Characterization of phytochemicals and antioxidant activities of a purple tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.)

Genetic and Biotechnological Approaches to Improve Fruit Bioactive Content: A Focus on Eggplant and Tomato Anthocyanins

Anthocyanins are a large group of water-soluble flavonoid pigments. These specialized metabolites are ubiquitous in the plant kingdom and play an essential role not only in plant reproduction and dispersal but also in responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. Anthocyanins are recognized as important health-promoting and chronic-disease-preventing components in the human diet. Therefore, interest in developing food crops with improved levels and compositions of these important nutraceuticals is growing. This review focuses on work conducted to elucidate the genetic control of the anthocyanin pathway and modulate anthocyanin content in eggplant (Solanum melongena L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), two solanaceous fruit vegetables of worldwide relevance. While anthocyanin levels in eggplant fruit have always been an important quality trait, anthocyanin-based, purple-fruited tomato cultivars are currently a novelty. As detailed in this review, this difference in the anthocyanin content of the cultivated germplasm has largely influenced genetic studies as well as breeding and transgenic approaches to improve the anthocyanin content/profile of these two important solanaceous crops. The information provided should be of help to researchers and breeders in devising strategies to address the increasing consumer demand for nutraceutical foods.

Characterization and Quantification of the Major Bioactive Compounds in Mexican Purple Tomatoes

The present work carries out a quantitative analysis of the major bioactive compounds found in the native Mexican purple tomatoes. Total phenolic content ranged from 7.54 to 57.79 mg TPC/g DM, total flavonoid content ranged from 1.89 to 16.93 mg TFC/g DM, total anthocyanin content ranged from 0.29 to 2.56 mg TAC/g DM, and total carotenoid content ranged from 0.11 to 0.75 mg TCC/ g DM. In addition, 14 phenolic acids were identified, among which caffeoylquinic acid derivatives were the most abundant compounds with chlorogenic acid concentration up to 9.680 mg/g DM, together with flavonoids, such as rutin and quercetin-hexoxide. The qualitative analysis also showed the presence of 9 acylated anthocyanins and 2 carotenoids with significant functional features. As for anthocyanins, their chemical structures disclosed special structural features: glycosylated anthocyanins exhibited cis-trans hydroxycinnamic moieties and petunidin-3-(trans-p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside was reported to be the main anthocyanin, whitin the range of concentrations between 0.160 and 1.143 mg/g DM.

In pursuit of purple: anthocyanin biosynthesis in fruits of the tomato clade

Over the past decade, progress has been made in the characterization of anthocyanin synthesis in fruits of plants belonging to the tomato clade. The genomic elements underlying the activation of the process were identified, providing the basis for understanding how the pathway works in these species. In this review we explore the genetic mechanisms that have been characterized to date, and detail the various wild relatives of the tomato, which have been crucial for recovering ancestral traits that were probably lost during evolution from green-purple to yellow and red tomatoes. This knowledge should help developing strategies to further enhance the status of the commercial tomato lines on sale, based on both genome editing and breeding techniques.

Insight into the Molecular Mechanism of Flower Color Regulation in Rhododendron latoucheae Franch: A Multi-Omics Approach

Rhododendron latoucheae Franch. (R. latoucheae) is a valuable woody plant known for its high ornamental value. While purple flowers are a distinct and attractive variant phenotype of R. latoucheae, the underlying mechanism regulating its flower color is still poorly understood. To investigate the molecular regulatory mechanism responsible for the variation in flower color, we selected plants with white-pink and purple petals as the object and conducted analyses of metabolites, key genes, and transcription factors associated with flower color. A combined metabolome-transcriptome analysis was performed, and the expression of key genes was subsequently verified through qRT-PCR experiments. The results of our study demonstrated a significant enrichment of differential metabolites in the flavonoid metabolic pathway. Changes in anthocyanin content followed the same trend as the observed flower color variations, specifically showing significant correlations with the contents of malvidin-3-O-glucoside, dihydromyricetin, gallocatechin, and peonidin-3-O-glucoside. Furthermore, we identified three key structural genes (F3GT1, LAR, ANR) and four transcription factors (bHLH130, bHLH41, bHLH123, MYB4) that are potentially associated with the biosynthesis of flavonoid compounds, thereby influencing the appearance of purple flower color in R. latoucheae.

Influence of Drought and Heat Stress on Mineral Content, Antioxidant Activity and Bioactive Compound Accumulation in Four African Amaranthus Species

Drought and heat stress is known to influence the accumulation of mineral content, antioxidant activity, phenolics, flavonoids and other bioactive compounds in many tolerant leafy vegetables. Amaranthus plants can tolerate adverse weather conditions, especially drought and heat. Therefore, evaluating the influence of drought and heat stress on commercially and medically important crop species like Amaranthus is important to grow the crop for optimal nutritional and medicinal properties. This study investigated the influence of drought and heat stress and a combination of both on the accumulation of phenolic and flavonoid compounds and the antioxidant capacity of African Amaranthus caudatus, A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus and A. spinosus. Phenolic and flavonoid compounds were extracted with methanol and aqueous solvents and were quantified using liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Caffeic acid was the main phenolic compound identified in aqueous extracts of A. caudatus and A. hypochondriacus. Rutin was the most abundant flavonoid compound in all the Amaranthus species tested, with the highest concentration found in A. caudatus. The results suggest a strong positive, but species and compound-specific effect of drought and heat stress on bioactive compounds accumulation. We concluded that heat stress at 40 °C under well-watered conditions and combined drought and heat stress (at 30 °C and 35 °C) appeared to induce the accumulation of caffeic acid and rutin. Hence, cultivation of these species in semi-arid and arid areas is feasible.

