1
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Degirmenci A, Sanyal R, Sanyal A. Metal-Free Click-Chemistry: A Powerful Tool for Fabricating Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications. Bioconjug Chem 2024; 35:433-452. [PMID: 38516745 PMCID: PMC11036366 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.4c00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Increasing interest in the utilization of hydrogels in various areas of biomedical sciences ranging from biosensing and drug delivery to tissue engineering has necessitated the synthesis of these materials using efficient and benign chemical transformations. In this regard, the advent of "click" chemistry revolutionized the design of hydrogels and a range of efficient reactions was utilized to obtain hydrogels with increased control over their physicochemical properties. The ability to apply the "click" chemistry paradigm to both synthetic and natural polymers as hydrogel precursors further expanded the utility of this chemistry in network formation. In particular, the ability to integrate clickable handles at predetermined locations in polymeric components enables the formation of well-defined networks. Although, in the early years of "click" chemistry, the copper-catalyzed azide-alkyne cycloaddition was widely employed, recent years have focused on the use of metal-free "click" transformations, since residual metal impurities may interfere with or compromise the biological function of such materials. Furthermore, many of the non-metal-catalyzed "click" transformations enable the fabrication of injectable hydrogels, as well as the fabrication of microstructured gels using spatial and temporal control. This review article summarizes the recent advances in the fabrication of hydrogels using various metal-free "click" reactions and highlights the applications of thus obtained materials. One could envision that the use of these versatile metal-free "click" reactions would continue to revolutionize the design of functional hydrogels geared to address unmet needs in biomedical sciences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aysun Degirmenci
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Rana Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
| | - Amitav Sanyal
- Department
of Chemistry, Bogazici University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
- Center
for Life Sciences and Technologies, Bogazici
University, Bebek, Istanbul 34342, Türkiye
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2
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Vallmajo-Martin Q, Millan C, Müller R, Weber FE, Ehrbar M, Ghayor C. Enhanced bone regeneration in rat calvarial defects through BMP2 release from engineered poly(ethylene glycol) hydrogels. Sci Rep 2024; 14:4916. [PMID: 38418564 PMCID: PMC10901800 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-55411-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024] Open
Abstract
The clinical standard therapy for large bone defects, typically addressed through autograft or allograft donor tissue, faces significant limitations. Tissue engineering offers a promising alternative strategy for the regeneration of substantial bone lesions. In this study, we harnessed poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG)-based hydrogels, optimizing critical parameters including stiffness, incorporation of arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) cell adhesion motifs, degradability, and the release of BMP2 to promote bone formation. In vitro we demonstrated that human bone marrow derived stromal cell (hBMSC) proliferation and spreading strongly correlates with hydrogel stiffness and adhesion to RGD peptide motifs. Moreover, the incorporation of the osteogenic growth factor BMP2 into the hydrogels enabled sustained release, effectively inducing bone regeneration in encapsulated progenitor cells. When used in vivo to treat calvarial defects in rats, we showed that hydrogels of low and intermediate stiffness optimally facilitated cell migration, proliferation, and differentiation promoting the efficient repair of bone defects. Our comprehensive in vitro and in vivo findings collectively suggest that the developed hydrogels hold significant promise for clinical translation for bone repair and regeneration by delivering sustained and controlled stimuli from active signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Queralt Vallmajo-Martin
- Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Zürich, University of Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 12, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland
- School of Life Sciences and School of Engineering, Institute of Bioengineering, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 15, 1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Christopher Millan
- Department of Urology, University Hospital Zürich, University of Zürich, Wagistrasse 21, 8952, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ralph Müller
- Institute for Biomechanics, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule Zürich, Leopold-Ruzicka-Weg 8093, 8049, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franz E Weber
- Center of Dental Medicine, Oral Biotechnology & Bioengineering, University of Zürich, Plattenstrasse 11, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Martin Ehrbar
- Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Zürich, University of Zürich, Schmelzbergstrasse 12, 8091, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Chafik Ghayor
- Center of Dental Medicine, Oral Biotechnology & Bioengineering, University of Zürich, Plattenstrasse 11, 8032, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Li X, Liu S, Han S, Sun Q, Yang J, Zhang Y, Jiang Y, Wang X, Li Q, Wang J. Dynamic Stiffening Hydrogel with Instructive Stiffening Timing Modulates Stem Cell Fate In Vitro and Enhances Bone Remodeling In Vivo. Adv Healthc Mater 2023; 12:e2300326. [PMID: 37643370 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202300326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Biomechanical stimuli derived from the extracellular matrix (ECM) extremely tune stem cell fate through 3D and spatiotemporal changes in vivo. The matrix stiffness is a crucial factor during bone tissue development. However, most in vitro models to study the osteogenesis of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are static or stiffening in a 2D environment. Here, a dynamic and controllable stiffening 3D biomimetic model is created to regulate the osteogenic differentiation of MSCs with a dual-functional gelatin macromer that can generate a double-network hydrogel by sequential enzymatic and light-triggered crosslinking reactions. The findings show that these dynamic hydrogels allowed cells to spread and expand prior to the secondary crosslinking and to sense high stiffness after stiffening. The MSCs in the dynamic hydrogels, especially the hydrogel stiffened at the late period, present significantly elevated osteogenic ECM secretion, gene expression, and nuclear localization of Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional coactivator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ). In vivo evaluation of animal experiments further indicates that the enhancement of dynamic stiffening on osteogenesis of MSCs substantially promotes bone remodeling. Consequently, this work reveals that the 3D dynamic stiffening microenvironment as a critical biophysical cue not only mediates the stem cell fate in vitro, but also augments bone restoration in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomeng Li
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Moulding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Shuaibing Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Hubei Bioinformatics and Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Shanshan Han
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Moulding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Qingqing Sun
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jianmin Yang
- College of Biological Science and Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, 350108, China
| | - Yuhang Zhang
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Moulding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Yongchao Jiang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Xiaofeng Wang
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Moulding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Qian Li
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-Nano Moulding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
| | - Jianglin Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Hubei Bioinformatics and Molecular Imaging Key Laboratory, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430074, China
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4
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Günay KA, Chang TL, Skillin NP, Rao VV, Macdougall LJ, Cutler AA, Silver JS, Brown TE, Zhang C, Yu CCJ, Olwin BB, Boyden ES, Anseth KS. Photo-expansion microscopy enables super-resolution imaging of cells embedded in 3D hydrogels. NATURE MATERIALS 2023; 22:777-785. [PMID: 37217701 PMCID: PMC10590656 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-023-01558-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogels are extensively used as tunable, biomimetic three-dimensional cell culture matrices, but optically deep, high-resolution images are often difficult to obtain, limiting nanoscale quantification of cell-matrix interactions and outside-in signalling. Here we present photopolymerized hydrogels for expansion microscopy that enable optical clearance and tunable ×4.6-6.7 homogeneous expansion of not only monolayer cell cultures and tissue sections, but cells embedded within hydrogels. The photopolymerized hydrogels for expansion microscopy formulation relies on a rapid photoinitiated thiol/acrylate mixed-mode polymerization that is not inhibited by oxygen and decouples monomer diffusion from polymerization, which is particularly beneficial when expanding cells embedded within hydrogels. Using this technology, we visualize human mesenchymal stem cells and their interactions with nascently deposited proteins at <120 nm resolution when cultured in proteolytically degradable synthetic polyethylene glycol hydrogels. Results support the notion that focal adhesion maturation requires cellular fibronectin deposition; nuclear deformation precedes cellular spreading; and human mesenchymal stem cells display cell-surface metalloproteinases for matrix remodelling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Arda Günay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Tze-Ling Chang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Nathaniel P Skillin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Varsha V Rao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Laura J Macdougall
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Alicia A Cutler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Jason S Silver
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Tobin E Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Chi Zhang
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Chih-Chieh Jay Yu
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Bradley B Olwin
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Edward S Boyden
- McGovern Institute, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
- HHMI, Cambridge, MA, USA
- Departments of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Media Arts and Sciences, and Biological Engineering, MIT, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering and the BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
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5
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Kamperman T, Willemen NGA, Kelder C, Koerselman M, Becker M, Lins L, Johnbosco C, Karperien M, Leijten J. Steering Stem Cell Fate within 3D Living Composite Tissues Using Stimuli-Responsive Cell-Adhesive Micromaterials. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2205487. [PMID: 36599686 PMCID: PMC10074101 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202205487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Engineered living microtissues such as cellular spheroids and organoids have enormous potential for the study and regeneration of tissues and organs. Microtissues are typically engineered via self-assembly of adherent cells into cellular spheroids, which are characterized by little to no cell-material interactions. Consequently, 3D microtissue models currently lack structural biomechanical and biochemical control over their internal microenvironment resulting in suboptimal functional performance such as limited stem cell differentiation potential. Here, this work report on stimuli-responsive cell-adhesive micromaterials (SCMs) that can self-assemble with cells into 3D living composite microtissues through integrin binding, even under serum-free conditions. It is demonstrated that SCMs homogeneously distribute within engineered microtissues and act as biomechanically and biochemically tunable designer materials that can alter the composite tissue microenvironment on demand. Specifically, cell behavior is controlled based on the size, stiffness, number ratio, and biofunctionalization of SCMs in a temporal manner via orthogonal secondary crosslinking strategies. Photo-based mechanical tuning of SCMs reveals early onset stiffness-controlled lineage commitment of differentiating stem cell spheroids. In contrast to conventional encapsulation of stem cell spheroids within bulk hydrogel, incorporating cell-sized SCMs within stem cell spheroids uniquely provides biomechanical cues throughout the composite microtissues' volume, which is demonstrated to be essential for osteogenic differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tom Kamperman
