Monascuspiloin induces apoptosis and autophagic cell death in human prostate cancer cells via the Akt and AMPK signaling pathways

Screening Antibacterial Photodynamic Effect of Monascus Red Yeast Rice (Hong-Qu) and Mycelium Extracts

The fungus Monascus is a well-known source of secondary metabolites with interesting pharmaceutical and nutraceutical applications. In particular, Monascus pigments possess a wide range of biological activities (e.g. antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory or antitumoral). To broaden the scope of their possible application, this study focused on testing Monascus pigment extracts as potential photosensitizing agents efficient in antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) against bacteria. For this purpose, eight different extracts of secondary metabolites from the liquid- and solid-state fermentation of Monascus purpureus DBM 4360 and Monascus sp. DBM 4361 were tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative model bacteria, Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli and further screened for ESKAPE pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. To the bacterial culture, increasing concentration of extracts was added and it was found that all extracts showed varying antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive bacteria in dark, which was further increased after irradiation. Gram-negative bacteria were tolerant to the extracts' exposure in the dark but sensitivity to almost all extracts that occurred after irradiation. The Monascus sp. DBM 4361 extracts seemed to be the best potential candidate for aPDT against Gram-positive bacteria, being efficient at low doses, i.e. the lowest total concentration of Monascus pigments exhibiting aPDT effect was 3.92 ± 1.36 mg/L for E. coli. Our results indicate that Monascus spp., forming monascuspiloin as the major yellow pigment and not-forming mycotoxin citrinin, is a promising source of antimicrobials and photoantimicrobials.

Calotropis procera extract inhibits prostate cancer through regulation of autophagy

Current treatment options available for prostate cancer (PCa) patients have many adverse side effects and hence, new alternative therapies need to be explored. Anticancer potential of various phytochemicals derived from Calotropis procera has been studied in many cancers but no study has investigated the effect of leaf extract of C. procera on PCa cells. Hence, we investigated the effect of C. procera leaf extract (CPE) on cellular properties of androgen-independent PC-3 and androgen-sensitive 22Rv1 cells. A hydroalcoholic extract of C. procera was prepared and MTT assay was performed to study the effect of CPE on viability of PCa cells. The effect of CPE on cell division ability, migration capability and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production was studied using colony formation assay, wound-healing assay and 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate assay, respectively. Caspase activity assay and LDH assay were performed to study the involvement of apoptosis and necrosis in CPE-mediated cell death. Protein levels of cell cycle, antioxidant, autophagy and apoptosis markers were measured by western blot. The composition of CPE was identified using untargeted LC-MS analysis. Results showed that CPE decreased the viability of both the PCa cells, PC-3 and 22Rv1, in a dose- and time-dependent manner. Also, CPE significantly inhibited the colony-forming ability, migration and endogenous ROS production in both the cell lines. Furthermore, CPE significantly decreased NF-κB protein levels and increased the protein levels of the cell cycle inhibitor p27. A significant increase in expression of autophagy markers was observed in CPE-treated PC-3 cells while autophagy markers were downregulated in 22Rv1 cells after CPE exposure. Hence, it can be concluded that CPE inhibits PCa cell viability possibly by regulating the autophagy pathway and/or altering the ROS levels. Thus, CPE can be explored as a possible alternative therapeutic agent for PCa.

Lecithin/chitosan nanoparticle drug carrier improves anti-tumor efficacy of Monascus pigment rubropunctatin

Rubropunctatin, a metabolite isolated from the fungi of the genus Monascus, is a natural lead compound applied for the suppression of tumors with good anti-cancer activity. However, its poor aqueous solubility has limited its further clinical development and utilization. Lecithin and chitosan are excellently biocompatible and biodegradable natural materials, which have been approved by the FDA as drug carrier. Here, we report for the first time the construction of a lecithin/chitosan nanoparticle drug carrier of the Monascus pigment rubropunctatin by electrostatic self-assembly between lecithin and chitosan. The nanoparticles are near-spherical with a size 110-120 nm. They are soluble in water and possess excellent homogenization capacity and dispersibility. Our in vitro drug release assay showed a sustained release of rubropunctatin. CCK-8 assays revealed that lecithin/chitosan nanoparticles loaded with rubropunctatin (RCP-NPs) had significantly enhanced cytotoxicity against mouse mammary cancer 4T1 cells. The flow cytometry results revealed that RCP-NPs significantly boosted cellular uptake and apoptosis. The tumor-bearing mice models we developed indicated that RCP-NPs effectively inhibited tumor growth. Our present findings suggest that lecithin/chitosan nanoparticle drug carriers improve the anti-tumor effect of the Monascus pigment rubropunctatin.