Paradigm Shift in Phytochemicals Research: Evolution from Antioxidant Capacity to Anti-Inflammatory Effect and to Roles in Gut Health and Metabolic Syndrome

Food bioactive components, particularly phytochemicals with antioxidant capacity, have been extensively studied over the past two decades. However, as new analytical and molecular biological tools advance, antioxidants related research has undergone significant paradigm shifts. This review is a high-level overview of the evolution of phytochemical antioxidants research. Early research used chemical models to assess the antioxidant capacity of different phytochemicals, which provided important information about the health potential, but the results were overused and misinterpreted despite the lack of biological relevance (Antioxidants v1.0). This led to findings in the anti-inflammatory properties and modulatory effects of cell signaling of phytochemicals (Antioxidants v2.0). Recent advances in the role of diet in modulating gut microbiota have suggested a new phase of food bioactives research along the phytochemicals-gut microbiota-intestinal metabolites-low-grade inflammation-metabolic syndrome axis (Antioxidants v3.0). Polyphenols and carotenoids were discussed in-depth, and future research directions were also provided.

Modifying Anthocyanins Biosynthesis in Tomato Hairy Roots: A Test Bed for Plant Resistance to Ionizing Radiation and Antioxidant Properties in Space

Gene expression manipulation of specific metabolic pathways can be used to obtain bioaccumulation of valuable molecules and desired quality traits in plants. A single-gene approach to impact different traits would be greatly desirable in agrospace applications, where several aspects of plant physiology can be affected, influencing growth. In this work, MicroTom hairy root cultures expressing a MYB-like transcription factor that regulates the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in Petunia hybrida (PhAN4), were considered as a testbed for bio-fortified tomato whole plants aimed at agrospace applications. Ectopic expression of PhAN4 promoted biosynthesis of anthocyanins, allowing to profile 5 major derivatives of delphinidin and petunidin together with pelargonidin and malvidin-based anthocyanins, unusual in tomato. Consistent with PhAN4 features, transcriptomic profiling indicated upregulation of genes correlated to anthocyanin biosynthesis. Interestingly, a transcriptome reprogramming oriented to positive regulation of cell response to biotic, abiotic, and redox stimuli was evidenced. PhAN4 hairy root cultures showed the significant capability to counteract reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation and protein misfolding upon high-dose gamma irradiation, which is among the most potent pro-oxidant stress that can be encountered in space. These results may have significance in the engineering of whole tomato plants that can benefit space agriculture.

Kinetic study on peroxidase inactivation and anthocyanin degradation of black cherry tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum cv. OG) during blanching

Introduction

Blanching is a necessary treatment stage in processing of tomato products to inactivate enzymes. However, it may cause the degradation of nutrients.

Objective

In this study, the kinetics of thermal peroxidase inactivation and anthocyanin degradation in black cherry tomatoes (cv. OG) were determined to predict the quality changes during the blanching.

Methods

Tomatoes were blanched at five levels of temperature (75–95oC) for five time periods (30–150 s).

Results

It was found that as the blanching temperature increased and the blanching time is prolonged, more peroxidase was inactivated and the greater number of anthocyanins was lost. The thermal peroxidase inactivation and anthocyanin degradation showed an apparent first-order reaction with the activation energy of 129.96 kJ/mol and 65.99 kJ/mol, respectively. Peroxidase and anthocyanin in black cherry tomatoes were found to be heat-sensitive.

Conclusion

These kinetic parameters were necessary to select and design appropriate blanching conditions for black cherry tomatoes on larger scale processing.

Physicochemical Characteristics and Bioactive Compounds of New Black Cherry Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) Varieties Grown in Vietnam