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Niels G. A. Willemen
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Cindy Kelder
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Michelle Koerselman
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Malin Becker
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Luanda Lins
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Castro Johnbosco
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Marcel Karperien
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
| | - Jeroen Leijten
- Department of Developmental BioEngineeringFaculty of Science and TechnologyTechnical Medical CentreUniversity of TwenteDrienerlolaan 5Enschede7522NBThe Netherlands
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6
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Brady SR, Gohsman SB, Sepulveda K, Weaver JD. Engineering synthetic poly(ethylene) glycol-based hydrogels compatible with injection molding biofabrication. J Biomed Mater Res A 2023; 111:814-824. [PMID: 36866410 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.37523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/20/2023] [Indexed: 03/04/2023]
Abstract
Hydrogel injection molding is a biofabrication method that is useful for the rapid generation of complex cell-laden hydrogel geometries, with potential utility in biomanufacturing products for tissue engineering applications. Hydrogel injection molding requires that hydrogel polymers have sufficiently delayed crosslinking times to enable injection and molding prior to gelation. In this work, we explore the feasibility of injection molding synthetic poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG)-based hydrogels functionalized with strain promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition click chemistry functional groups. We evaluate the mechanical properties of a PEG-based hydrogel library, including time to gelation and successful generation of complex geometries via injection molding. We evaluate the binding and retention of adhesive ligand RGD within the library matrices and characterize the viability and function of encapsulated cells. This work demonstrates the feasibility of injection molding synthetic PEG-based hydrogels for tissue engineering applications, with potential utility in the clinic and biomanufacturing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah R Brady
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Simone B Gohsman
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Keven Sepulveda
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
| | - Jessica D Weaver
- School of Biological and Health Systems Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona, USA
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7
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Nelson BR, Kirkpatrick BE, Miksch CE, Davidson MD, Skillin NP, Hach GK, Khang A, Hummel SN, Fairbanks BD, Burdick JA, Bowman CN, Anseth KS. Photoinduced Dithiolane Crosslinking for Multiresponsive Dynamic Hydrogels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023:e2211209. [PMID: 36715698 PMCID: PMC10387131 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202211209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
While many hydrogels are elastic networks crosslinked by covalent bonds, viscoelastic hydrogels with adaptable crosslinks are increasingly being developed to better recapitulate time and position-dependent processes found in many tissues. In this work, 1,2-dithiolanes are presented as dynamic covalent photocrosslinkers of hydrogels, resulting in disulfide bonds throughout the hydrogel that respond to multiple stimuli. Using lipoic acid as a model dithiolane, disulfide crosslinks are formed under physiological conditions, enabling cell encapsulation via an initiator-free light-induced dithiolane ring-opening photopolymerization. The resulting hydrogels allow for multiple photoinduced dynamic responses including stress relaxation, stiffening, softening, and network functionalization using a single chemistry, which can be supplemented by permanent reaction with alkenes to further control network properties and connectivity using irreversible thioether crosslinks. Moreover, complementary photochemical approaches are used to achieve rapid and complete sample degradation via radical scission and post-gelation network stiffening when irradiated in the presence of reactive gel precursor. The results herein demonstrate the versatility of this material chemistry to study and direct 2D and 3D cell-material interactions. This work highlights dithiolane-based hydrogel photocrosslinking as a robust method for generating adaptable hydrogels with a range of biologically relevant mechanical and chemical properties that are varied on demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R Nelson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Bruce E Kirkpatrick
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Connor E Miksch
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Matthew D Davidson
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Nathaniel P Skillin
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Grace K Hach
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Alex Khang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Sydney N Hummel
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Benjamin D Fairbanks
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Jason A Burdick
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Christopher N Bowman
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
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8
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Muzzio N, Eduardo Martinez-Cartagena M, Romero G. Soft nano and microstructures for the photomodulation of cellular signaling and behavior. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2022; 190:114554. [PMID: 36181993 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Photoresponsive soft materials are everywhere in the nature, from human's retina tissues to plants, and have been the inspiration for engineers in the development of modern biomedical materials. Light as an external stimulus is particularly attractive because it is relatively cheap, noninvasive to superficial biological tissues, can be delivered contactless and offers high spatiotemporal control. In the biomedical field, soft materials that respond to long wavelength or that incorporate a photon upconversion mechanism are desired to overcome the limited UV-visible light penetration into biological tissues. Upon light exposure, photosensitive soft materials respond through mechanisms of isomerization, crosslinking or cleavage, hyperthermia, photoreactions, electrical current generation, among others. In this review, we discuss the most recent applications of photosensitive soft materials in the modulation of cellular behavior, for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, in drug delivery and for phototherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Muzzio
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
| | | | - Gabriela Romero
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX 78249, USA.
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9
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Lou J, Mooney DJ. Chemical strategies to engineer hydrogels for cell culture. Nat Rev Chem 2022; 6:726-744. [PMID: 37117490 DOI: 10.1038/s41570-022-00420-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Two-dimensional and three-dimensional cell culture systems are widely used for biological studies, and are the basis of the organoid, tissue engineering and organ-on-chip research fields in applications such as disease modelling and drug screening. The natural extracellular matrix of tissues, a complex scaffold with varying chemical and mechanical properties, has a critical role in regulating important cellular functions such as spreading, migration, proliferation and differentiation, as well as tissue morphogenesis. Hydrogels are biomaterials that are used in cell culture systems to imitate critical features of a natural extracellular matrix. Chemical strategies to synthesize and tailor the properties of these hydrogels in a controlled manner, and manipulate their biological functions in situ, have been developed. In this Review, we provide the rational design criteria for predictably engineering hydrogels to mimic the properties of the natural extracellular matrix. We highlight the advances in using biocompatible strategies to engineer hydrogels for cell culture along with recent developments to dynamically control the cellular environment by exploiting stimuli-responsive chemistries. Finally, future opportunities to engineer hydrogels are discussed, in which the development of novel chemical methods will probably have an important role.
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10
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Vieira S, Silva-Correia J, Reis RL, Oliveira JM. Engineering Hydrogels for Modulation of Material-Cell Interactions. Macromol Biosci 2022; 22:e2200091. [PMID: 35853666 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogels are a recurrent platform for Tissue Engineering (TE) strategies. Their versatility and the variety of available methods for tuning their properties highly contribute to hydrogels' success. As a result, the design of advanced hydrogels has been thoroughly studied, in the quest for better solutions not only for drugs- and cell-based therapies but also for more fundamental studies. The wide variety of sources, crosslinking strategies, and functionalization methods, and mostly the resemblance of hydrogels to the natural extracellular matrix, make this 3D hydrated structures an excellent tool for TE approaches. The state-of-the-art information regarding hydrogel design, processing methods, and the influence of different hydrogel formulations on the final cell-biomaterial interactions are overviewed herein. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sílvia Vieira
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Joana Silva-Correia
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Rui L Reis
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - J Miguel Oliveira
- 3B's Research Group, I3Bs - Research Institute on Biomaterials, Biodegradables and Biomimetics, University of Minho, Headquarters of the European Institute of Excellence on Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, Portugal.,ICVS/3B's-PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
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11
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Kumari J, Wagener FADTG, Kouwer PHJ. Novel Synthetic Polymer-Based 3D Contraction Assay: A Versatile Preclinical Research Platform for Fibrosis. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:19212-19225. [PMID: 35468292 PMCID: PMC9073832 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c02549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
The driving factors causing fibrosis and scar formation include fibroblast differentiation into myofibroblasts and hampered myofibroblast apoptosis, which ultimately results in collagen accumulation and tissue contraction. Currently, only very few drugs are available for fibrosis treatment, and there is an urgent demand for new pharmaceutical products. High-throughput in vitro fibrosis models are necessary to develop such drugs. In this study, we developed such a novel model based on synthetic polyisocyanide (PIC-RGD) hydrogels. The model not only measures contraction but also allows for subsequent molecular and cellular analysis. Fibroblasts were seeded in small (10 μL) PIC-RGD gels in the absence or presence of TGFβ1, the latter to induce myofibroblast differentiation. The contraction model clearly differentiates fibroblasts and myofibroblasts. Besides a stronger contraction, we also observed α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA) production and higher collagen deposition for the latter. The results were supported by mRNA expression experiments of αSMA, Col1α1, P53, and Ki67. As proof of principle, the effects of FDA-approved antifibrotic drugs nintedanib and pirfenidone were tested in our newly developed fibrosis model. Both drugs clearly reduce myofibroblast-induced contraction. Moreover, both drugs significantly decrease myofibroblast viability. Our low-volume synthetic PIC-RGD hydrogel platform is an attractive tool for high-throughput in vitro antifibrotic drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Kumari
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department
of Dentistry - Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 EX Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Frank A. D. T. G. Wagener
- Department
of Dentistry - Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Medical Centre, 6525 EX Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- (F.A.D.T.G.W.)
| | - Paul H. J. Kouwer
- Institute
for Molecules and Materials, Radboud University, Heyendaalseweg 135, 6525 AJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- (P.H.J.K.)
