as the major part of the overall mechanochromic response. At forces as low as 27 pN at early stages of deformation, the ring flip precedes mechanically induced planarization of the ansa-DAD spring, the latter process producing a PL shift of 21 nm nN-1. Within the stress-strain diagram, the thiophene ring flip and DAD planarization are thus two separated processes that also cause irreversible and reversible mechanochromic responses, respectively, upon sample failure. As the thiophene ring flip requires much smaller forces than planarization of the DAD spring, such micromechanical motion gives access to sensing of tiny forces and expands both sensitivity and the force range of conformational mechanochromophores.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Raphael Hertel
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz09111, Germany
| | - Wafa Maftuhin
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg79110, Germany
| | - Michael Walter
- FIT Freiburg Centre for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Cluster of Excellence livMatS @ FIT, Freiburg79110, Germany.,Fraunhofer IWM, MikroTribologie Centrum μTC, Freiburg79108, Germany
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institute for Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Chemnitz09111, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Luo SM, Barber RW, Overholts AC, Robb MJ. Competitive Activation Experiments Reveal Significantly Different Mechanochemical Reactivity of Furan–Maleimide and Anthracene–Maleimide Mechanophores. ACS POLYMERS AU 2022; 3:202-208. [PMID: 37065719 PMCID: PMC10103189 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.2c00047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
During the past two decades, our understanding of mechanochemical reactivity has advanced considerably. Nevertheless, an incomplete knowledge of structure-activity relationships and the principles that govern mechanochemical transformations limits molecular design. The experimental development of mechanophores has thus benefited from simple computational tools like CoGEF, from which quantitative metrics like rupture force can be extracted to estimate reactivity. Furan-maleimide (FM) and anthracene-maleimide (AM) Diels-Alder adducts are widely studied mechanophores that undergo retro-Diels-Alder reactions upon mechanical activation in polymers. Despite possessing significantly different thermal stability, similar rupture forces predicted by CoGEF calculations suggest that these compounds exhibit similar mechanochemical reactivity. Here, we directly probe the relative mechanochemical reactivity of FM and AM adducts through competitive activation experiments. Ultrasound-induced mechanochemical activation of bis-adduct mechanophores comprising covalently tethered FM and AM subunits reveals pronounced selectivity-as high as ∼13:1-for reaction of the FM adduct compared to the AM adduct. Computational models provide insight into the greater reactivity of the FM mechanophore, indicating a more efficient mechanochemical coupling for the FM adduct compared to the AM adduct. The methodology employed here to directly interrogate the relative reactivity of two different mechanophores using a tethered bis-adduct configuration may be useful for other systems where more common sonication-based approaches are limited by poor sensitivity.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stella M. Luo
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Ross W. Barber
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Anna C. Overholts
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J. Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Xie F, Deng H, Zhang W, Shi H, Wang X, Zhang C. Scalable Production of Self-Toughening Plant Oil-Based Polyurethane Elastomers with Multistimuli-Responsive Functionalities. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:50090-50100. [PMID: 36289570 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c12535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Plant oils are becoming of high industrial importance due to the persisting challenges befalling with the utilization of fossil fuels. Thus, developing methodologies to produce multifunctional materials by taking advantage of the unique structure of plant oil is highly desired. In this study, castor oil served as a cross-linker and soft segments, by incorporating scalable rhodamine 6G derivatives, to systematically synthesize a series of smart polymers that possess self-toughening and multistimuli-responsive capabilities. The polyurethane elastomers showed 10 times and 60 times increases in tensile strength and toughness, respectively, in comparison with the unmodified polyurethane due to the existence of large amounts of hydrogen bonding, dynamic C-N spiro bonds, rigid benzene ring, and high cross-link densities. The novel polyurethane elastomers exhibited excellent reversible multichromic behaviors in response to light, pH, and mechanics. Notably, the resulting polyurethane elastomers exhibited ultrasensitive sustained photochromism with tunable white emission and rapid reversibility. This study provides a simple and effective strategy to utilize plant oil for multifunctional material preparation and paves the way to open access for application of plant oil-based products in a variety of industry applications, such as sensors, self-fitting tissue scaffolds, and switchable devices.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Fei Xie