Some physicochemical characteristics and bioactive compounds of three varieties of black cherry tomato (Indigo Rose, OG, F1:001) grown in Vietnam were investigated. The results showed that the two varieties OG and F1:001 have roughly the same size with weight, height, diameter, geometric diameter and surface area ranging from 21.62 to 22.25 g, 25.69 to 26.40 mm, 24.46 to 25.11 mm, 24.86 to 25.53 mm and 19.47 to 20.51 cm², respectively. Meanwhile, the Indigo variety is twice as large with the corresponding parameters as 45.2 g, 48.03 mm, 55.18 mm, 52.69 mm and 87.20 cm². All three varieties are in a spherical shape with sphericity and aspect ratios ranging from 96.72 to 109.69% and 0.951 to 1.149, respectively. The variety of OG contained higher levels of bioactive compounds, especially anthocyanin, not only in the skin but also in the outer tissue. Six anthocyanin compounds were identified in the two varieties of OG and Indigo Rose while only four anthocyanin compounds were found in the variety of F1:001. Among them, two new compounds (delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroyl)-glucoside and delphinidin-3-(p-coumaroyl)-glucoside-arabinoside) were discovered in all three varieties. The finding of this study will be a basis for consumers to better understand the nutritious properties of black cherry tomatoes grown in Vietnam, thereby promoting the need to grow and consume this beneficial fruit. The study also provides the important physicochemical parameters of black cherry tomatoes, which are the initial basis for fruit preservation and processing.

Biochemical composition of tomato fruits of various colors

Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is an economically important and widely cultivated vegetable crop that is consumed both fresh and processed. The nutritional value of tomato fruits is related to the content of carotenoids, polyphenols, sugars, organic acids, minerals and vitamins. Currently, there is a growing interest in the qualitative and quantitative increase in the content of health-promoting compounds in tomato fruits. VIR Lycopersicon (Tourn.) Mill. genetic resources collection includes 7678 accessions of one cultivated and nine wild species, which in turn provides ample opportunities for searching for information on the variability of the content of biologically active substances and searching for sources with a high content of them in the gene pool. Our work presents the results of the study of 70 accessions of cultivated and wild tomato on the main biochemical characteristics: the content of dry matter, ascorbic acid, sugars, carotenoids, chlorophylls and anthocyanins. As the basis for the selection of accessions for the study, accessions with various colors of fruits, including new accessions with varying content of anthocyanin, were taken. As a result of this study, the amplitude of variability in the content of dry matter (3.72–8.88 and 9.62–11.33 %), sugars (1.50–5.65 and 2.20–2.70 %), ascorbic acid (12.40–35.56 and 23.62– 28.14 mg/100 g), titratable acidity (0.14–0.46 and 0.33–0.48 %), chlorophylls (0.14–5.11 and 2.95–4.57 mg/100 g), carotenoids (0.97–99.86 and 1.03–10.06 mg/100 g) and anthocyanins (3.00–588.86 and 84.31–152.71 mg/100 g) in the fruits of cultivated and wild tomatoes, respectively, was determined. We have determined correlations between the content of dry matter and monosaccharides (r = 0.40, p ≤ 0.05), total sugars (r = 0.37, p ≤ 0.05) and ascorbic acid (r = 0.32, p ≤ 0.05); the content of ascorbic acid and carotenoids (r = 0.25, p ≤ 0.05). A high dependence of the content of chlorophyll a and b among themselves (r = 0.89, p ≤ 0.05), as well as between the content of chlorophyll b and anthocyanins (r = 0.47, p ≤ 0.05), the content of β-carotene (r = 0.26, p ≤ 0.05) and the content of monosaccharides (r = –0.29, p ≤ 0.05) has been noted. We have identif ied tomato accessions with a high content of individual chemical substances, as well as with a complex of traits that can be used as sources in breeding for a high content of dry matter, sugars, ascorbic acid, pigments and anthocyanins.

Scientometric and Methodological Analysis of the Recent Literature on the Health-Related Effects of Tomato and Tomato Products

The health benefits of tomato, a vegetable consumed daily in human diets, have received great attention in the scientific community, and a great deal of experiments have tested their utility against several diseases. Herein, we present a scientometric analysis of recent works aimed to estimate the biological effects of tomato, focusing on bibliographic metadata, type of testers, target systems, and methods of analysis. A remarkably variable array of strategies was reported, including testers obtained by standard and special tomatoes, and the use of in vitro and in vivo targets, both healthy and diseased. In vitro, 21 normal and 36 cancer human cell lines derived from 13 different organs were used. The highest cytotoxic effects were reported on cancer blood cells. In vivo, more experiments were carried out with murine than with human systems, addressing healthy individuals, as well as stressed and diseased patients. Multivariate analysis showed that publications in journals indexed in the agriculture category were associated with the use of fresh tomatoes; conversely, medicine and pharmacology journals were associated with the use of purified and formulate testers. Studies conducted in the United States of America preferentially adopted in vivo systems and formulates, combined with blood and tissue analysis. Researchers in Italy, China, India, and Great Britain mostly carried out in vitro research using fresh tomatoes. Gene expression and proteomic analyses were associated with China and India. The emerging scenario evidences the somewhat dichotomic approaches of plant geneticists and agronomists and that of cell biologists and medicine researchers. A higher integration between these two scientific communities would be desirable to foster the assessment of the benefits of tomatoes to human health.