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12
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Batan D, Peters DK, Schroeder ME, Aguado BA, Young MW, Weiss RM, Anseth KS. Hydrogel cultures reveal Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid 4 regulation of myofibroblast activation and proliferation in valvular interstitial cells. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22306. [PMID: 35385164 PMCID: PMC9009405 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202101863r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
As aortic valve stenosis develops, valve tissue becomes stiffer. In response to this change in environmental mechanical stiffness, valvular interstitial cells (VICs) activate into myofibroblasts. We aimed to investigate the role of mechanosensitive calcium channel Transient Receptor Potential Vanilloid type 4 (TRPV4) in stiffness induced myofibroblast activation. We verified TRPV4 functionality in VICs using live calcium imaging during application of small molecule modulators of TRPV4 activity. We designed hydrogel biomaterials that mimic mechanical features of healthy or diseased valve tissue microenvironments, respectively, to investigate the role of TRPV4 in myofibroblast activation and proliferation. Our results show that TRPV4 regulates VIC proliferation in a microenvironment stiffness-independent manner. While there was a trend toward inhibiting myofibroblast activation on soft microenvironments during TRPV4 inhibition, we observed near complete deactivation of myofibroblasts on stiff microenvironments. We further identified Yes-activated protein (YAP) as a downstream target for TRPV4 activity on stiff microenvironments. Mechanosensitive TRPV4 channels regulate VIC myofibroblast activation, whereas proliferation regulation is independent of the microenvironmental stiffness. Collectively, the data suggests differential regulation of stiffness-induced proliferation and myofibroblast activation. Our data further suggest a regulatory role for TRPV4 regarding YAP nuclear localization. TRPV4 is an important regulator for VIC myofibroblast activation, which is linked to the initiation of valve fibrosis. Although more validation studies are necessary, we suggest TRPV4 as a promising pharmaceutical target to slow aortic valve stenosis progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dilara Batan
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303 USA
| | - Douglas K. Peters
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Megan E. Schroeder
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Brian A. Aguado
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Mark W. Young
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Robert M. Weiss
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Kristi S. Anseth
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
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13
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Tong C, Wondergem JAJ, van den Brink M, Kwakernaak MC, Chen Y, Hendrix MMRM, Voets IK, Danen EHJ, Le Dévédec S, Heinrich D, Kieltyka RE. Spatial and Temporal Modulation of Cell Instructive Cues in a Filamentous Supramolecular Biomaterial. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:17042-17054. [PMID: 35403421 PMCID: PMC9026256 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c24114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Supramolecular materials provide unique opportunities to mimic both the structure and mechanics of the biopolymer networks that compose the extracellular matrix. However, strategies to modify their filamentous structures in space and time in 3D cell culture to study cell behavior as encountered in development and disease are lacking. We herein disclose a multicomponent squaramide-based supramolecular material whose mechanics and bioactivity can be controlled by light through co-assembly of a 1,2-dithiolane (DT) monomer that forms disulfide cross-links. Remarkably, increases in storage modulus from ∼200 Pa to >10 kPa after stepwise photo-cross-linking can be realized without an initiator while retaining colorlessness and clarity. Moreover, viscoelasticity and plasticity of the supramolecular networks decrease upon photo-irradiation, reducing cellular protrusion formation and motility when performed at the onset of cell culture. When applied during 3D cell culture, force-mediated manipulation is impeded and cells move primarily along earlier formed channels in the materials. Additionally, we show photopatterning of peptide cues in 3D using either a photomask or direct laser writing. We demonstrate that these squaramide-based filamentous materials can be applied to the development of synthetic and biomimetic 3D in vitro cell and disease models, where their secondary cross-linking enables mechanical heterogeneity and shaping at multiple length scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ciqing Tong
- Department
of Supramolecular and Biomaterials Chemistry, Leiden Institute of
Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Joeri A. J. Wondergem
- Biological
and Soft Matter Physics, Huygens-Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9504, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marijn van den Brink
- Department
of Supramolecular and Biomaterials Chemistry, Leiden Institute of
Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Markus C. Kwakernaak
- Department
of Supramolecular and Biomaterials Chemistry, Leiden Institute of
Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Ying Chen
- Department
of Supramolecular and Biomaterials Chemistry, Leiden Institute of
Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Marco M. R. M. Hendrix
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MD Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Ilja K. Voets
- Institute
for Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven
University of Technology, P.O. Box 513, 5600 MD Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Erik H. J. Danen
- Division
of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Sylvia Le Dévédec
- Division
of Drug Discovery and Safety, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Doris Heinrich
- Biological
and Soft Matter Physics, Huygens-Kamerlingh Onnes Laboratory, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9504, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute
for Bioprocessing and Analytical Measurement Techniques, Rosenhof 1, 37308 Heilbad Heiligenstadt, Germany
- Faculty for
Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Technische
Universität Ilmenau, 98693 Ilmenau, Germany
| | - Roxanne E. Kieltyka
- Department
of Supramolecular and Biomaterials Chemistry, Leiden Institute of
Chemistry, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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14
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Yavitt FM, Kirkpatrick BE, Blatchley MR, Anseth KS. 4D Materials with Photoadaptable Properties Instruct and Enhance Intestinal Organoid Development. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:4634-4638. [PMID: 35298149 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Intestinal organoids are self-organized tissue constructs, grown in vitro, that resemble the structure and function of the intestine and are often considered promising as a prospective platform for drug testing and disease modeling. Organoid development in vitro is typically instructed by exogenous cues delivered from the media, but cellular responses also depend on properties of the surrounding microenvironmental niche, such as mechanical stiffness and extracellular matrix (ECM) ligands. In recent years, synthetic hydrogel platforms have been engineered to resemble the in vivo niche, with the goal of generating physiologically relevant environments that can promote mature and reproducible organoid development. However, a few of these approaches consider the importance of intestinal organoid morphology or how morphology changes during development, as cues that may dictate organoid functionality. For example, intestinal organoids grown in vitro often lack the physical boundary conditions found in vivo that are responsible for shaping a collection of cells into developmentally relevant morphologies, resulting in organoids that often differ in structure and cellular organization from the parent organ. This disconnect relates, in part, to a lack of appropriate adaptable and programmable materials for cell culture, especially those that enable control over colony growth and differentiation in space and time (i.e., 4D materials). We posit that the future of organoid culture platforms may benefit from advances in photoadaptable chemistries and integration into biomaterials scaffolds, thereby allowing greater user-directed control over both the macro- and microscale material properties. In this way, synthetic materials can begin to better replicate changes in the ECM during development or regeneration in vivo. Recapitulation of cellular and tissue morphological changes, along with an appreciation for the appropriate developmental time scales, should help instruct the next generation of organoid models to facilitate predictable outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Bruce E Kirkpatrick
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
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15
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Lunzer M, Maryasin B, Zandrini T, Baudis S, Ovsianikov A, Liska R. A disulfide-based linker for thiol-norbornene conjugation: formation and cleavage of hydrogels by the use of light. Polym Chem 2022; 13:1158-1168. [PMID: 35341220 PMCID: PMC8886483 DOI: 10.1039/d1py00914a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Photolabile groups are the key components of photo-responsive polymers, dynamically tunable materials with multiple applications in materials and life sciences. They usually consist of a chromophore and a labile bond and are inherently light sensitive. An exception are disulfides, simple reversible linkages, which become photocleavable upon addition of a photoinitiator. Despite their practical features, disulfides are rarely utilized due to their impractical formation. Here, we report a disulfide-based linker series bearing norbornene terminals for facile crosslinking of thiol-functionalized macromers via light-triggered thiol-ene conjugation (TEC). Besides finding a highly reactive lead compound, we also identify an unexpected TEC-retardation, strongly dependent on the molecular linker structure and affecting hydrogel stability. Finally, we present a useful method for localized disulfide cleavage by two-photon irradiation permitting micropatterning of disulfide-crosslinked networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Markus Lunzer
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E163 1060 Vienna Austria
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E308 1060 Vienna Austria
| | - Boris Maryasin
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, University of Vienna Währinger Strasse 38 1090 Vienna Austria
- Institute of Theoretical Chemistry, University of Vienna Währinger Strasse 17 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Tommaso Zandrini
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E308 1060 Vienna Austria
| | - Stefan Baudis
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E163 1060 Vienna Austria
| | - Aleksandr Ovsianikov
- Institute of Materials Science and Technology, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E308 1060 Vienna Austria
| | - Robert Liska
- Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, Technische Universität Wien Getreidemarkt 9/E163 1060 Vienna Austria
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16
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Han P, Gomez GA, Duda GN, Ivanovski S, Poh PS. Scaffold geometry modulation of mechanotransduction and its influence on epigenetics. Acta Biomater 2022; 163:259-274. [PMID: 35038587 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The dynamics of cell mechanics and epigenetic signatures direct cell behaviour and fate, thus influencing regenerative outcomes. In recent years, the utilisation of 2D geometric (i.e. square, circle, hexagon, triangle or round-shaped) substrates for investigating cell mechanics in response to the extracellular microenvironment have gained increasing interest in regenerative medicine due to their tunable physicochemical properties. In contrast, there is relatively limited knowledge of cell mechanobiology and epigenetics in the context of 3D biomaterial matrices, i.e., hydrogels and scaffolds. Scaffold geometry provides biophysical signals that trigger a nucleus response (regulation of gene expression) and modulates cell behaviour and function. In this review, we explore the potential of additive manufacturing to incorporate multi length-scale geometry features on a scaffold. Then, we discuss how scaffold geometry direct cell and nuclear mechanosensing. We further discuss how cell epigenetics, particularly DNA/histone methylation and histone acetylation, are modulated by scaffold features that lead to specific gene expression and ultimately influence the outcome of tissue regeneration. Overall, we highlight that geometry of different magnitude scales can facilitate the assembly of cells and multicellular tissues into desired functional architectures through the mechanotransduction pathway. Moving forward, the challenge confronting biomedical engineers is the distillation of the vast knowledge to incorporate multiscaled geometrical features that would collectively elicit a favourable tissue regeneration response by harnessing the design flexibility of additive manufacturing. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: It is well-established that cells sense and respond to their 2D geometric microenvironment by transmitting extracellular physiochemical forces through the cytoskeleton and biochemical signalling to the nucleus, facilitating epigenetic changes such as DNA methylation, histone acetylation, and microRNA expression. In this context, the current review presents a unique perspective and highlights the importance of 3D architectures (dimensionality and geometries) on cell and nuclear mechanics and epigenetics. Insight into current challenges around the study of mechanobiology and epigenetics utilising additively manufactured 3D scaffold geometries will progress biomaterials research in this space.