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| | - Henghui Deng
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| | - Weihao Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| | - Hebo Shi
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| | - Chaoqun Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou510642, China
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou510642, China
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Thazhathethil S, Muramatsu T, Tamaoki N, Weder C, Sagara Y. Excited State Charge-Transfer Complexes Enable Fluorescence Color Changes in a Supramolecular Cyclophane Mechanophore. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202209225. [PMID: 35950260 PMCID: PMC9804172 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202209225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Mechanochromic mechanophores are reporter molecules that indicate mechanical events through changes of their photophysical properties. Supramolecular mechanophores in which the activation is based on the rearrangement of luminophores and/or quenchers without any covalent bond scission, remain less well investigated. Here, we report a cyclophane-based supramolecular mechanophore that contains a 1,6-bis(phenylethynyl)pyrene luminophore and a pyromellitic diimide quencher. In solution, the blue monomer emission of the luminophore is largely quenched and a faint reddish-orange emission originating from a charge-transfer (CT) complex is observed. A polyurethane elastomer containing the mechanophore displays orange emission in the absence of force, which is dominated by the CT-emission. Mechanical deformation causes a decrease of the CT-emission and an increase of blue monomer emission, due to the spatial separation between the luminophore and quencher. The ratio of the two emission intensities correlates with the applied stress.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shakkeeb Thazhathethil
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringTokyo Institute of Technology2-12-1 OokayamaMeguro-ku, Tokyo152-8552Japan,Research Institute for Electronic ScienceHokkaido UniversityN20, W10SapporoHokkaido001-0020Japan
| | - Tatsuya Muramatsu
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringTokyo Institute of Technology2-12-1 OokayamaMeguro-ku, Tokyo152-8552Japan
| | - Nobuyuki Tamaoki
- Research Institute for Electronic ScienceHokkaido UniversityN20, W10SapporoHokkaido001-0020Japan
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle InstituteUniversity of FribourgChemin des Verdiers 41700FribourgSwitzerland
| | - Yoshimitsu Sagara
- Department of Materials Science and EngineeringTokyo Institute of Technology2-12-1 OokayamaMeguro-ku, Tokyo152-8552Japan
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Sun L, Fan Y, Wang Q, Xiang L, Han H, Chen D. Validated quantitative 31P NMR spectroscopy for positional isomeric impurity determination in L-α-glycerylphosphorylcholine (L-α-GPC). J Pharm Biomed Anal 2022; 221:115067. [PMID: 36179504 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2022.115067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study a quantitative 31P nuclear magnetic resonance (31P NMR) spectroscopy method was described to determine positional isomeric impurity β-GPC in commercial products of L-α-GPC. The samples were dissolved in D2O and trimethyl phosphate (TMP) was selected as an internal calibrant. The measurements were performed on a Bruker 500 MHz spectrometer and the spectra were recorded under optimized process conditions. A good linear relationship was constructed for β-GPC in the range of 62.7-528.0 µg·mL-1, i.e. 0.03-0.25 % (w/w %, in relative to L-α-GPC) with a correlative coefficient of 0.9996. The limit of quantification (LOQ) and limit of detection (LOD) were 62.7 µg·mL-1 and 20.9 µg·mL-1 with signal to noise of 3 and 10, respectively. The spiked recoveries were in the range of 98.17-99.78 % with the relative standard deviation (RSD %) less than 1.0 %. Therefore, it could be supposed that the 31P NMR was a promising alternative method for sensitive determination of β-GPC for strict quality control of L-α-GPC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ling Sun
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Yujuan Fan
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; School of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Qiaoqiao Wang
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Lili Xiang
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Haiyun Han
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China
| | - Dongying Chen
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201203, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China; School of Chinese Materia Medica, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Nanjing 210023, China.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Wu M, Li Y, Yuan W, De Bo G, Cao Y, Chen Y. Cooperative and Geometry-Dependent Mechanochromic Reactivity through Aromatic Fusion of Two Rhodamines in Polymers. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:17120-17128. [PMID: 36070612 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c07015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The unique topological features of Piezo proteins underlie the lever-like cellular mechanotransduction mechanism. This knowledge inspires us to seek topological/geometric control of mechanochromophores with unprecedentedly amplified, synergistic changes in polymers to serve as ideal stress probes. Here, by judicious placement of two spirolactam rings into aminobenzopyranoxanthene, a series of stereo- and regio-isomeric rhodamine-like mechanophores are developed. With two labile bonds closely coupled into one rigidified scaffold, these π-fused bis-mechanophores enable mechanochromic polymers, featuring cooperative bond scission, low rupture force (lower than rhodamine), and geometry-controlled ring-opening reactivity. Sonication, single-molecule force spectroscopy experiments, and density functional theory calculations provide insight into the force-color relationship and rationalize how the difference in reactivity of the four isomeric mechanophores is affected by their molecular geometry and thermodynamic equilibrium. Our strategy based on the aromatic fusion of bis-mechanophore promises a modular approach to isomeric mechanophores for cooperative bond scission. Also, important insights into internal and external factors governing tandem mechanochemical reactions are gained.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengjiao Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, P. R. China.,Department of Chemistry, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, P. R. China
| | - Yiran Li
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructure, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Wei Yuan
- Department of Chemistry, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300354, P. R. China
| | - Guillaume De Bo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Oxford Road, Manchester M13 9PL, U.K
| | - Yi Cao
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructure, Department of Physics, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Yulan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Supramolecular Structure and Materials, College of Chemistry, Jilin University, Changchun 130012, P. R. China
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Thazhathethil S, Muramatsu T, Tamaoki N, Weder C, Sagara Y. Excited State Charge‐Transfer Complexes Enable Fluorescence Color Changes in a Supramolecular Cyclophane Mechanophore. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202209225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shakkeeb Thazhathethil
- Hokkaido University Graduate School of Life Science: Hokkaido Daigaku Daigakuin Seimei Kagakuin Division of Life Science JAPAN
| | - Tatsuya Muramatsu
- Tokyo Institute of Technology: Tokyo Kogyo Daigaku Department of Materials Science and Engineering JAPAN
| | - Nobuyuki Tamaoki
- Hokkaido University Graduate School of Life Science: Hokkaido Daigaku Daigakuin Seimei Kagakuin Division of Life Science JAPAN
| | - Christoph Weder
- University of Fribourg: Universite de Fribourg Adolphe Merkle Institute JAPAN
| | - Yoshimitsu Sagara
- Tokyo Institute of Technology Department of Chemical Science and Engineering 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku 152-8552 Tokyo JAPAN
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Baumann C, Willis‐Fox N, Campagna D, Rognin E, Marten P, Daly R, Göstl R. Regiochemical effects for the mechanochemical activation of
9‐π‐extended anthracene‐maleimide Diels–Alder
adducts. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20220342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Baumann
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Niamh Willis‐Fox
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Davide Campagna
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Etienne Rognin
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Paul Marten
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
- Institute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, RWTH Aachen University Aachen Germany
| | - Ronan Daly
- Department of Engineering, Institute for Manufacturing University of Cambridge Cambridge UK
| | - Robert Göstl
- DWI – Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials Aachen Germany
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Tan M, Wang X, Xie T, Zhang Z, Shi Y, Li Y, Chen Y. Fluorogenic Mechanophore Based on Dithiomaleimide with Dual Responsiveness. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiaoying Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Tong Xie
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhen Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yi Shi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuanchao Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yongming Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Ultrasound triggered organic mechanoluminescence materials. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 186:114343. [PMID: 35580814 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ultrasound induced organic mechanoluminescence materials have become one of the focal topics in wireless light sources since they exhibit high spatiotemporal resolution, biocompatibility and excellent tissue penetration depth. These properties promote great potential in ultrahigh sensitive bioimaging with no background noise and noninvasive nanodevices. Recent advances in chemistry, nanotechnology and biomedical research are revolutionizing ultrasound induced organic mechanoluminescence. Herein, we try to summarize some recent researches in ultrasound induced mechanoluminescence that use various materials design strategies based on the molecular conformational changes and cycloreversion reaction. Practical applications, like noninvasive bioimaging and noninvasive optogenetics, are also presented and prospected.