Kinetic Study of Water and Total Soluble Solid Changes of Black Cherry Tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum cv. OG) Sauce using Rotary Vacuum Evaporation

Kinetics of water removal and total soluble solid (TSS) content change of black cherry tomato (cv. OG) sauce by rotary vacuum evaporation (RVE) were investigated. The effect of different vacuum conditions (vacuum levels and boiling temperatures of 500 mmHg - 80oC, 550 mmHg - 75oC, 600 mmHg - 70oC and 650 mmHg - 65oC) during evaporation /concentration was examined. Tomatoes puree with an initial TSS of 13.47±0.18oBrix was concentrated to 39.83±0.30oBrix. There was a linear relationship between water removal and time during the concentration of black cherry tomato sauce by RVE. The TSS change of tomato sauce during the concentration was applied to three exponential mathematical models (two-parameter, three-parameter, and four-parameter). In studying the consistency of all models, some statistical indicators, namely the coefficient of determination (R2), the chi-square (χ2) as well as the root mean square error (RMSE) were considered. Among the models, the three-parameter exponential model was proven to best describe the concentration behavior of the tomato sauce using rotary vacuum evaporation with the highest R2, the lowest χ2, and the lowest RMSE. The validation with the experimental data at other vacuum levels had also confirmed the consistency of the selected model. This knowledge is very important for process optimization and product quality improvement.

Anthocyanins from Purple Tomatoes as Novel Antioxidants to Promote Human Health

Anthocyanins are plant secondary metabolites belonging to the class of polyphenols, whose beneficial roles in the prevention and treatment of several important human diseases have been demonstrated in many epidemiological studies. Their intake through diet strictly depends on the eating habits, as anthocyanins are contained in red and purple fruit and vegetables as well as in some processed foods and beverages, such as red wine. Genetic engineering and breeding programs have been recently carried out to increase the content of anthocyanins in candidate plant species which cannot offer satisfactory levels of these precious compounds. Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a vegetable commodity where these strategies have resulted in success, leading to the production of new anthocyanin-rich fruit varieties, some of which are already marketed. These varieties produce purple fruits with a high nutraceutical value, combining the health benefits of the anthocyanins to the other classical tomato phytochemicals, particularly carotenoids. The antioxidant capacity in tomato purple fruits is higher than in non-anthocyanin tomatoes and their healthy role has already been demonstrated in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Recent evidence has indicated a particular capacity of tomato fruit anthocyanins to act as scavengers of harmful reactive chemical species and inhibitors of proliferating cancer cells, as well as anti-inflammatory molecules.

Rapid analysis of anthocyanin and its structural modifications in fresh tomato fruit

Anthocyanin is derived from a flavylium cation structure, and it promotes health in humans and functions in plants as protection against environmental stress. The rapid analysis of anthocyanin structure and content is a critical challenge for improving fruit quality. In this study, the tomato cultivar Indigo Rose, which is a popular purple cultivated tomato used for breeding, was taken as an example for anthocyanin analysis. A rapid analysis method was developed to minimize anthocyanin loss from the fresh fruit. Four new anthocyanins were discovered in the tomato, and the structures of a total of 12 anthocyanins were determined. Among these, petunidin-3-(trans-p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside and malvidin-3-(trans-p-coumaroyl)-rutinoside-5-glucoside were the main anthocyanins in Indigo Rose. The structural modifications of these anthocyanins were mainly glycosylation and acylation, and there were also hydroxylation and methylation. Our findings provide new insight into the biosynthesis pathway in tomato fruit.

Grown to be Blue-Antioxidant Properties and Health Effects of Colored Vegetables. Part II: Leafy, Fruit, and Other Vegetables

The current trend for substituting synthetic compounds with natural ones in the design and production of functional and healthy foods has increased the research interest about natural colorants. Although coloring agents from plant origin are already used in the food and beverage industry, the market and consumer demands for novel and diverse food products are increasing and new plant sources are explored. Fresh vegetables are considered a good source of such compounds, especially when considering the great color diversity that exists among the various species or even the cultivars within the same species. In the present review we aim to present the most common species of colored vegetables, focusing on leafy and fruit vegetables, as well as on vegetables where other plant parts are commercially used, with special attention to blue color. The compounds that are responsible for the uncommon colors will be also presented and their beneficial health effects and antioxidant properties will be unraveled.

Polyphenols and inhibitory effects of crude and purified extracts from tomato varieties on the formation of advanced glycation end products and the activity of angiotensin-converting and acetylcholinesterase enzymes

The study analyzed the inhibitory effects (IC50) of crude and purified extracts from Maliniak, Cerise, Black Prince and Lima tomatoes on the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), the activity of angiotensin-converting (ACE) and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzymes. Polyphenol composition (LC-MS) and antioxidant capacity (PCL, FRAP) were measured. The purified extracts of Black Prince tomatoes were the most potent inhibitors of AGEs in BSA-GLU (7.20mg/mL) and BSA-MGO (9.53mg/mL) models. The purified extracts of Cerise and Black Prince tomatoes had the highest ACE (0.50-0.44mg/mL) and AChE (7.93-5.83mg/mL) inhibitory activity. Cerise variety showed the highest polyphenol concentrations in crude (488.93μg/g DM) and purified (8394.99μg/g DM) extracts. The highest PCLACW and FRAP values were found for Cerise purified extracts (71.83 and 87.78μmol Trolox/g DM). Caffeic acid, caffeoyl-glucose, linocaffein, glucosyl-coumarate, vanillic acid, rutin and TPI values were significantly correlated with BSA-MGO, anti-ACE, anti-AChE and PCLACW parameters.