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17
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Mueller E, Poulin I, Bodnaryk WJ, Hoare T. Click Chemistry Hydrogels for Extrusion Bioprinting: Progress, Challenges, and Opportunities. Biomacromolecules 2022; 23:619-640. [PMID: 34989569 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c01105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of 3D bioprinting has allowed a variety of hydrogel-based "bioinks" to be printed in the presence of cells to create precisely defined cell-loaded 3D scaffolds in a single step for advancing tissue engineering and/or regenerative medicine. While existing bioinks based primarily on ionic cross-linking, photo-cross-linking, or thermogelation have significantly advanced the field, they offer technical limitations in terms of the mechanics, degradation rates, and the cell viabilities achievable with the printed scaffolds, particularly in terms of aiming to match the wide range of mechanics and cellular microenvironments. Click chemistry offers an appealing solution to this challenge given that proper selection of the chemistry can enable precise tuning of both the gelation rate and the degradation rate, both key to successful tissue regeneration; simultaneously, the often bio-orthogonal nature of click chemistry is beneficial to maintain high cell viabilities within the scaffolds. However, to date, relatively few examples of 3D-printed click chemistry hydrogels have been reported, mostly due to the technical challenges of controlling mixing during the printing process to generate high-fidelity prints without clogging the printer. This review aims to showcase existing cross-linking modalities, characterize the advantages and disadvantages of different click chemistries reported, highlight current examples of click chemistry hydrogel bioinks, and discuss the design of mixing strategies to enable effective 3D extrusion bioprinting of click hydrogels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Mueller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Isabelle Poulin
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - William James Bodnaryk
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Todd Hoare
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
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18
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Ding Y, Wang ZY, Ren ZW, Zhang XW, Wei D. Advances in Modified Hyaluronic Acid-Based Hydrogels for Skin Wound Healing. Biomater Sci 2022; 10:3393-3409. [DOI: 10.1039/d2bm00397j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Hyaluronic acid (HA) is a natural linear anionic polysaccharide with many unique characteristics such as excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, native biofunctionality, hydrophilicity, and non-immunoreactivity. HA plays crucial roles in numerous...
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19
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Macdougall LJ, Pérez‐Madrigal MM, Shaw JE, Worch JC, Sammon C, Richardson SM, Dove AP. Using Stereochemistry to Control Mechanical Properties in Thiol-Yne Click-Hydrogels. ANGEWANDTE CHEMIE (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 133:26060-26068. [PMID: 38505187 PMCID: PMC10947108 DOI: 10.1002/ange.202107161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The stereochemistry of polymers has a profound impact on their mechanical properties. While this has been observed in thermoplastics, studies on how stereochemistry affects the bulk properties of swollen networks, such as hydrogels, are limited. Typically, changing the stiffness of a hydrogel is achieved at the cost of changing another parameter, that in turn affects the physical properties of the material and ultimately influences the cellular response. Herein, we report that by manipulating the stereochemistry of a double bond, formed in situ during gelation, materials with diverse mechanical properties but comparable physical properties can be obtained. Click-hydrogels that possess a high % trans content are stiffer than their high % cis analogues by almost a factor of 3. Human mesenchymal stem cells acted as a substrate stiffness cell reporter demonstrating the potential of these platforms to study mechanotransduction without the influence of other external factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joshua E. Shaw
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Biological SciencesFaculty of Biology, Medicine and HealthManchester Academic Health Science CentreUniversity of ManchesterManchesterM13 9PLUK
| | - Joshua C. Worch
- School of ChemistryUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamB15 2TTUK
| | - Christopher Sammon
- Materials and Engineering Research InstituteSheffield Hallam UniversitySheffieldS1 1WBUK
| | - Stephen M. Richardson
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative MedicineSchool of Biological SciencesFaculty of Biology, Medicine and HealthManchester Academic Health Science CentreUniversity of ManchesterManchesterM13 9PLUK
| | - Andrew P. Dove
- School of ChemistryUniversity of BirminghamBirminghamB15 2TTUK
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20
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Zennifer A, Manivannan S, Sethuraman S, Kumbar SG, Sundaramurthi D. 3D bioprinting and photocrosslinking: emerging strategies & future perspectives. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2021; 134:112576. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2021.112576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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21
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Ting MS, Travas-Sejdic J, Malmström J. Modulation of hydrogel stiffness by external stimuli: soft materials for mechanotransduction studies. J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:7578-7596. [PMID: 34596202 DOI: 10.1039/d1tb01415c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Mechanotransduction is an important process in determining cell survival, proliferation, migration and differentiation. The extracellular matrix (ECM) is the component of natural tissue that provides structural support and biochemical signals to adhering cells. The ECM is dynamic and undergoes physical and biochemical changes in response to various stimuli and there is an interest in understanding the effect of dynamic changes in stiffness on cell behaviour and fate. Therefore, stimuli-responsive hydrogels have been developed to mimic the cells' microenvironment in a controlled fashion. Herein, we review strategies for dynamic modulation of stiffness using various stimuli, such as light, temperature and pH. Special emphasis is placed on conducting polymer (CP) hydrogels and their fabrication procedures. We believe that the redox properties of CPs and hydrogels' biological properties make CPs hydrogels a promising substrate to investigate the effect of dynamic stiffness changes and mechanical actuation on cell fate in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew S Ting
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. .,MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington, New Zealand.,Polymer Biointerface Centre, School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jadranka Travas-Sejdic
- MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington, New Zealand.,Polymer Biointerface Centre, School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Jenny Malmström
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand. .,MacDiarmid Institute for Advanced Materials and Nanotechnology, Wellington, New Zealand.,Polymer Biointerface Centre, School of Chemical Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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22
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Macdougall LJ, Pérez-Madrigal MM, Shaw JE, Worch JC, Sammon C, Richardson SM, Dove AP. Using Stereochemistry to Control Mechanical Properties in Thiol-Yne Click-Hydrogels. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:25856-25864. [PMID: 34551190 PMCID: PMC9298389 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202107161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Revised: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The stereochemistry of polymers has a profound impact on their mechanical properties. While this has been observed in thermoplastics, studies on how stereochemistry affects the bulk properties of swollen networks, such as hydrogels, are limited. Typically, changing the stiffness of a hydrogel is achieved at the cost of changing another parameter, that in turn affects the physical properties of the material and ultimately influences the cellular response. Herein, we report that by manipulating the stereochemistry of a double bond, formed in situ during gelation, materials with diverse mechanical properties but comparable physical properties can be obtained. Click-hydrogels that possess a high % trans content are stiffer than their high % cis analogues by almost a factor of 3. Human mesenchymal stem cells acted as a substrate stiffness cell reporter demonstrating the potential of these platforms to study mechanotransduction without the influence of other external factors.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joshua E Shaw
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Joshua C Worch
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
| | - Christopher Sammon
- Materials and Engineering Research Institute, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, S1 1WB, UK
| | - Stephen M Richardson
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PL, UK
| | - Andrew P Dove
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, UK
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23
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Homma K, Chang AC, Yamamoto S, Tamate R, Ueki T, Nakanishi J. Design of azobenzene-bearing hydrogel with photoswitchable mechanics driven by photo-induced phase transition for in vitro disease modeling. Acta Biomater 2021; 132:103-113. [PMID: 33744500 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2021.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Mechanics of the extracellular matrix (ECM) exhibit changes during many biological events. During disease progression, such as cancer, matrix stiffening or softening occurs due to crosslinking of the collagen matrix or matrix degradation through cell-secreted enzymes. Engineered hydrogels have emerged as a prime in vitro model to mimic such dynamic mechanics during disease progression. Although there have been a variety of engineered hydrogels, few can offer both stiffening and softening properties under the same working principle. In addition, to model individual disease progression, it is desirable to control the kinetics of mechanical changes. To this end, we describe a photoresponsive hydrogel that undergoes stiffness changes by the photo-induced phase transition. The hydrogel was composed of a copolymer of azobenzene acrylate monomer (AzoAA) and N,N-dimethyl acrylamide (DMA). By tuning the amount of azobenzene, the phase transition behavior of this polymer occurs solely by light irradiation, because of the photoisomerization of azobenzene. This phase behavior was confirmed at 37 °C by turbidity measurements. In addition, the crosslinked poly(AzoAA-r-DMA) gel undergoes reversible swelling-deswelling upon photoisomerization by ultraviolet or visible light. Furthermore, the poly(AzoAA-r-DMA) sheet gels exhibited modulus changes at different isomerization states of azobenzene. When MCF-7 cells were cultured on the gels, stiffening at different timepoints induced varied responses in the gene expression levels of E-cadherin. Not only did this suggest an adaptive behavior of the cells against changes in mechanics during disease progression, this also demonstrated our material's potential towards in vitro disease modeling. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: During disease progression such as cancer, cellular microenvironment called extracellular matrix (ECM) undergoes stiffness changes. Hydrogels, which are swollen network of crosslinked polymers, have been used to model such dynamic mechanical environment of the ECM. However, few could offer both stiffening and softening properties under the same working principle. Herein, we fabricated a novel photoresponsive hydrogel with switchable mechanics, activated by photo-induced structural change of the polymer chains within the hydrogel. When breast cancer cells were cultured on our dynamic hydrogels, gene expression and morphological observation suggested that cells react to changes in stiffness by a transient response, as opposed to a sustained one. The photoresponsive hydrogel offers possibility for use as a patient-specific model of diseases.