Monascuspiloin from Monascus-Fermented Red Mold Rice Alleviates Alcoholic Liver Injury and Modulates Intestinal Microbiota

Monascus-fermented red mold rice (RMR) has excellent physiological efficacy on lipid metabolism and liver function. This study investigated the ameliorative effects of monascuspiloin (MP) from RMR on alcoholic liver injury in mice, and further clarified its mechanism of action. Results showed that MP intervention obviously ameliorated lipid metabolism and liver function in mice with over-drinking. In addition, dietary MP intervention reduced liver MDA levels and increased liver CAT, SOD, and GSH levels, thus alleviating liver oxidative stress induced by excessive drinking. 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing showed that MP intervention was beneficial to ameliorate intestinal microbiota dysbiosis by elevating the proportion of norank_f_Lachnospiraceae, Lachnoclostridium, Alistipes, Roseburia, Vagococcus, etc., but decreasing the proportion of Staphylococcus, norank_f_Desulfovibrionaceae, Lachnospiraceae_UCG-001, Helicobacter, norank_f_Muribaculaceae, unclassified_f_Ruminococcaceae, etc. Additionally, correlation network analysis indicated that the key intestinal bacterial taxa intervened by MP were closely related to some biochemical parameters of lipid metabolism, liver function, and oxidative stress. Moreover, liver metabolomics analysis revealed that dietary MP supplementation significantly regulated the levels of 75 metabolites in the liver, which were involved in the synthesis and degradation of ketone bodies, taurine, and hypotaurine metabolism, and other metabolic pathways. Furthermore, dietary MP intervention regulated gene transcription and protein expression associated with hepatic lipid metabolism and oxidative stress. In short, these findings suggest that MP mitigates alcohol-induced liver injury by regulating the intestinal microbiome and liver metabolic pathway, and thus can serve as a functional component to prevent liver disease.

Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer properties of the red biopigment extract from Monascus purpureus (MTCC 369)

In this study, the Monascus purpureus (MTCC 369) extracted biopigment produced by solid-state fermentation was evaluated for its therapeutic potential using human prostate LNCaP cells. Antioxidant efficacy of the red biopigment determined using 2,2 diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl, 2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid, and ferric reducing antioxidant power assays was found to be 53.16%, 86.27%, and 13.83%, respectively. In addition, expression studies of target gene superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD-2) showed that increasing concentrations (10-50 μg/ml) of the biopigment enhanced its expression from 0.91- to 1.905-fold. An inhibitory effect of 0.424-0.627-fold was observed in the expression of glutathione peroxidase (GPX) with a similar increase in biopigment concentration. Addition of quercetin (positive control) at 50 μg/ml led to 0.295-fold decrease in GPX expression. In contrast, the expression of SOD-2 increased by 1.026-fold in the presence of quercetin. The biopigment also showed an increased serological IL-10 expression (an anti-inflammatory agent) ranging from 1034.58 to 4657.89 pg/ml. Treatment of LNCaP cells with the red biopigment (10-100 μg/ml) resulted in significant (p < .05) reduction (upto 79.86%) in viability and 51.79%-89.86% reduction in cell metabolic activity. Fluorescent microscopy examination of red biopigment-treated cells showed significant inhibition of normal cellular morphology including condensed nuclei, membrane blebbing, and apoptotic bodies, thus confirming its cytotoxic potential. Results of this study revealed that the red biopigment has the potential to modulate the expression of antioxidative and anti-inflammatory markers in addition to being cytotoxic to the LNCaP cancer cells. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: These findings indicate that cell treatment with red biopigment has the potential to modulate anti-oxidative, pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory genes for therapeutic effects, which is further enhanced by its cytotoxic activity against cancer cells. Considering these cell-based observations, Monascus red biopigment has ample potential as a useful supplement to formulate therapeutic products that delay the development of inflammatory-related diseases and associated complications.