Collapse
|
32
|
Li K, Chen Q, Xue P. Mechanochromism and crystallization-induced emission enhancement of carbazole derivatives with different terminal groups. Tetrahedron 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2022.132924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
|
33
|
Hu H, Cheng X, Ma Z, Sijbesma RP, Ma Z. Polymer Mechanochromism from Force-Tuned Excited-State Intramolecular Proton Transfer. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:9971-9979. [PMID: 35617457 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c03056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Real-time monitoring of strain/stress in polymers is a big challenge to date. Herein, we for the first time report an ESIPT (excited-state intramolecular proton transfer)-based mechanochromic mechanophore (MM). The synthesis of target MM PhMz-4OH [(2-hydroxyphenyl)benzimidazole with four aliphatic hydroxyls] is quite facile. PhMz-4OH possesses characteristic dual emissions, and its ESIPT activity is greatly affected by steric hindrance. Then, PhMz-4OH was covalently linked into polyurethane chains (PhMz-4OH@PU). Upon stretching, the PhMz-4OH@PU films showed fluorescence color change and spectral variation with the increase in enol emission and blueshift of keto emission due to the force-induced torsion of the dihedral angle between the proton donor and the proton acceptor. The PhMz-4OH@PU films with high mechanophore concentrations (>0.36 mol %) might undergo a two-stage force-responsive process, including torsion of the dihedral angle via force-induced disaggregation and direct chain-transduced force-induced torsion of the dihedral angle. The intensity ratio of enol emission to keto emission (IE/IK) shows a quantitative correlation with elongation, and real-time strain sensing is achieved. PhMz-4OH is a successful type II MM (without covalent bond scission) and displays high sensitivity and excellent reversibility to stress. Two control structures PhMz-NH2 and PhMz-2OH were also embedded into PU but no spectral or color changes were detected, further confirming that mechanochromism of PhMz-4OH@PU films arises from the chain-transduced force. Density function theory (DFT) calculation was performed to study the force-tuned ESIPT process theoretically and rationalize the experimental results. This study might lay the foundation for real-time stress/strain sensing in practical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huan Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zhimin Ma
- College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Rint P Sijbesma
- Department of Chemical Engineering & Chemistry and Institute for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, Eindhoven 5600 MB, The Netherlands
| | - Zhiyong Ma
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China.,State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Raisch M, Reiter G, Sommer M. Determining Entanglement Molar Mass of Glassy Polyphenylenes Using Mechanochromic Molecular Springs. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:760-765. [PMID: 35612497 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.2c00238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Molecular force transduction in tough and glassy poly(meta,meta,para-phenylene) (PmmpP) was investigated as a function of Mn using covalently incorporated mechanochromic donor-acceptor torsional springs based on an ortho-substituted diphenyldiketopyrrolopyrrole (oDPP). Blending oDPP-PmmpP probe chains with long PmmpP matrix chains allowed us to investigate molar-mass-dependent mechanochromic properties for a series of specimens having mechanically identical properties. In the strain-hardening regime, the mechanochromic response (Δλmax,em) was found to be a linear function of the acting stress and fully reversible, making oDPP-PmmpP a real-time and quantitative stress sensor. For entangled and nonentangled probe chains, distinctly different values of Δλmax,em were observed, yielding a critical molar mass of Mc ≈ 11 kg mol-1 for PmmpP. Once physical cross-linking of oDPP in the network of PmmpP was ensured, Δλmax,em was found to be independent of Mn. The resulting value of Mc is in very good agreement with results from rheology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maximilian Raisch
- Institute for Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Günter Reiter
- Institute of Physics, University of Freiburg, Hermann-Herder-Str. 3, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Michael Sommer
- Institute for Chemistry, Polymer Chemistry, Chemnitz University of Technology, Straße der Nationen 62, 09111 Chemnitz, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Qiu W, Scofield JMP, Gurr PA, Qiao GG. Mechanochromophore-linked Polymeric Materials with Visible Color Changes. Macromol Rapid Commun 2022; 43:e2100866. [PMID: 35338794 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202100866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Mechanical force as a type of stimuli for smart materials has obtained much attention in the past decade. Color-changing materials in response to mechanical stimuli have shown great potential in the applications such as sensors and displays. Mechanochromophore-linked polymeric materials, which are a growing sub-class of these materials, are discussed in detail in this review. Two main types of mechanochromophores which exhibit visible color change, summarized herein, involve either isomerization or radical generation mechanisms. This review focuses on their synthesis and incorporation into polymer matrices, the type of mechanical force used, factors affecting the mechanochromic properties, and their applications. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wenlian Qiu
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Joel M P Scofield
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Paul A Gurr
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| | - Greg G Qiao