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24
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Günay KA, Silver JS, Chang TL, Bednarski OJ, Bannister KL, Rogowski CJ, Olwin BB, Anseth KS. Myoblast mechanotransduction and myotube morphology is dependent on BAG3 regulation of YAP and TAZ. Biomaterials 2021; 277:121097. [PMID: 34481290 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2021.121097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Skeletal muscle tissue is mechanically dynamic with changes in stiffness influencing function, maintenance, and regeneration. We modeled skeletal muscle mechanical changes in culture with dynamically stiffening hydrogels demonstrating that the chaperone protein BAG3 transduces matrix stiffness by redistributing YAP and TAZ subcellular localization in muscle progenitor cells. BAG3 depletion increases cytoplasmic retention of YAP and TAZ, desensitizing myoblasts to changes in hydrogel elastic moduli. Upon differentiation, muscle progenitors depleted of BAG3 formed enlarged, round myotubes lacking the typical cylindrical morphology. The aberrant morphology is dependent on YAP/TAZ signaling, which was sequestered in the cytoplasm in BAG3-depleted myotubes but predominately nuclear in cylindrical myotubes of control cells. Control progenitor cells induced to differentiate on soft (E' = 4 and 12 kPa) hydrogels formed circular myotubes similar to those observed in BAG3-depleted cells. Inhibition of the Hippo pathway partially restored myotube morphologies, permitting nuclear translocation of YAP and TAZ in BAG3-depleted myogenic progenitors. Thus, BAG3 is a critical mediator of dynamic stiffness changes in muscle tissue, coupling mechanical alterations to intracellular signals and inducing changes in gene expression that influence muscle progenitor cell morphology and differentiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Arda Günay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Jason S Silver
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Tze-Ling Chang
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Olivia J Bednarski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kendra L Bannister
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Cameron J Rogowski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Bradley B Olwin
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA; BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
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25
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Hui E, Sumey JL, Caliari SR. Click-functionalized hydrogel design for mechanobiology investigations. MOLECULAR SYSTEMS DESIGN & ENGINEERING 2021; 6:670-707. [PMID: 36338897 PMCID: PMC9631920 DOI: 10.1039/d1me00049g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The advancement of click-functionalized hydrogels in recent years has coincided with rapid growth in the fields of mechanobiology, tissue engineering, and regenerative medicine. Click chemistries represent a group of reactions that possess high reactivity and specificity, are cytocompatible, and generally proceed under physiologic conditions. Most notably, the high level of tunability afforded by these reactions enables the design of user-controlled and tissue-mimicking hydrogels in which the influence of important physical and biochemical cues on normal and aberrant cellular behaviors can be independently assessed. Several critical tissue properties, including stiffness, viscoelasticity, and biomolecule presentation, are known to regulate cell mechanobiology in the context of development, wound repair, and disease. However, many questions still remain about how the individual and combined effects of these instructive properties regulate the cellular and molecular mechanisms governing physiologic and pathologic processes. In this review, we discuss several click chemistries that have been adopted to design dynamic and instructive hydrogels for mechanobiology investigations. We also chart a path forward for how click hydrogels can help reveal important insights about complex tissue microenvironments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erica Hui
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Jenna L Sumey
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
| | - Steven R Caliari
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia, 102 Engineer's Way, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22904, USA
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26
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Xu Y, Qi R, Zhu H, Li B, Shen Y, Krainer G, Klenerman D, Knowles TPJ. Liquid-Liquid Phase-Separated Systems from Reversible Gel-Sol Transition of Protein Microgels. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2008670. [PMID: 34235786 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202008670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Liquid-liquid phase-separated biomolecular systems are increasingly recognized as key components in the intracellular milieu where they provide spatial organization to the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm. The widespread use of phase-separated systems by nature has given rise to the inspiration of engineering such functional systems in the laboratory. In particular, reversible gelation of liquid-liquid phase-separated systems could confer functional advantages to the generation of new soft materials. Such gelation processes of biomolecular condensates have been extensively studied due to their links with disease. However, the inverse process, the gel-sol transition, has been less explored. Here, a thermoresponsive gel-sol transition of an extracellular protein in microgel form is explored, resulting in an all-aqueous liquid-liquid phase-separated system with high homogeneity. During this gel-sol transition, elongated gelatin microgels are demonstrated to be converted to a spherical geometry due to interfacial tension becoming the dominant energetic contribution as elasticity diminishes. The phase-separated system is further explored with respect to the diffusion of small particles for drug-release scenarios. Together, this all-aqueous system opens up a route toward size-tunable and monodisperse synthetic biomolecular condensates and controlled liquid-liquid interfaces, offering possibilities for applications in bioengineering and biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yufan Xu
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Runzhang Qi
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Hongjia Zhu
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Bing Li
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Yi Shen
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, 2006, Australia
| | - Georg Krainer
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - David Klenerman
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Tuomas P J Knowles
- Yusuf Hamied Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 1EW, UK
- Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB3 0HE, UK
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27
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Tan Y, Song J. Independent and Synergistic Modulations of Viscoelasticity and Stiffness of Dynamically Cross-Linked Cell-Encapsulating ClickGels by Covalently Tethered Polymer Brushes. Biomacromolecules 2021; 22:3408-3415. [PMID: 34292720 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.1c00477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We report independent and synergistic modulations of the stiffness and viscoelasticity of ClickGels, formed by a combination of the bio-orthogonal covalent and dynamic noncovalent cross-linking, by covalently incorporating nonionic, zwitterionic, or anionic polymer brushes. Tethering nonionic and zwitterionic brushes at the cost of noncovalent cross-linking increased stiffness and slowed stress relaxation, respectively, without altering the other properties. Meanwhile, tethering anionic brushes significantly increased ClickGel stiffness, while also slowing its stress relaxation. ClickGels with faster stress relaxation, not reduced stiffness, promoted short-term (24 h) viability and YAP/TAZ nuclear localization of encapsulated bone marrow-derived stromal cells (BMSCs). In contrast, ClickGel stiffness, not viscoelasticity, inversely correlated to the short-term dehydrogenase activity of encapsulated BMSCs. This work highlights the role of the ionic state of polymer brushes in modulating the hydrogel elastic modulus and viscoelasticity and establishes the brush-modified ClickGel as a facile and reproducible tool for manipulating mechanical cues of the synthetic cellular niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Tan
- Department of Orthopedics & Physical Rehabilitation, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, United States
| | - Jie Song
- Department of Orthopedics & Physical Rehabilitation, University of Massachusetts Medical School, 55 Lake Avenue North, Worcester, Massachusetts 01655, United States
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28
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Xu Y, Koya R, Ask K, Zhao R. Engineered microenvironment for the study of myofibroblast mechanobiology. Wound Repair Regen 2021; 29:588-596. [PMID: 34118169 PMCID: PMC8254796 DOI: 10.1111/wrr.12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 06/10/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Myofibroblasts are mechanosensitive cells and a variety of their behaviours including differentiation, migration, force production and biosynthesis are regulated by the surrounding microenvironment. Engineered cell culture models have been developed to examine the effect of microenvironmental factors such as the substrate stiffness, the topography and strain of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and the shear stress on myofibroblast biology. These engineered models provide well-mimicked, pathophysiologically relevant experimental conditions that are superior to those enabled by the conventional two-dimensional (2D) culture models. In this perspective, we will review the recent advances in the development of engineered cell culture models for myofibroblasts and outline the findings on the myofibroblast mechanobiology under various microenvironmental conditions. These studies have demonstrated the power and utility of the engineered models for the study of microenvironment-regulated cellular behaviours. The findings derived using these models contribute to a greater understanding of how myofibroblast behaviour is regulated in tissue repair and pathological scar formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Xu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
| | - Richard Koya
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Chicago Comprehensive Cancer Center, Biological Sciences Division, University of Chicago School of Medicine, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Kjetil Ask
- Department of Medicine, Div. Respirology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8N 4A6
- The Research Institute of St. Joe’s Hamilton, Firestone Institute for Respiratory Health, Hamilton, ON, Canada L8N 4A6
| | - Ruogang Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260, USA
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29
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Zhu D, Wagner P, Xiao P. Terthiophene Derivative-Based Photoinitiating Systems for Free Radical and Cationic Polymerization under Blue LEDs. Ind Eng Chem Res 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c00743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhu
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Pawel Wagner
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science and the Intelligent Polymer Research Institute, Australian Institute for Innovative Materials, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, New South Wales 2522, Australia
| | - Pu Xiao
- Research School of Chemistry, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
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30
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Creusen G, Schmidt RS, Walther A. One-Component DNA Mechanoprobes for Facile Mechanosensing in Photopolymerized Hydrogels and Elastomers. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:671-678. [PMID: 35549108 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