Nutraceutical Characterization of Anthocyanin-Rich Fruits Produced by "Sun Black" Tomato Line

Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is one of the most cultivated vegetable in the world and it represents a large source of bioactive compounds, including carotenoids and polyphenols (phenolic acids and flavonoids). However, the concentration of flavonoids in tomato is considered sub-optimal, particularly because anthocyanins are not generally present. Therefore, this crop has been the object of an intense metabolic engineering in order to obtain anthocyanin-enriched tomatoes by using either breeding or transgenic strategies. Some wild tomato species, such as S. chilense and S. cheesmaniae, biosynthesize anthocyanins in the fruit sub-epidermal tissue, and some alleles from those genotypes have been introgressed into a new developed purple tomato line, called “Sun Black” (SB). It is a tomato line with a purple skin color, both in green and in red fruit stages, due to the biosynthesis of anthocyanins in the peel, and a normal red color pulp, with a taste just like a traditional tomato. SB is the result of a breeding programme and it is not a genetically modified (GM) product. We report the chemical characterization and structure elucidation of the attractive anthocyanins found in the peel of SB tomato, as well as other bioactive compounds (carotenoids, polyphenols, vitamin C) of the whole fruit. Using one- and two-dimensional NMR experiments, the two main anthocyanins were identified to be petunidin 3-O-[6″-O-(4^‴-O-E-p-coumaroyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl) -β-glucopyranoside]-5-O-β-glucopyranoside (petanin) and malvidin 3-O-[6″-O-(4^‴-O-E-p-coumaroyl-α-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-glucopyranoside]-5-O-β-glucopyranoside (negretein). The total anthocyanins in the whole ripe fruit was 1.2 mg/g dry weight (DW); 7.1 mg/100 g fresh weight (FW). Chlorogenic acid (the most abundant phenolic acid) was 0.6 mg/g DW; 3.7 mg/100 g FW. The main flavonol, rutin was 0.8 mg/g DW; 5 mg/100 g FW. The total carotenoid content was 211.3 μg/g DW; 1,268 μg/100 g FW. The total phenolic content was 8.6 mg/g DW; 52.2 mg/100 g FW. The vitamin C content was 37.3 mg/100 g FW. The antioxidant activities as measured by the TEAC and ORAC assays were 31.6 and 140.3 μmol TE/g DW, respectively (193 and 855.8 μmol TE/100 g FW, respectively). The results show the unique features of this new tomato genotype with nutraceutical properties.

The effect of greenhouse covering materials on phytochemical composition and antioxidant capacity of tomato cultivars

BACKGROUND

The effect of light transmission (direct and diffuse) on the phenolic compounds of five tomato cultivars was investigated under controlled conditions in greenhouses covered with different covering materials.

RESULTS

The type of covering material and type of diffusion of light simultaneously affected the reducing power of cultivars. Two-way analysis of variance showed statistically significant differences in total phenolic content for the different cultivars (P < 0.05) but not for the covering materials. Analysis by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry showed the presence of major phenolic acid compounds such as chlorogenic acid, hydroxycinnamic acid/rutin, caffeic acid, ferulic acid and coumaric acid as well as flavonoid compounds such as myricetin, quercetin and naringenin. Most of the identified compounds showed a significant difference in different treatments due to both cultivar and covering material (P < 0.05). Statistical analysis showed that the type of covering material used influenced the total carotenoid and lycopene content (P < 0.05); however, the amount of lutein was not influenced by the type of covering material (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

This study showed that the use of solar energy transmission could positively affect the reducing power of cultivars and alter the biosynthesis of certain phytochemicals that are health-beneficial. Further study could lead to applications for producing greenhouse vegetables with greater health attributes. © 2018 Society of Chemical Industry.

Efficacy of Four Solanum spp. Extracts in an Animal Model of Cutaneous Leishmaniasis

Background: Leishmaniasis is a complex protozoa disease caused by Leishmania genus (Trypanosomatidae family). Currently, there have been renewed interests worldwide in plants as pharmaceutical agents. In this study, the in vivo efficacy of Solanum spp. is assessed in an L. amazonensis BALB/c mice model for experimental cutaneous leishmaniasis. Methods: Animals were infected with 5 × 10⁶ metacyclic promastigotes and 30-day post-infection, a treatment with 30 mg/kg of Solanum extracts or Glucantime^® (GTM) was applied intralesionally every four days to complete 5 doses. Results: Neither death nor loss of weight higher than 10% was observed. All the tested extracts were able to control the infection, compared with the infected and untreated group. Solanum havanense Jacq. extract showed the highest efficacy and was superior (p < 0.05) to GTM. Solanum myriacanthum Dunal., S. nudum Dunal. and S. seaforthianum Andr. extracts demonstrated a similar effect (p > 0.05) to GTM. An increase of IFN-γ (p < 0.05) was displayed only by animals treated with S. nudum compared to the group treated with a vehicle, while no differences (p > 0.05) were observed for IL-12. Conclusions:In vivo effects of Solanum extracts were demonstrated, suggesting that this genus could be further explored as a new antileishmanial alternative.