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Yamakado T, Saito S. Ratiometric Flapping Force Probe That Works in Polymer Gels. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:2804-2815. [PMID: 35108003 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Polymer gels have recently attracted attention for their application in flexible devices, where mechanically robust gels are required. While there are many strategies to produce tough gels by suppressing nanoscale stress concentration on specific polymer chains, it is still challenging to directly verify the toughening mechanism at the molecular level. To solve this problem, the use of the flapping molecular force probe (FLAP) is promising because it can evaluate the nanoscale forces transmitted in the polymer chain network by ratiometric analysis of a stress-dependent dual fluorescence. A flexible conformational change of FLAP enables real-time and reversible responses to the nanoscale forces at the low force threshold, which is suitable for quantifying the percentage of the stressed polymer chains before structural damage. However, the previously reported FLAP only showed a negligible response in solvated environments because undesirable spontaneous planarization occurs in the excited state, even without mechanical force. Here, we have developed a new ratiometric force probe that functions in common organogels. Replacement of the anthraceneimide units in the flapping wings with pyreneimide units largely suppresses the excited-state planarization, leading to the force probe function under wet conditions. The FLAP-doped polyurethane organogel reversibly shows a dual-fluorescence response under sub-MPa compression. Moreover, the structurally modified FLAP is also advantageous in the wide dynamic range of its fluorescence response in solvent-free elastomers, enabling clearer ratiometric fluorescence imaging of the molecular-level stress concentration during crack growth in a stretched polyurethane film.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takuya Yamakado
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Shohei Saito
- Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
van Galen M, Kaniraj JP, Albada B, Sprakel J. Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy of a Tetraaryl Succinonitrile Mechanophore. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2022; 126:1215-1221. [PMID: 35087610 PMCID: PMC8785187 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.1c09314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fluorescent damage reporters that use mechanochemical activation of a covalent bond to elicit an optical signal are emerging tools in material mechanics as a means to access the nanoscale distribution of forces inside materials under stress. A promising class of damage reporters are tetraaryl succinonitriles (TASN), whose mechanical activation results in stable fluorescent radical species. However, in-depth insights into the molecular mechanics of TASN activation are absent, precluding their use as quantitative mechanoprobes. Here we perform single-molecule force spectroscopy experiments to provide these insights. We use a bridged version of the TASN unit, embedded in multi-mechanophore polymer, to enable multiplexed mechanochemical measurements at the single-molecule level. Our experiments reveal that TASN activates at surprisingly low forces and short time scales compared to other covalent mechanophores. These results establish TASN as a promising candidate for reporting the lower end of relevant forces in material mechanics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martijn van Galen
- Physical
Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University
& Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeya Prathap Kaniraj
- Physical
Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University
& Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
- Laboratory
of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University
& Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Bauke Albada
- Laboratory
of Organic Chemistry, Wageningen University
& Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joris Sprakel
- Physical
Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University
& Research, Stippeneng 4, 6708WE Wageningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Hu H, Cheng X, Ma Z, Wang Z, Ma Z. A double-spiro ring-structured mechanophore with dual-signal mechanochromism and multistate mechanochemical behavior: non-sequential ring-opening and multimodal analysis. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2py00728b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
We have developed a novel aminobenzopyranoxanthene-based mechanophore with a dual-signal response and two mechanogenerated ring-opened isomers, of which the relative distribution is modulated by external force based on the heat–force equilibrium.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Huan Hu
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xin Cheng
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Zhimin Ma
- College of Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Zhijian Wang
- Key Laboratory of Aerospace Advanced Materials and Performance, Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zhiyong Ma
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Soft Matter Science and Engineering, State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Chemical Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Engineering of Polymers, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China
| |
Collapse
|
39
|
Traeger H, Sagara Y, Berrocal JA, Schrettl S, Weder C. Strain-correlated mechanochromism in different polyurethanes featuring a supramolecular mechanophore. Polym Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2py00218c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A previously reported, supramolecular, loop-forming mechanophore comprised of two covalently connected perylene diimide (PDI) dyes was equipped with hydroxy groups and covalently incorporated into different polyurethanes (PUs). Four PUs with...