DNA mechanosensors offer unique properties for mechano-adaptive and self-reporting materials, such as programmable bond strength and geometrical strain response, tunable fluorescent strain sensing, interfacing to biological systems, and the ability to store mechanical information. However, the facile incorporation of advanced DNA motifs into polymer networks and achieving robustness in application settings remain difficult. Herein, we introduce one-component DNA mechanoprobes that can be easily polymerized into polymer hydrogels and even elastomers to allow strain-induced fluorescence sensing. The all-in-one mechanoprobe contains a DNA hairpin for programmable force sensing, an internal fluorophore-quencher pair as a reporter, and methacrylamide groups on both ends for rapid and facile photopolymerization into networks based on the nontoxic water-soluble monomer methoxy triethylene glycol acrylate (mTEGA). In addition to mechanosensing hydrogels, we utilize the low Tg of p(mTEGA) to develop the first bulk elastomer materials with DNA force sensors, which show high elasticity and stronger mechanofluorescence. The system makes decisive steps forward for DNA-based mechanoprobes by overcoming the classical multicomponent design of such probes, allowing photopolymerization useful for the design of complex objects or even 3D printing and demonstrating that such motifs may even be useful in dry bulk materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guido Creusen
- Freiburg Materials Research Center, University of Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Center for Interactive Materials and Bioinspired Technologies, University of Freiburg, Georges-Köhler-Allee 105, 79110 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ricarda Sophia Schmidt
- A3BMS Lab, Department of Chemistry, University of Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - Andreas Walther
- A3BMS Lab, Department of Chemistry, University of Mainz, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
- DFG Cluster of Excellence “Living, Adaptive and Energy-Autonomous Materials Systems” (livMatS), 79110 Freiburg, Germany
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31
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Actuation enhances patterning in human neural tube organoids. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3192. [PMID: 34045434 PMCID: PMC8159931 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22952-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Tissues achieve their complex spatial organization through an interplay between gene regulatory networks, cell-cell communication, and physical interactions mediated by mechanical forces. Current strategies to generate in-vitro tissues have largely failed to implement such active, dynamically coordinated mechanical manipulations, relying instead on extracellular matrices which respond to, rather than impose mechanical forces. Here, we develop devices that enable the actuation of organoids. We show that active mechanical forces increase growth and lead to enhanced patterning in an organoid model of the neural tube derived from single human pluripotent stem cells (hPSC). Using a combination of single-cell transcriptomics and immunohistochemistry, we demonstrate that organoid mechanoregulation due to actuation operates in a temporally restricted competence window, and that organoid response to stretch is mediated extracellularly by matrix stiffness and intracellularly by cytoskeleton contractility and planar cell polarity. Exerting active mechanical forces on organoids using the approaches developed here is widely applicable and should enable the generation of more reproducible, programmable organoid shape, identity and patterns, opening avenues for the use of these tools in regenerative medicine and disease modelling applications. Mechanical forces, along with gene regulatory networks and cell-cell signalling, play an important role in the complex organization of tissues. Here the authors describe devices that actively apply mechanical force to developing neural tube, demonstrating that mechanical forces increase growth and enhance patterning.
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32
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Le Fer G, Dilla RA, Wang Z, King J, Chuang SSC, Becker ML. Clustering and Hierarchical Organization of 3D Printed Poly(propylene fumarate)- block-PEG- block-poly(propylene fumarate) ABA Triblock Copolymer Hydrogels. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c00132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gaëlle Le Fer
- Univ. Lille, CNRS, INRAE, Centrale Lille, UMR 8207—UMET—Unité Matériaux et Transformations, F-59000 Lille, France
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Rodger A. Dilla
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Zeyu Wang
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Jaelynne King
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
| | - Steven S. C. Chuang
- School of Polymer Science and Polymer Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, United States
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33
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Silver JS, Günay KA, Cutler AA, Vogler TO, Brown TE, Pawlikowski BT, Bednarski OJ, Bannister KL, Rogowski CJ, Mckay AG, DelRio FW, Olwin BB, Anseth KS. Injury-mediated stiffening persistently activates muscle stem cells through YAP and TAZ mechanotransduction. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabe4501. [PMID: 33712460 PMCID: PMC7954458 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abe4501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The skeletal muscle microenvironment transiently remodels and stiffens after exercise and injury, as muscle ages, and in myopathic muscle; however, how these changes in stiffness affect resident muscle stem cells (MuSCs) remains understudied. Following muscle injury, muscle stiffness remained elevated after morphological regeneration was complete, accompanied by activated and proliferative MuSCs. To isolate the role of stiffness on MuSC behavior and determine the underlying mechanotransduction pathways, we cultured MuSCs on strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition hydrogels capable of in situ stiffening by secondary photocrosslinking of excess cyclooctynes. Using pre- to post-injury stiffness hydrogels, we found that elevated stiffness enhances migration and MuSC proliferation by localizing yes-associated protein 1 (YAP) and WW domain-containing transcription regulator 1 (WWTR1; TAZ) to the nucleus. Ablating YAP and TAZ in vivo promotes MuSC quiescence in postinjury muscle and prevents myofiber hypertrophy, demonstrating that persistent exposure to elevated stiffness activates mechanotransduction signaling maintaining activated and proliferating MuSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason S Silver
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - K Arda Günay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Alicia A Cutler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Thomas O Vogler
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- Medical Scientist Training Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Tobin E Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Bradley T Pawlikowski
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Olivia J Bednarski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kendra L Bannister
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Cameron J Rogowski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Austin G Mckay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Frank W DelRio
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Bradley B Olwin
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA.
- BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
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34
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Zhao S, Xue T, Pei D, Song Q, Pei Z, Nie J, Chang Y. Pillar[6]arene: Light Cleaves Macrocycle to Linear Oligomer Biradical to Initiate Photopolymerization. Org Lett 2021; 23:1709-1713. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.1c00131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Tanlong Xue
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Di Pei
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Qiuyan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Zhichao Pei
- College of Chemistry & Pharmacy, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, Shaanxi 712100, P. R. China
| | - Jun Nie
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Yincheng Chang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, P. R. China
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35
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Jain E, Neal S, Graf H, Tan X, Balasubramaniam R, Huebsch N. Copper-Free Azide-Alkyne Cycloaddition for Peptide Modification of Alginate Hydrogels. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2021; 4:1229-1237. [PMID: 35014476 DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.0c00976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Alginate, a biocompatible polymer naturally derived from algae, is widely used as a synthetic analogue of the extracellular matrix in tissue engineering. Integrin-binding peptide motifs, including RGD, a derivative of fibronectin, are typically grafted to the alginate polymer through carbodiimide reactions between peptide amines and alginate uronic acids. However, lack of chemo-selectivity of carbodiimide reactions can lead to side reactions that lower peptide bioactivity. To overcome these limitations, we developed an approach for copper-free, strain-promoted azide-alkyne cycloaddition (SPAAC)-mediated conjugation of azide-modified adhesive peptides (azido-cyclo-RGD, Az-cRGD) onto alginate. Successful conjugation of azide-reactive cyclooctynes onto alginates using a heterobifunctional crosslinker was confirmed by azido-coumarin fluorescent assay, NMR, and through click reactions with azide-modified fluorescent probes. Compared to cyclo-RGD peptides directly conjugated to alginate polymers with standard carbodiimide chemistry, Az-cyclo-RGD peptides exhibited higher bioactivity, as demonstrated by cell adhesion and proliferation assays. Finally, Az-cRGD peptides enhanced the effects of recombinant bone morphogenetic proteins on inducing osteogenesis of osteoblasts and bone marrow stromal stem cells in 3D alginate gels. SPAAC-mediated click approaches for peptide-alginate bioconjugation overcome the limitations of previous alginate bioconjugation approaches and potentially expand the range of ligands that can be grafted to alginate polymers for tissue engineering applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Era Jain
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
| | - Sydney Neal
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
| | - Hannah Graf
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
| | - Xiaohong Tan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
| | - Rama Balasubramaniam
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
| | - Nathaniel Huebsch
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States.,Center for Cardiovascular Research, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Center for Investigation of Membrane Excitability Diseases, Washington University in Saint Louis, St. Louis 63130, United States
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36
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Özkale B, Sakar MS, Mooney DJ. Active biomaterials for mechanobiology. Biomaterials 2021; 267:120497. [PMID: 33129187 PMCID: PMC7719094 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2020.120497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 10/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/25/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Active biomaterials offer novel approaches to study mechanotransduction in mammalian cells. These material systems probe cellular responses by dynamically modulating their resistance to endogenous forces or applying exogenous forces on cells in a temporally controlled manner. Stimuli-responsive molecules, polymers, and nanoparticles embedded inside cytocompatible biopolymer networks transduce external signals such as light, heat, chemicals, and magnetic fields into changes in matrix elasticity (few kPa to tens of kPa) or forces (few pN to several μN) at the cell-material interface. The implementation of active biomaterials in mechanobiology has generated scientific knowledge and therapeutic potential relevant to a variety of conditions including but not limited to cancer metastasis, fibrosis, and tissue regeneration. We discuss the repertoire of cellular responses that can be studied using these platforms including receptor signaling as well as downstream events namely, cytoskeletal organization, nuclear shuttling of mechanosensitive transcriptional regulators, cell migration, and differentiation. We highlight recent advances in active biomaterials and comment on their future impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Berna Özkale
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA; Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA
| | - Mahmut Selman Sakar
- Institute of Mechanical Engineering and Institute of Bioengineering, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - David J Mooney
- Harvard John A. Paulson School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA; Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Cambridge, MA, 02138, USA.