The impact of high pressure processing on the phenolic profile, hydrophilic antioxidant and reducing capacity of purée obtained from commercial tomato varieties

The effect of high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) (450-550-650 MPa/5-10-15 min) on polyphenols profile of purée obtained from commercial tomato varieties (Maliniak, Cerise, Black Prince and Lima) was investigated. Individual polyphenols, total phenolic index (TPI) were quantified using a mass spectrometer (HPLC-MS/MS). Photochemiluminescence (PCLACW), cyclic voltammetry (CV) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays were used to determine the antioxidant capacity of the hydrophilic extract. The results demonstrated that at certain processing conditions, HHP may enhance or decrease the nutritional quality of tomato purée. However, the tomato variety was a key factor influencing the polyphenols profile and the antioxidant capacity. A significant positive correlation was found among TPI, FRAP or CV parameters and the concentration of caffeic, ferulic, sinapic and p-coumaric acids, and epicatechin. On the other hand, significant positive correlation was observed among antioxidant capacity (PCLACW), TPC, rutin and naringenin concentration as well as chlorogenic and isochlorogenic acids.

Diets enriched with cranberry beans alter the microbiota and mitigate colitis severity and associated inflammation

Common beans are rich in phenolic compounds and nondigestible fermentable components, which may help alleviate intestinal diseases. We assessed the gut health priming effect of a 20% cranberry bean flour diet from two bean varieties with differing profiles of phenolic compounds [darkening (DC) and nondarkening (NDC) cranberry beans vs. basal diet control (BD)] on critical aspects of gut health in unchallenged mice, and during dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis (2% DSS wt/vol, 7 days). In unchallenged mice, NDC and DC increased (i) cecal short-chain fatty acids, (ii) colon crypt height, (iii) crypt goblet cell number and mucus content and (iv) Muc1, Klf4, Relmβ and Reg3γ gene expression vs. BD, indicative of enhanced microbial activity and gut barrier function. Fecal 16S rRNA sequencing determined that beans reduced abundance of the Lactobacillaceae (Ruminococcus gnavus), Clostridiaceae (Clostridium perfringens), Peptococcaceae, Peptostreptococcaceae, Rikenellaceae and Pophyromonadaceae families, and increased abundance of S24-7 and Prevotellaceae. During colitis, beans reduced (i) disease severity and colonic histological damage, (ii) increased gene expression of barrier function promoting genes (Muc1-3, Relmβ, and Reg3γ) and (iii) reduced colonic and circulating inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, IFNγ and TNFα). Therefore, prior to disease induction, bean supplementation enhanced multiple concurrent gut health promoting parameters that translated into reduced colitis severity. Moreover, both bean diets exerted similar effects, indicating that differing phenolic content did not influence the endpoints assessed. These data demonstrate a proof-of-concept regarding the gut-priming potential of beans in colitis, which could be extended to mitigate the severity of other gut barrier-associated pathologies.

White and dark kidney beans reduce colonic mucosal damage and inflammation in response to dextran sodium sulfate

Common beans are a rich source of nondigestible fermentable components and phenolic compounds that have anti-inflammatory effects. We assessed the gut-health-promoting potential of kidney beans in healthy mice and their ability to attenuate colonic inflammation following dextran sodium sulphate (DSS) exposure (via drinking water, 2% DSS w/v, 7 days). C57BL/6 mice were fed one of three isocaloric diets: basal diet control (BD), or BD supplemented with 20% cooked white (WK) or dark red kidney (DK) bean flour for 3 weeks. In healthy mice, anti-inflammatory microbial-derived cecal short chain fatty acid (SCFA) levels (acetate, butyrate and propionate), colon crypt height and colonic Mucin 1 (MUC1) and Resistin-like Molecule beta (Relmβ) mRNA expression all increased in WK- and DK-fed mice compared to BD, indicative of enhanced microbial activity, gut barrier integrity and antimicrobial defense response. During colitis, both bean diets reduced (a) disease severity, (b) colonic histological damage and (c) increased mRNA expression of antimicrobial and barrier integrity-promoting genes (Toll-like Receptor 4 (TLR4), MUC1-3, Relmβ and Trefoil Factor 3 (TFF3)) and reduced proinflammatory mediator expression [interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, interferon (IFN)γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)α and monocyte chemoattractant protein-1], which correlated with reduced colon tissue protein levels. Further, bean diets exerted a systemic anti-inflammatory effect during colitis by reducing serum levels of IL-17A, IFNγ, TNFα, IL-1β and IL-6. In conclusion, both WK and DK bean-supplemented diets enhanced microbial-derived SCFA metabolite production, gut barrier integrity and the microbial defensive response in the healthy colon, which supported an anti-inflammatory phenotype during colitis. Collectively, these data demonstrate a beneficial colon-function priming effect of bean consumption that mitigates colitis severity.