Collapse
|
40
|
Versaw BA, Zeng T, Hu X, Robb MJ. Harnessing the Power of Force: Development of Mechanophores for Molecular Release. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:21461-21473. [PMID: 34927426 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c11868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Polymers that release small molecules in response to mechanical force are promising materials for a variety of applications ranging from sensing and catalysis to targeted drug delivery. Within the rapidly growing field of polymer mechanochemistry, stress-sensitive molecules known as mechanophores are particularly attractive for enabling the release of covalently bound payloads with excellent selectivity and control. Here, we review recent progress in the development of mechanophore-based molecular release platforms and provide an optimistic, yet critical perspective on the fundamental and technological advancements that are still required for this promising research area to achieve significant impact.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brooke A Versaw
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Tian Zeng
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Xiaoran Hu
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Overholts AC, McFadden ME, Robb MJ. Quantifying Activation Rates of Scissile Mechanophores and the Influence of Dispersity. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c02232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna C. Overholts
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Molly E. McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J. Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Abstract
AbstractThis Account covers the recent progress made on heterocyclic mechanophores in the field of polymer mechanochemistry. In particular, the types of such mechanophores as well as the mechanisms and applications of their force-induced structural transformations are discussed and related perspectives and future challenges proposed.1 Introduction2 Types of Mechanophores3 Methods to Incorporate Heterocycle Mechanophores into Polymer Systems4 Mechanochemical Reactions of Heterocyclic Mechanophores4.1 Three-Membered-Ring Mechanophores4.2 Four-Membered-Ring Mechanophores4.3 Six-Membered-Ring Mechanophores4.4 Bicyclic Mechanophores5 Applications5.1 Cross-Linking of Polymer5.2 Degradable Polymer5.3 Mechanochromic Polymer6 Concluding Remarks and Outlook
Collapse
|
43
|
Tan M, Hu Z, Dai Y, Peng Y, Zhou Y, Shi Y, Li Y, Chen Y. A Simple Mechanochromic Mechanophore Based on Aminothiomaleimide. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:1423-1428. [PMID: 35549011 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromic mechanophores have promising applications in stress sensing and damage detection. Here we report a simple mechanofluorochromic mechanophore based on aminothiomaleimide (ATM). Poly(methyl acrylate) containing this mechanophore (ATM-PMA) was synthesized by atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) using an ATM-derived difunctional initiator. To investigate its mechanofluorochromism, the solution of ATM-PMA was subjected to ultrasonication, and size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and fluorescence spectroscopy were employed to monitor the changes in molecular weight and fluorescence emission. The results showed that the molecular weight of ATM-PMA decreased upon ultrasonication, accompanied by a shift of fluorescence emission from bright yellow to light blue. This mechanophore of a simple functional group of ATM has great potential to be used in mechanochromic polymer materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Tan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhitao Hu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yunkai Dai
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yanling Peng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yecheng Zhou
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yi Shi
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yuanchao Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yongming Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Key Laboratory for Polymeric Composite and Functional Materials of Ministry of Education, Research Center for Functional Biomaterials Engineering and Technology Guangdong, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Osler SK, McFadden ME, Robb MJ. Comparison of the reactivity of isomeric
2
H
‐ and
3
H
‐naphthopyran mechanophores. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Skylar K. Osler
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering California Institute of Technology Pasadena California USA
| | - Molly E. McFadden
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering California Institute of Technology Pasadena California USA
| | - Maxwell J. Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering California Institute of Technology Pasadena California USA
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Qi Q, Sekhon G, Chandradat R, Ofodum NM, Shen T, Scrimgeour J, Joy M, Wriedt M, Jayathirtha M, Darie CC, Shipp DA, Liu X, Lu X. Force-Induced Near-Infrared Chromism of Mechanophore-Linked Polymers. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:17337-17343. [PMID: 34586805 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c05923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A near-infrared (NIR) mechanophore was developed and incorporated into a poly(methyl acrylate) chain to showcase the first force-induced NIR chromism in polymeric materials. This mechanophore, based on benzo[1,3]oxazine (OX) fused with a heptamethine cyanine moiety, exhibited NIR mechanochromism in solution, thin-film, and bulk states. The mechanochemical activity was validated using UV-vis-NIR absorption/fluorescence spectroscopies, gel permeation chromatography (GPC), NMR, and DFT simulations. Our work demonstrates that NIR mechanochromic polymers have considerable potential in mechanical force sensing, damage detection, bioimaging, and biomechanics.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Tianruo Shen