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37
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Nuclear mechanosensing controls MSC osteogenic potential through HDAC epigenetic remodeling. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:21258-21266. [PMID: 32817542 PMCID: PMC7474590 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2006765117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells sense mechanical cues from the extracellular matrix to regulate cellular behavior and maintain tissue homeostasis. The nucleus has been implicated as a key mechanosensor and can directly influence chromatin organization, epigenetic modifications, and gene expression. Dysregulation of nuclear mechanosensing has been implicated in several diseases, including bone degeneration. Here, we exploit photostiffening hydrogels to manipulate nuclear mechanosensing in human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) in vitro. Results show that hMSCs respond to matrix stiffening by increasing nuclear tension and causing an increase in histone acetylation via deactivation of histone deacetylases (HDACs). This ultimately induces osteogenic fate commitment. Disrupting nuclear mechanosensing by disconnecting the nucleus from the cytoskeleton up-regulates HDACs and prevents osteogenesis. Resetting HDAC activity back to healthy levels rescues the epigenetic and osteogenic response in hMSCs with pathological nuclear mechanosensing. Notably, bone from patients with osteoarthritis displays similar defective nuclear mechanosensing. Collectively, our results reveal that nuclear mechanosensing controls hMSC osteogenic potential mediated by HDAC epigenetic remodeling and that this cellular mechanism is likely relevant to bone-related diseases.
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Heng BC, Zhang X, Aubel D, Bai Y, Li X, Wei Y, Fussenegger M, Deng X. Role of YAP/TAZ in Cell Lineage Fate Determination and Related Signaling Pathways. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:735. [PMID: 32850847 PMCID: PMC7406690 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The penultimate effectors of the Hippo signaling pathways YAP and TAZ, are transcriptional co-activator proteins that play key roles in many diverse biological processes, ranging from cell proliferation, tumorigenesis, mechanosensing and cell lineage fate determination, to wound healing and regeneration. In this review, we discuss the regulatory mechanisms by which YAP/TAZ control stem/progenitor cell differentiation into the various major lineages that are of interest to tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Of particular interest is the key role of YAP/TAZ in maintaining the delicate balance between quiescence, self-renewal, proliferation and differentiation of endogenous adult stem cells within various tissues/organs during early development, normal homeostasis and regeneration/healing. Finally, we will consider how increasing knowledge of YAP/TAZ signaling might influence the trajectory of future progress in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boon C. Heng
- Central Laboratory, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Sunway University, Subang Jaya, Malaysia
| | - Xuehui Zhang
- Department of Dental Materials & Dental Medical Devices Testing Center, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
- National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Dominique Aubel
- IUTA Department Genie Biologique, Universite Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France
| | - Yunyang Bai
- Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaochan Li
- Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wei
- Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
| | - Martin Fussenegger
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, ETH-Zürich, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Xuliang Deng
- National Engineering Laboratory for Digital and Material Technology of Stomatology, NMPA Key Laboratory for Dental Materials, Beijing Laboratory of Biomedical Materials, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
- Department of Geriatric Dentistry, Peking University School and Hospital of Stomatology, Beijing, China
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40
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Yavitt FM, Brown TE, Hushka EA, Brown ME, Gjorevski N, Dempsey PJ, Lutolf MP, Anseth KS. The Effect of Thiol Structure on Allyl Sulfide Photodegradable Hydrogels and their Application as a Degradable Scaffold for Organoid Passaging. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1905366. [PMID: 32548863 PMCID: PMC7669673 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201905366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal organoids are useful in vitro models for basic and translational studies aimed at understanding and treating disease. However, their routine culture relies on animal-derived matrices that limit translation to clinical applications. In fact, there are few fully defined, synthetic hydrogel systems that allow for the expansion of intestinal organoids. Here, an allyl sulfide photodegradable hydrogel is presented, achieving rapid degradation through radical addition-fragmentation chain transfer (AFCT) reactions, to support routine passaging of intestinal organoids. Shear rheology to first characterize the effect of thiol and allyl sulfide crosslink structures on degradation kinetics is used. Irradiation with 365 nm light (5 mW cm-2 ) in the presence of a soluble thiol (glutathione at 15 × 10-3 m), and a photoinitiator (lithium phenyl-2,4,6-trimethylbenzoylphosphinate at 1 × 10-3 m), leads to complete hydrogel degradation in less than 15 s. Allyl sulfide hydrogels are used to support the formation of epithelial colonies from single intestinal stem cells, and rapid photodegradation is used to achieve repetitive passaging of stem cell colonies without loss in morphology or organoid formation potential. This platform could support long-term culture of intestinal organoids, potentially replacing the need for animal-derived matrices, while also allowing systematic variations to the hydrogel properties tailored for the organoid of interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- F. Max Yavitt
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Tobin E. Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
- Current address: Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, CO 80305, USA
| | - Ella A. Hushka
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Monica E. Brown
- Section of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Nikolche Gjorevski
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences (SV) and School of Engineering (STI), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Peter J. Dempsey
- Section of Developmental Biology, Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado, Denver, CO 80204, USA
| | - Matthias P. Lutolf
- Laboratory of Stem Cell Bioengineering, Institute of Bioengineering, School of Life Sciences (SV) and School of Engineering (STI), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Institute of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, School of Basic Science (SB), EPFL
| | - Kristi S. Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
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41
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Scheutz GM, Rowell JL, Ellison ST, Garrison JB, Angelini TE, Sumerlin BS. Harnessing Strained Disulfides for Photocurable Adaptable Hydrogels. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c00604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Georg M. Scheutz
- George & Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Center for Macromolecular Science & Engineering, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Jonathan L. Rowell
- George & Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Center for Macromolecular Science & Engineering, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | | | - John B. Garrison
- George & Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Center for Macromolecular Science & Engineering, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | | | - Brent S. Sumerlin
- George & Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Center for Macromolecular Science & Engineering, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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42
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Higgins CI, Killgore JP, DelRio FW, Bryant SJ, McLeod RR. Photo-tunable hydrogel mechanical heterogeneity informed by predictive transport kinetics model. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:4131-4141. [PMID: 32202291 PMCID: PMC7489306 DOI: 10.1039/d0sm00052c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the three-dimensional (3D) mechanical and chemical properties of distinctly different, adjacent biological tissues is crucial to mimicking their complex properties with materials. 3D printing is a technique often employed to spatially control the distribution of the biomaterials, such as hydrogels, of interest, but it is difficult to print both mechanically robust (high modulus and toughness) and biocompatible (low modulus) hydrogels in a single structure. Moreover, due to the fast diffusion of mobile species during printing and nonequilibrium swelling conditions of low-solids-content hydrogels, it is challenging to form the high-fidelity structures required to mimic tissues. Here a predictive transport and swelling model is presented to model these effects and then is used to compensate for these effects during printing. This model is validated experimentally by photopatterning spatially distinct hydrogel elastic moduli using a single photo-tunable poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) pre-polymer solution by sequentially patterning and in-diffusing fresh pre-polymer for further polymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Callie I Higgins
- Applied Chemicals and Materials Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 325 Broadway, Boulder, CO 80305, USA.