Natural pigment from Monascus: The production and therapeutic significance

OBJECTIVE

The present review highlights the advantages of using natural colorant over the synthetic one. We have discussed the fermentation parameters that can enhance the productivity of Monascus pigment on agricultural wastes.

BACKGROUND

Food industry is looking for natural colours because these can enhance the esthetic value, attractiveness, and acceptability of food while remaining nontoxic. Many synthetic food colours (Azorubine Carmoisine, quinoline) have been prohibited due to their toxicity and carcinogenicity. Increasing consumer awareness towards the food safety has forced the manufacturing industries to look for suitable alternatives. In addition to safety, natural colorants have been found to have nutritional and therapeutic significance. Among the natural colorants, microbial pigments can be considered as a viable option because of scalability, easier production, no seasonal dependence, cheaper raw materials and easier extraction. Fungi such as Monascus have a long history of safety and therefore can be used for production of biopigments.

METHOD

The present review summarizes the predicted biosynthetic pathways and pigment gene clusters in Monascus purpureus.

RESULTS

The challenges faced during the pilot-scale production of Monascus biopigment and taming it by us of low-cost agro-industrial substrates for solid state fermentation has been suggested.

CONCLUSION

Keeping in mind, therapeutic properties of Monascus pigments and their derivatives, they have huge potential for industrial and pharmaceutical application.

APPLICATION

Though the natural pigments have wide scope in the food industry. However, stabilization of pigment is the greatest challenge and attempts are being made to overcome this by complexion with hydrocolloids or metals and by microencapsulation.

Monascin and monascinol, azaphilonoid pigments from Mortierella polycephala AM1: in silico and in vitro targeting of the angiogenic VEGFR2 kinase

The fungus, Mortierella polycephala is one of the most productive sources of anticancer bioactive compounds namely those of pigment nature. During our investigation of the produced bioactive metabolites by the terrestrial M. polycephala AM1 isolated from Egyptian poultry feather waste, two main azaphilonoid pigments, monascin (1) and monascinol (2) were obtained as major products; their structures were identified by 1D (¹H&¹³C) and 2D (¹H-¹H COSY, HMBC) NMR and HRESI-MS spectroscopic data. Biologically, cytotoxic activities of these compounds were broadly studied compared with the fungal extract. To predict the biological target for the presumed antitumor activity, an in silico study was run toward three proteins, topoisomerase IIα, topoisomerase IIβ, and VEGFR2 kinase. Monascinol (2) was expected to be moderately active against VEGFR2 kinase without any anticipated inhibition toward topo II isoforms. The in vitro study confirmed the docked investigation consistently and introduced monascinol (2) rather than its counterpart (1) as a potent inhibitor to the tested VEGFR2 kinase. Taxonomically, the fungus was identified using morphological and genetic assessments.

Effect of a Monascus sp. Red Yeast Rice Extract on Germination of Bacterial Spores

The pink-red color of traditional sausages (cured meat) is the result of nitrite addition and the formation of nitrosomyoglobin. However, the pleasant color of processed meat products is a side effect of nitrite addition while the main anticipated goal is to suppress the germination of clostridial spores. The fungus Monascus is known as a producer of oligoketide pigments, which are used in Asian countries, especially in China, for coloring foods, including meat products. Although, different biological activities of Monascus pigments have been tested and confirmed in many studies, their effect on germination of bacterial spores has never been investigated. This study is focused on testing the activity of red yeast rice (RYR) extract, containing monascin, rubropunctatin, rubropunctamine complexes and monascuspiloin as the main pigments, on germination of Clostridium and Bacillus spores. It was found that addition of nitrite alone, at the permitted concentration, had no effect on spore germination. However, the combined effects of nitrite with NaCl, tested after addition of pickling salt, was efficient in inhibiting the germination of C. beijerinckii spores but had no effect on B. subtilis spores. In contrast, total suppression of C. beijerinckii spore germination was reached after addition of RYR extract to the medium at a concentration of 2% v/v. For B. subtilis, total inhibition of spore germination was observed only after addition of 4% v/v RYR extract to the medium containing 1.3% w/w NaCl.