- Fluorescence Research Group, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Xiaogang Liu
- Fluorescence Research Group, Singapore University of Technology and Design, 8 Somapah Road, 487372 Singapore
| | | |
Collapse
|
46
|
Barber RW, Robb MJ. A modular approach to mechanically gated photoswitching with color-tunable molecular force probes. Chem Sci 2021; 12:11703-11709. [PMID: 34659705 PMCID: PMC8442728 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc02890a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Molecular force probes conveniently report on mechanical stress and/or strain in polymers through straightforward visual cues. Unlike conventional mechanochromic mechanophores, the mechanically gated photoswitching strategy decouples mechanochemical activation from the ultimate chromogenic response, enabling the mechanical history of a material to be recorded and read on-demand using light. Here we report a completely redesigned, highly modular mechanophore platform for mechanically gated photoswitching that offers a robust, accessible synthesis and late stage diversification through Pd-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions to precisely tune the photophysical properties of the masked diarylethene (DAE) photoswitch. Using solution-phase ultrasonication, the reactivity of a small library of functionally diverse mechanophores is demonstrated to be exceptionally selective, producing a chromogenic response under UV irradiation only after mechanochemical activation, revealing colored DAE isomers with absorption spectra that span the visible region of the electromagnetic spectrum. Notably, mechanically gated photoswitching is successfully translated to solid polymeric materials for the first time, demonstrating the potential of the masked diarylethene mechanophore for a variety of applications in force-responsive polymeric materials.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ross W Barber
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| | - Maxwell J Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology Pasadena California 91125 USA
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Hu X, Zeng T, Husic CC, Robb MJ. Mechanically Triggered Release of Functionally Diverse Molecular Payloads from Masked 2-Furylcarbinol Derivatives. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:1216-1224. [PMID: 34345671 PMCID: PMC8323246 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Polymers that release functional small molecules in response to mechanical force are appealing targets for drug delivery, sensing, catalysis, and many other applications. Mechanically sensitive molecules called mechanophores are uniquely suited to enable molecular release with excellent selectivity and control, but mechanophore designs capable of releasing cargo with diverse chemical functionality are limited. Here, we describe a general and highly modular mechanophore platform based on masked 2-furylcarbinol derivatives that spontaneously decompose under mild conditions upon liberation via a mechanically triggered reaction, resulting in the release of a covalently installed molecular payload. We identify key structure-property relationships for the reactivity of 2-furylcarbinol derivatives that enable the mechanically triggered release of functionally diverse molecular cargo with release kinetics being tunable over several orders of magnitude. In particular, the incorporation of an electron-donating phenoxy group on the furan ring in combination with an α-methyl substituent dramatically lowers the activation barrier for fragmentation, providing a highly active substrate for molecular release. Moreover, we find that phenoxy substitution enhances the thermal stability of the mechanophore without adversely affecting its mechanochemical reactivity. The generality and efficacy of this molecular design platform are demonstrated using ultrasound-induced mechanical force to trigger the efficient release of a broad scope of cargo molecules, including those bearing alcohol, phenol, alkylamine, arylamine, carboxylic acid, and sulfonic acid functional groups.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoran Hu
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Tian Zeng
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Corey C. Husic
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Maxwell J. Robb
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
Muramatsu T, Okado Y, Traeger H, Schrettl S, Tamaoki N, Weder C, Sagara Y. Rotaxane-Based Dual Function Mechanophores Exhibiting Reversible and Irreversible Responses. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:9884-9892. [PMID: 34162206 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c03790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mechanochromic mechanophores permit the design of polymers that indicate mechanical events through optical signals. Here we report rotaxane-based supramolecular mechanophores that display both reversible and irreversible fluorescence changes. These responses are triggered by different forces and are achieved by exploiting the molecular shuttling function and force-induced dethreading of rotaxanes. The new rotaxane mechanophores are composed of a ring featuring a luminophore, which is threaded onto an axle with a matching quencher and two stoppers. In the stress-free state, the luminophore is preferentially located in the proximity of the quencher, and the emission is quenched. The luminophore slides away from the quencher when a force is applied and the fluorescence is switched on. This effect is reversible, unless the force is so high that the luminophore-carrying ring slips past the stopper and dethreading occurs. We show that the combination of judiciously selected ring and stopper moieties is crucial to attain interlocked structures that display such a dual response. PU elastomers that contain such doubly responsive rotaxanes exhibit reversible fluorescence changes over multiple loading-unloading cycles due to the shuttling function, whereas permanent changes are observed upon repeated deformations to high strains due to breakage of the mechanical bond upon dethreading of the ring from the axle. This response allows one, at least conceptually, to monitor the actual deformation of polymer materials and examine mechanical damage that was inflicted in the past on the basis of an optical signal.