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43
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Wang C, Meng X, Li Z, Li M, Jin M, Liu R, Yagci Y. Chemiluminescence Induced Cationic Photopolymerization Using Sulfonium Salt. ACS Macro Lett 2020; 9:471-475. [PMID: 35648504 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
A visible light cationic photoinitiating system under chemiluminescence irradiation using sulfonium salt is reported. The visible light emitted from the chemiluminescence reactions, absorbed by the sulfonium salt, essentially leads to the formation of protonic acids capable of initiating cationic polymerization of oxirane and vinyl monomers. The process is suitable for the formation of linear polymer chains as well as cross-linked functional networks with aggregation-induced emission property. Notably, high "post polymerization" efficiency in dark (∼20%) was observed, which can compensate the limited chemiluminescence fluorescence efficiency and favors to increase the conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Wang
- Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaoyan Meng
- Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhiquan Li
- Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
- International Research Center for Photoresponsive Molecules and Materials, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu China
| | - Mengqi Li
- Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ming Jin
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 201804, Shanghai, China
| | - Ren Liu
- Synthetic and Biological Colloids, Ministry of Education, School of Chemical and Material Engineering, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
- International Research Center for Photoresponsive Molecules and Materials, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu China
| | - Yusuf Yagci
- International Research Center for Photoresponsive Molecules and Materials, Jiangnan University, 214122, Wuxi, Jiangsu China
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science and Letters, Istanbul Technical University, 34469, Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey
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44
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Hushka EA, Yavitt FM, Brown TE, Dempsey PJ, Anseth KS. Relaxation of Extracellular Matrix Forces Directs Crypt Formation and Architecture in Intestinal Organoids. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901214. [PMID: 31957249 PMCID: PMC7274865 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Intestinal organoid protocols rely on the use of extracellular scaffolds, typically Matrigel, and upon switching from growth to differentiation promoting media, a symmetry breaking event takes place. During this stage, the first bud like structures analogous to crypts protrude from the central body and differentiation ensues. While organoids provide unparalleled architectural and functional complexity, this sophistication is also responsible for the high variability and lack of reproducibility of uniform crypt-villus structures. If function follows form in organoids, such structural variability carries potential limitations for translational applications (e.g., drug screening). Consequently, there is interest in developing synthetic biomaterials to direct organoid growth and differentiation. It has been hypothesized that synthetic scaffold softening is necessary for crypt development, and these mechanical requirements raise the question, what compressive forces and subsequent relaxation are necessary for organoid maturation? To that end, allyl sulfide hydrogels are employed as a synthetic extracellular matrix mimic, but with photocleavable bonds that temporally regulate the material's bulk modulus. By varying the extent of matrix softening, it is demonstrated that crypt formation, size, and number per colony are functions of matrix softening. An understanding of the mechanical dependence of crypt architecture is necessary to instruct homogenous, reproducible organoids for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ella A Hushka
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - F Max Yavitt
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Tobin E Brown
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
| | - Peter J Dempsey
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, 80204, USA
| | - Kristi S Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO, 80303, USA
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45
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Miller AE, Hu P, Barker TH. Feeling Things Out: Bidirectional Signaling of the Cell-ECM Interface, Implications in the Mechanobiology of Cell Spreading, Migration, Proliferation, and Differentiation. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901445. [PMID: 32037719 PMCID: PMC7274903 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 01/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Biophysical cues stemming from the extracellular environment are rapidly transduced into discernible chemical messages (mechanotransduction) that direct cellular activities-placing the extracellular matrix (ECM) as a potent regulator of cell behavior. Dynamic reciprocity between the cell and its associated matrix is essential to the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and dysregulation of both ECM mechanical signaling, via pathological ECM turnover, and internal mechanotransduction pathways contribute to disease progression. This review covers the current understandings of the key modes of signaling used by both the cell and ECM to coregulate one another. By taking an outside-in approach, the inherent complexities and regulatory processes at each level of signaling (ECM, plasma membrane, focal adhesion, and cytoplasm) are captured to give a comprehensive picture of the internal and external mechanoregulatory environment. Specific emphasis is placed on the focal adhesion complex which acts as a central hub of mechanical signaling, regulating cell spreading, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. In addition, a wealth of available knowledge on mechanotransduction is curated to generate an integrated signaling network encompassing the central components of the focal adhesion, cytoplasm and nucleus that act in concert to promote durotaxis, proliferation, and differentiation in a stiffness-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Miller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, 415 Lane Rd. MR5 1225, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
| | - Ping Hu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, 415 Lane Rd. MR5 1225, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
| | - Thomas H Barker
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Virginia, 415 Lane Rd. MR5 1225, Charlottesville, VA, 22903, USA
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46
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Rapp TL, DeForest CA. Visible Light-Responsive Dynamic Biomaterials: Going Deeper and Triggering More. Adv Healthc Mater 2020; 9:e1901553. [PMID: 32100475 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.201901553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2019] [Revised: 01/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Photoresponsive materials have been widely used in vitro for controlled therapeutic delivery and to direct 4D cell fate. Extension of the approaches into a bodily setting requires use of low-energy, long-wavelength light that penetrates deeper into and through complex tissue. This review details recent reports of photoactive small molecules and proteins that absorb visible and/or near-infrared light, opening the door to exciting new applications in multiplexed and in vivo regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa L. Rapp
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Washington 3781 Okanogan Lane NE Seattle WA 98195 USA
| | - Cole A. DeForest
- Department of Chemical Engineering University of Washington 3781 Okanogan Lane NE Seattle WA 98195 USA
- Department of Bioengineering University of Washington 3720 15th Ave NE Seattle WA 98105 USA
- Institute for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine University of Washington 850 Republican Street Seattle WA 98109 USA
- Molecular Engineering & Sciences Institute University of Washington 3946 W Stevens Way NE Seattle WA 98195 USA
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47
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Pearce HA, Kim YS, Diaz-Gomez L, Mikos AG. Tissue Engineering Scaffolds. Biomater Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816137-1.00082-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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48
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Wu S, Zhu M, Lu D, Milani AH, Lian Q, Fielding LA, Saunders BR, Derry MJ, Armes SP, Adlam D, Hoyland JA. Self-curing super-stretchable polymer/microgel complex coacervate gels without covalent bond formation. Chem Sci 2019; 10:8832-8839. [PMID: 31803457 PMCID: PMC6849882 DOI: 10.1039/c9sc02555c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 08/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Elastic physical gels are highly desirable because they can be conveniently prepared and readily shaped. Unfortunately, many elastic physical gels prepared in water require in situ free-radical polymerization during the gel formation stage. In contrast, complex coacervate gels are physical gels that can be prepared by simply mixing two pre-formed oppositely-charged polyelectrolytes. However, as far as we are aware, highly elastic complex coacervate gels have not yet been reported. Herein, we combine polyanionic microgel particles with a well-known commercially-available cationic polyelectrolyte to prepare polymer/microgel complex coacervate (PMCC) physical gels. This new family of gels requires annealing at only 37 °C and behaves like a covalent gel but does not form covalent bonds. Thermal reconfiguration of the dynamic ionic bonds transforms the shapeable pre-gel into a highly elastic gel that is super-stretchable, adhesive, self-healing, highly swellable and can be further toughened using Ca2+ as an ionic crosslinker. Our PMCC gels have excellent potential for applications as engineering gels and structural biomaterials, as well as for wound healing and water purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanglin Wu
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Mingning Zhu
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Dongdong Lu
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Amir H Milani
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Qing Lian
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Lee A Fielding
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Brian R Saunders
- School of Materials , University of Manchester , MSS Tower , Manchester , M13 9PL , UK . ;
| | - Matthew J Derry
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Sheffield , Dainton Building, Brook Hill , Sheffield , South Yorkshire S3 7HF , UK
| | - Steven P Armes
- Department of Chemistry , The University of Sheffield , Dainton Building, Brook Hill , Sheffield , South Yorkshire S3 7HF , UK
| | - Daman Adlam
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine , Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PT , UK
| | - Judith A Hoyland
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine , Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health , University of Manchester , Oxford Road , Manchester , M13 9PT , UK
- NIHR Manchester Biomedical Research Centre , Central Manchester Foundation Trust , Manchester Academic Health Science Centre , Manchester , M13 9WL , UK
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49
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Wiley KL, Ovadia EM, Calo CJ, Huber RE, Kloxin AM. Rate-based approach for controlling the mechanical properties of 'thiol-ene' hydrogels formed with visible light. Polym Chem 2019; 10:4428-4440. [PMID: 32405326 PMCID: PMC7218207 DOI: 10.1039/c9py00447e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The mechanical properties of synthetic hydrogels traditionally have been controlled with the concentration, molecular weight, or stoichiometry of the macromolecular building blocks used for hydrogel formation. Recently, the rate of formation has been recognized as an important and effective handle for controlling the mechanical properties of these water-swollen polymer networks, owing to differences in network heterogeneity (e.g., defects) that arise based on the rate of gelation. Building upon this, in this work, we investigate a rate-based approach for controlling mechanical properties of hydrogels both initially and temporally with light. Specifically, synthetic hydrogels are formed with visible light-initiated thiol-ene 'click' chemistry (PEG-8-norbornene, dithiol linker, LAP photoinitiator with LED lamp centered at 455 nm), using irradiation conditions to control the rate of formation and the mechanical properties of the resulting hydrogels. Further, defects within these hydrogels were subsequently exploited for temporal modulation of mechanical properties with a secondary cure using low doses of long wavelength UV light (365 nm). The elasticity of the hydrogel, as measured with Young's and shear moduli, was observed to increase with increasing light intensity and concentration of photoinitiator used for hydrogel formation. In situ measurements of end group conversion during hydrogel formation with magic angle spinning (MAS 1H NMR) correlated with these mechanical properties measurements, suggesting that both dangling end groups and looping contribute to the observed mechanical properties. Dangling end groups provide reactive handles for temporal stiffening of hydrogels with a secondary UV-initiated thiol-ene polymerization, where an increase in Young's modulus by a factor of ~ 2.5x was observed. These studies demonstrate how the rate of photopolymerization can be tuned with irradiation wavelength, intensity, and time to control the properties of synthetic hydrogels, which may prove useful in a variety of applications from coatings to biomaterials for controlled cell culture and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine L Wiley
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Elisa M Ovadia
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Christopher J Calo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Rebecca E Huber
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - April M Kloxin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
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50
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Günay KA, Ceccato TL, Silver JS, Bannister KL, Bednarski OJ, Leinwand LA, Anseth KS. PEG-Anthracene Hydrogels as an On-Demand Stiffening Matrix To Study Mechanobiology. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2019; 58:9912-9916. [PMID: 31119851 PMCID: PMC6660351 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201901989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2019] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing interest in materials that can dynamically change their properties in the presence of cells to study mechanobiology. Herein, we exploit the 365 nm light mediated [4+4] photodimerization of anthracene groups to develop cytocompatible PEG-based hydrogels with tailorable initial moduli that can be further stiffened. A hydrogel formulation that can stiffen from 10 to 50 kPa, corresponding to the stiffness of a healthy and fibrotic heart, respectively, was prepared. This system was used to monitor the stiffness-dependent localization of NFAT, a downstream target of intracellular calcium signaling using a reporter in live cardiac fibroblasts (CFbs). NFAT translocates to the nucleus of CFbs on stiffening hydrogels within 6 h, whereas it remains cytoplasmic when the CFbs are cultured on either 10 or 50 kPa static hydrogels. This finding demonstrates how dynamic changes in the mechanical properties of a material can reveal the kinetics of mechanoresponsive cell signaling pathways that may otherwise be missed in cells cultured on static substrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kemal Arda Günay
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Tova L. Ceccato
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Jason S. Silver
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Kendra L. Bannister
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Olivia J. Bednarski
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Leslie A. Leinwand
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- Department of Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
| | - Kristi S. Anseth
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
- The BioFrontiers Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Boulder, 80309, CO, USA
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