Advancement and properties of circular RNAs in prostate cancer: An emerging and compelling frontier for discovering

Prostate cancer (PC) is the most common carcinoma among men worldwide which results in 26% of leading causes of cancer-related death. However, the ideal and effective molecular marker remains elusive. CircRNA, initially observed in plant-infected viruses and Sendai virus in 1979, is generated from pre-mRNA back-splicing and comes in to play by adequate expression. The differential expression in prostate tissues compared with the control reveals the promising capacity in modulating processes including carcinogenesis and metastasis. However, the biological mechanisms of regulatory network in PC needs to systemically concluded. In this review, we enlightened the comprehensive studies on the definite mechanisms of circRNAs affecting tumor progression and metastasis. What's more, we validated the potential clinical application of circRNAs serving as diagnostic and prognostic biomarker. The discussion and analysis in circRNAs will broaden our knowledge of the pathogenesis of PC and further optimize the current therapies against different condition.

How autophagy can restore proteostasis defects in multiple diseases?

Cellular evolution develops several conserved mechanisms by which cells can tolerate various difficult conditions and overall maintain homeostasis. Autophagy is a well-developed and evolutionarily conserved mechanism of catabolism, which endorses the degradation of foreign and endogenous materials via autolysosome. To decrease the burden of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS), autophagy also promotes the selective degradation of proteins in a tightly regulated way to improve the physiological balance of cellular proteostasis that may get perturbed due to the accumulation of misfolded proteins. However, the diverse as well as selective clearance of unwanted materials and regulations of several cellular mechanisms via autophagy is still a critical mystery. Also, the failure of autophagy causes an increase in the accumulation of harmful protein aggregates that may lead to neurodegeneration. Therefore, it is necessary to address this multifactorial threat for in-depth research and develop more effective therapeutic strategies against lethal autophagy alterations. In this paper, we discuss the most relevant and recent reports on autophagy modulations and their impact on neurodegeneration and other complex disorders. We have summarized various pharmacological findings linked with the induction and suppression of autophagy mechanism and their promising preclinical and clinical applications to provide therapeutic solutions against neurodegeneration. The conclusion, key questions, and future prospectives sections summarize fundamental challenges and their possible feasible solutions linked with autophagy mechanism to potentially design an impactful therapeutic niche to treat neurodegenerative diseases and imperfect aging.

Monarubins A-C from the Marine Shellfish-Associated Fungus Monascus ruber BB5

Three new compounds, monarubins A-C (1, 6 and 13), together with ten known compounds, including four alkaloids (2-5), two isocoumarins (7 and 8) and four polyketides (9-12), were isolated from marine shellfish-associated fungus Monascus ruber BB5. The structures were determined on the basis of the 1D and 2D NMR, MS, UV and IR data. The absolute configurations of compounds 3, 6 and 13 were determined by ECD calculations. The NMR data of compounds deoxyhydroxyaspergillic acid (3) and 2-hydroxy-6-(1-hydroxy-1-methylpropyl)-3-sec-buthylpyrazine (4) were first reported. All of the isolated compounds were evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against human nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell lines CNE1, CNE2, SUNE1 and HONE1 and hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines QGY7701 and HepG2. Monarubin B (6) displayed potent cytotoxicities against the cancer cell lines HepG2 and QGY7701 with IC₅₀ values of 1.72 and 0.71 μΜ, respectively; lunatinin (7) showed moderate cytotoxic activities against the cancer cell lines HepG2, QGY7701 and SUNE1 with the IC₅₀ values of 9.60, 7.12 and 28.12 μΜ, respectively.

Silencing circular RNA circZNF609 restrains growth, migration and invasion by up-regulating microRNA-186-5p in prostate cancer

Background: Prostate cancer (PC) fearfully impacts men's health. We explored the efficacy and mechanism of circular RNA circZNF609 (circZNF609) on colony formation, viability, apoptosis, migration and invasion and in PC cells. Methods: Colony formation, CCK-8, flow cytometry, migration and invasion assay were respectively used to detect the functions of circZNF609 and microRNA (miR)-186-5p on cell colony ability, viability, apoptosis, migration and invasion. circZNF609 and miR-186-5p expression were changed by cell transfection and tested by RT-qPCR. Moreover, Cleaved-Caspase-3, Cleaved-Caspase-9, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), Vimentin and relate-proteins of cell pathways were examined through Western blot. Results: circZNF609 was highly expressed at PC tissues. circZNF609 declined cell colony ability, viability, migration and invasion and caused apoptosis. Furthermore, circZNF609 negatively regulated miR-186-5p, miR-186-5p inhibitor could reverse impacts of circZNF609. Finally, circZNF609 restrained the YAP1 and AMPK pathways by up-regulating miR-186-5p. Conclusion: Silencing circZNF609 restrained growth, migration and invasion of PC cells by up-regulating miR-186-5p via YAP1 and AMPK pathways. Highlights circZNF609 is highly expressed in PC tissues; circZNF609 restrains cell growth, migration and invasion; circZNF609 exerts its function by up-regulating miR-186-5p; circZNF609 exerts its function by YAP1 and AMPK signaling pathways.