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuya Muramatsu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan
| | - Yuji Okado
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, N20, W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Hanna Traeger
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Stephen Schrettl
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Nobuyuki Tamaoki
- Research Institute for Electronic Science, Hokkaido University, N20, W10, Kita-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaido 001-0020, Japan
| | - Christoph Weder
- Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Chemin des Verdiers 4, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Yoshimitsu Sagara
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 2-12-1 Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo 152-8552, Japan.,JST-PRESTO, 4-1-8 Honcho, Kawaguchi, Saitama 332-0012, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
49
|
Shieh P, Hill MR, Zhang W, Kristufek SL, Johnson JA. Clip Chemistry: Diverse (Bio)(macro)molecular and Material Function through Breaking Covalent Bonds. Chem Rev 2021; 121:7059-7121. [PMID: 33823111 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c01282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the two decades since the introduction of the "click chemistry" concept, the toolbox of "click reactions" has continually expanded, enabling chemists, materials scientists, and biologists to rapidly and selectively build complexity for their applications of interest. Similarly, selective and efficient covalent bond breaking reactions have provided and will continue to provide transformative advances. Here, we review key examples and applications of efficient, selective covalent bond cleavage reactions, which we refer to herein as "clip reactions." The strategic application of clip reactions offers opportunities to tailor the compositions and structures of complex (bio)(macro)molecular systems with exquisite control. Working in concert, click chemistry and clip chemistry offer scientists and engineers powerful methods to address next-generation challenges across the chemical sciences.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peyton Shieh
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Megan R Hill
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Wenxu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Samantha L Kristufek
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Jeremiah A Johnson
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Sammon MS, Biewend M, Michael P, Schirra S, Ončák M, Binder WH, Beyer MK. Activation of a Copper Biscarbene Mechano-Catalyst Using Single-Molecule Force Spectroscopy Supported by Quantum Chemical Calculations. Chemistry 2021; 27:8723-8729. [PMID: 33822419 PMCID: PMC8251802 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202100555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Single-molecule force spectroscopy allows investigation of the effect of mechanical force on individual bonds. By determining the forces necessary to sufficiently activate bonds to trigger dissociation, it is possible to predict the behavior of mechanophores. The force necessary to activate a copper biscarbene mechano-catalyst intended for self-healing materials was measured. By using a safety line bypassing the mechanophore, it was possible to pinpoint the dissociation of the investigated bond and determine rupture forces to range from 1.6 to 2.6 nN at room temperature in dimethyl sulfoxide. The average length-increase upon rupture of the Cu-C bond, due to the stretching of the safety line, agrees with quantum chemical calculations, but the values exhibit an unusual scattering. This scattering was assigned to the conformational flexibility of the mechanophore, which includes formation of a threaded structure and recoiling of the safety line.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S. Sammon
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte PhysikUniversität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Michel Biewend
- Department of Macromolecular ChemistryMartin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenbergvon-Danckelmann-Platz 406120Halle (Saale)Germany
| | - Philipp Michael
- Department of Macromolecular ChemistryMartin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenbergvon-Danckelmann-Platz 406120Halle (Saale)Germany
| | - Simone Schirra
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte PhysikUniversität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Milan Ončák
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte PhysikUniversität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Wolfgang H. Binder
- Department of Macromolecular ChemistryMartin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenbergvon-Danckelmann-Platz 406120Halle (Saale)Germany
| | - Martin K. Beyer
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte PhysikUniversität InnsbruckTechnikerstraße 256020InnsbruckAustria
| |
Collapse
|