Effect of domestic cooking on carotenoids, tocopherols, fatty acids, phenolics, and antioxidant activities of lentils (Lens culinaris)

The phytochemicals and antioxidant activity in lipophilic and hydrophilic (extractable and bound) fractions of lentils before and after domestic cooking were investigated. The hydrophilic fractions in lentils contributed much more to the antioxidant activity than the lipophilic fraction. The phenolic content of lentils was mainly composed of extractable compounds. Significant changes (P < 0.05) in carotenoid, tocopherol, total phenolic, and condensed tannin contents of both extractable and bound phenolics fractions, as well as in antioxidant activities, were found in lentils before and after cooking. More specifically, cooking was found to favor the release of carotenoids and tocopherols and flavonols (kaempferol glycosides), but led to losses of flavanols (monomeric and condensed tannin). Whereas reduced flavanols and other phenolic compounds may have negatively affected the antioxidant activity, other components, especially the lipophilic antioxidants, were increased. The present study suggests that incorporation of cooked lentils into the diet will not cause significant loss to the phytochemical antioxidants and thus will retain the potential health benefits.

Fatty acid, carotenoid and tocopherol compositions of 20 Canadian lentil cultivars and synergistic contribution to antioxidant activities

Understanding the profile of lipophilic phytochemicals in lentils is necessary to better understand the health benefits of lentils. The fatty acid, carotenoid and tocopherol compositions and antioxidant activities of the lipophilic extracts of 20 lentil cultivars (10 red and 10 green) were therefore examined. Lentils contained 1.52-2.95% lipids, of which 77.5-81.7% were unsaturated essential fatty acids. Total tocopherols ranged from 37 to 64μg/g DW, predominantly γ-tocopherol (96-98% of the tocopherol content), followed by δ- and α-tocopherol. trans-Lutein was the primary and major carotenoid (64-78%) followed by trans-zeaxanthin (5-13%). Carotenoids and tocopherols showed weak correlation with 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) activity (r=0.4893 and 0.3259, respectively), but good correlation when combined (r=0.6688), suggesting they may act synergistically. Carotenoids were found to contribute the most to the strong antioxidant activity measured by photochemiluminescence (PCL) assay. Results from this study contribute to the development of lentil cultivars and related functional foods with increased health benefits.

Cooked navy and black bean diets improve biomarkers of colon health and reduce inflammation during colitis

Common beans contain non-digestible fermentable components (SCFA precursors) and phenolic compounds (phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins) with demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potential. The objective of the present study was to assess the in vivo effect of cooked whole-bean flours, with differing phenolic compound levels and profiles, in a mouse model of acute colitis. C57BL/6 mice were fed a 20 % navy bean or black bean flour-containing diet or an isoenergetic basal diet (BD) for 2 weeks before the induction of experimental colitis via 7 d dextran sodium sulphate (DSS, 2 % (w/v) in the drinking-water) exposure. Compared with the BD, both bean diets increased caecal SCFA and faecal phenolic compound concentrations (P< 0·05), which coincided with both beneficial and adverse effects on colonic and systemic inflammation. On the one hand, bean diets reduced mRNA expression of colonic inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, IL-9, IFN-γ and IL-17A) and increased anti-inflammatory IL-10 (P< 0·05), while systemically reduced circulating cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα, IFNγ, and IL-17A, P< 0·05) and DSS-induced oxidative stress. On the other hand, bean diets enhanced DSS-induced colonic damage as indicated by an increased histological injury score and apoptosis (cleaved caspase-3 and FasL mRNA expression) (P< 0·05). In conclusion, bean-containing diets exerted both beneficial and adverse effects during experimental colitis by reducing inflammatory biomarkers both locally and systemically while aggravating colonic mucosal damage. Further research is required to understand the mechanisms through which beans exert their effects on colonic inflammation and the impact on colitis severity in human subjects.

Novel phenotypes related to the breeding of purple-fruited tomatoes and effect of peel extracts on human cancer cell proliferation

The production of anthocyanins in the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) fruit is normally absent or poor, but a number of mutants or introgression lines are known to increase anthocyanin levels in vegetative and reproductive tissues. Through conventional breeding, a genetic combination was obtained with the remarkable phenotype of a deep purple fruit pigmentation, due to an accumulation of anthocyanins on the peel. Such a genotype was named Sun Black (SB) as a consequence of its sensitivity to light induction. When characterized for morpho-agronomic traits, SB plants showed increased fertility. Purple fruits displayed an arrangement of the epicarp cells different from normal tomatoes, a feature that could account for different mechanical properties and shelf-life potential. The SB genotype and, to a lesser extent, its single mutant parents showed the capacity to accumulate anthocyanins in the seedling root when grown under light. This phenotype, which was greatly improved by the addition of sucrose to the germination medium, proved to be useful as selection index and gave new insights for in vitro production of anthocyanin extracts. To assess the nutraceutical potential of purple tomatoes, we tested the activity of SB skin extracts on the proliferation of two human cancer cells lines. Cell proliferation was significantly inhibited by SB extract in a dose-dependent manner. When the bioactivity of SB extracts was compared with that of other anthocyanin-containing fruits or vegetables, a significant "Extract*Line" interaction was evidenced, suggesting a crucial role for the extract composition in terms of anthocyanidins and other eventual cell growth-inhibiting compounds.