Pigments from Filamentous Ascomycetes for Combination Therapy

Filamentous ascomycetes (Neurospora and Monascus) have been studied for a long time because of their production of secondary metabolites such as microbial pigments. The ascomycetes represent an interesting group of compounds with high potential for medicinal applications. Many recent studies have shown their efficacy in the treatment of serious pathological states such as oncological diseases, neurodegenerative diseases and hyperlipidaemia. Nevertheless, the clinical usability of ascomycetes is still limited. However, this problem can be solved by the use of these compounds with combinations of other therapeutic agents. This strategy can suppress their side effects and improve their therapeutic efficacy. Moreover, their co-application can significantly enhance conventional therapies that are used. This review summarizes and discusses the general principles of this approach, introduced and supported by numerous examples. In addition, the prediction of the future potential application of this methodology is included.

Telomerase Inhibitory Effects of Red Pigment Rubropunctatin and Statin Monacolin L Isolated from Red Yeast Rice

In addition to the cholesterol-lowering activity of red yeast rice (RYR), its anticancer activities have been frequently reported. However, the mechanism of action of the anticancer activity of RYR is not yet fully understood. The objective of the current study was to elucidate anticancer compositions and anticancer mechanism of actions of RYR. The isolated compounds from RYR were subjected to anti-proliferation assay, apoptosis assay via flow cytometry, and telomerase inhibitory assay via telomeric repeat amplification protocol-PCR (TRAP-PCR) assay, and Western blotting assay in an in vitro cell culture system. The results showed that a statin, monacolin L, and a red pigment, rubropunctatin, from RYR exhibited very strong cancer cell proliferation inhibitory effects; the rubropunctatin was comparable with anticancer drug cis-platinum, taxol, and 10-hydroxy-camptothecin (HCPT) in their IC₅₀ values. Monacolin L and rubropunctatin exerted their anticancer activity via telomerase inhibitory effects. Monacolin L and rubropunctatin presented the similar telomerase inhibitory effects as the anticancer drug cis-platinum, while the anticancer drug HCPT presented a weak telomerase inhibitory effect in the TRAP-PCR assay. Meanwhile, rubropunctatin and cis-platinum did not present strong apoptosis induction activity as the momacolin L and HCPT did. These results indicate that the RYR may exert anticancer effects through the telomerase inhibitory effect of rubropunctatin and the apoptosis-induction effect of monacolin L.

Extract of Monascus purpureus CWT715 Fermented from Sorghum Liquor Biowaste Inhibits Migration and Invasion of SK-Hep-1 Human Hepatocarcinoma Cells

Liver cancer is the most endemic cancer in a large region of the world. This study investigated the anti-metastatic effects of an extract of Monascus purpureus CWT715 (MP) fermented from sorghum liquor biowaste and its mechanisms of action in highly metastatic human hepatocarcinoma SK-Hep-1 cells. Kinmen sorghum liquor waste was used as the primary nutrient source to produce metabolites (including pigments) of MP. In the presence of 10 µg/mL MP-fermented broth (MFB), the anti-invasive activity increased with increasing fermentation time reaching a maximum at six days of fermentation. Interestingly, MFB also produced maximal pigment content at six days. Treatment for 24 h with MFB (10–100 µg/mL) obtained from fermentation for six days significantly inhibited cell migration and invasion, and these effects were concentration-dependent. MFB also significantly enhanced nm23-H1 protein expression in a concentration-dependent manner, which was highly correlated with migration and invasion. These results suggest that MFB has significant anti-migration and anti-invasion activities and that these effects are associated with the induction of nm23-H1 protein expression.