Phytochemical profile of a Japanese black-purple rice

Black-purple rice is becoming popular with health conscious food consumers. In the present study, the secondary metabolites in dehulled black-purple rice cv. Asamurasaki were analysed using HPLC-PDA-MS(2). The seeds contained a high concentration of seven anthocyanins (1400 μg/g fresh weight) with cyanidin-3-O-glucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside predominating. Five flavonol glycosides, principally quercetin-3-O-glucoside and quercetin-3-O-rutinoside, and flavones were detected at a total concentration of 189 μg/g. The seeds also contained 3.9 μg/g of carotenoids consisting of lutein, zeaxanthin, lycopene and β-carotene. γ-Oryzanol (279 μg/g) was also present as a mixture of 24-methylenecycloartenol ferulate, campesterol ferulate, cycloartenol ferulate and β-sitosterol ferulate. No procyanidins were detected in this variety of black-purple rice. The results demonstrate that the black-purple rice in the dehulled form in which it is consumed by humans contains a rich heterogeneous mixture of phytochemicals which may provide a basis for the potential health benefits, and highlights the possible use of the rice as functional food.

Induction of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ)-mediated gene expression by tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) extracts

Since beneficial effects related to tomato consumption partially overlap with those related to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) activation, our aim was to test extracts of tomato fruits and tomato components, including polyphenols and isoprenoids, for their capacity to activate PPARγ using the PPARγ2 CALUX reporter cell line. Thirty tomato compounds were tested; seven carotenoids and three polyphenols induced PPARγ2-mediated luciferase expression. Two extracts of tomato, one containing deglycosylated phenolic compounds and one containing isoprenoids, also induced PPARγ2-mediated expression at physiologically relevant concentrations. Furthermore, enzymatically hydrolyzed extracts of seven tomato varieties all induced PPARγ-mediated expression, with a 1.6-fold difference between the least potent and the most potent variety. The two most potent varieties had high flavonoid content, while the two least potent varieties had low flavonoid content. These data indicate that extracts of tomato are able to induce PPARγ-mediated gene expression in vitro and that some tomato varieties are more potent than others.

Evaluation of antioxidant activities and chemical characterisation of staghorn sumac fruit (Rhus hirta L.)

Staghorn sumac (Rhus hirta L.) is a native tree in Eastern Canada whose fruit has been used by aboriginal peoples to treat various illnesses, and has recently been found to be a good source of antioxidants. However, the phytochemical composition of R. hirta is not known. In this study, we used Four highly accepted assays and confirmed its FRAP, ORAC, β-CLAMS and PCL values to be 79.95 μmol AAE/g DW, 1544 μmol TE/g DW, RAA 129% and 4513 μmol TE/g DW, respectively. The antioxidant activities correlated positively to the total polyphenols content, which was higher in the ethanolic extract (81.6 mg GAE/ g DW) compared to the water extract (46.3mg GAE/g DW), suggesting polyphenols play an important role. Quantitative data from UHPLC and qualitative studies using HPLC-DAD-MS showed that in addition to commonly found phenolic acids, flavonoids and anthocyanins, R. hirta fruit contained a novel group of unique anthocyanins with aglycones (anthocyanidins) at 449, 419 and 433 Da. Further studies on the identification and their health beneficial effects are being conducted.

Carotenoid compositions of coloured tomato cultivars and contribution to antioxidant activities and protection against H(2)O(2)-induced cell death in H9c2

The carotenoid compositions, antioxidant activities and the potential cardio-protective role of 13 tomato cultivars with distinct colour were studied. Colour coordinates were evaluated by colorimeter and the carotenoid compositions were analysed by UPLC. Red tomatoes had the highest total carotenoid contents (TCC) and antioxidant activities, followed by purple, orange, pink and yellow ones. The TCC were 120.5-278.0 μg/gDW, and the antioxidant activities were 21.32-40.07 μmolTE/gDW (PCL), 64.42-89.98% (DPPH) and 10.47-13.76 μmolTE/g DW (ORAC), respectively. The lipophilic extracts were also found to prevent cell death in a cell-based model system using cardiac H9c2 cells and H(2)O(2), via attenuation of the caspase-3 and matrix metalloproteinase-2 activities. The extracts of different tomatoes showed strong but different antioxidant activities. Roles of total and individual carotenoids in the antioxidant activities were studied and lycopene showed the highest correlation. Results of this study can be used to guide the development of new tomato cultivars and functional foods, and benefit the consumers.