AMBRA1 and SQSTM1 expression pattern in prostate cancer

Prostate cancer is among the most commonly diagnosed male diseases and a leading cause of cancer mortality in men. There is emerging evidence that autophagy plays an important role in malignant cell survival and offers protection from the anti-cancer drugs in prostate cancer cells. AMBRA1 and the autophagic protein sequestosome-1 (SQSTM1; p62) expression were evaluated by immunohistochemistry and western blot on tissue samples from both benign and malignant prostatic lesions. The data reported in this pilot study demonstrated an increased expression of AMBRA1 and SQSTM1, which were also associated with an accumulation of LC3II in prostate cancer but not in benign lesion. In the present study we found that: (i) at variance with benign lesion, prostate cancer cells underwent SQSTM1 accumulation, i.e., clearly displayed a defective autophagic process but, also, (ii) prostate cancer accumulated AMBRA1 and (iii) this increase positively correlated with the Gleason score. These results underscore a possible implication of autophagy in prostate cancer phenotype and of AMBRA1 as possible cancer progression biomarker in this malignancy.

Sorafenib induces autophagic cell death and apoptosis in hepatic stellate cell through the JNK and Akt signaling pathways

Increasing hepatic stellate cell (HSC) death is an attractive approach for limiting liver fibrosis. We investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying the effects of sorafenib on HSCs. LX2 cells were incubated with sorafenib and a variety of inhibitors of apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis. Electron microscopy was used to observe autophagosomes. Inhibitors and siRNA were used to examine the role of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K and JNK pathways. Ultrastructural analysis revealed that rat HSCs treated with 5 μmol/l sorafenib accumulated residual digested material and empty or autophagic vacuoles. Incubating LX2 cells with lysosomal protease inhibitors increased the accumulation of LC3-II, indicating that sorafenib enhances autophagic flux in HSCs. Autophagy may precede apoptosis. Lower concentrations of sorafenib and a shorter treatment time resulted in the dominance of autophagic cell death over apoptosis. Further analysis showed that Beclin 1 is inactivated by the caspases induced by sorafenib during apoptosis. Inhibition of autophagy in LX2 cells using 3-methyladenine treatment or siRNA-mediated knockdown of Atg5 resulted in a marked increase in apoptosis. Finally, sorafenib induced programmed cell death by attenuation and activation of Akt/mTOR/p70S6K and JNK signaling. Sorafenib-induced cell death is mediated by both autophagy and apoptosis. Elucidation of the signaling pathways activated by sorafenib could potentially lead to novel antifibrosis therapies for chronic liver diseases.

Functional food red yeast rice (RYR) for metabolic syndrome amelioration: a review on pros and cons

Red yeast rice (RYR), the fermentation product of mold Monascus purpureus has been an integral part of Oriental food and traditional Chinese medicine, long before the discovery of their medicinal roles. With the identification of bioactive components as polyketide pigments (statins), and unsaturated fatty acids, RYR has gained a nutraceutical status. Hypercholesterolemic effect of this fermented compound has been validated and monacolin K has been recognized as the pivotal component in cholesterol alleviation. Functional similarity with commercial drug lovastatin sans the side effects has catapulted its popularity in other parts of the world as well. Apart from the hypotensive role, ameliorative benefits of RYR as anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anticancer and osteogenic agent have emerged, fueling intense research on it. Mechanistic studies have revealed their interaction with functional agents like coenzyme Q10, astaxanthin, vitamin D, folic acid, policosanol, and berberine. On the other hand, concurrence of mycotoxin citrinin and variable content of statin has marred its integration in mainstream medication. In this disputable scenario, evaluation of the scopes and lacunae to overcome seems to contribute to an eminent area of healthcare. Red yeast rice (RYR), the rice-based fermentation product of mold Monascus purpureus is a functional food. Its bioactive component monacolin K acts like synthetic drug lovastatin, without the severe side effects of the latter. RYR has been validated to lower cholesterol, control high blood pressure; confer anti-flammation, hypoglycaemic, anticancer and osteogenic properties. However, dose inconsistency and co-occurrence of toxin citrinin hampers its dietary supplementation prospect. Further research might facilitate development of RYR as a nutraceutical.

Regulation of AMP-activated protein kinase by natural and synthetic activators

The AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a sensor of cellular energy status that is almost universally expressed in eukaryotic cells. While it appears to have evolved in single-celled eukaryotes to regulate energy balance in a cell-autonomous manner, during the evolution of multicellular animals its role has become adapted so that it also regulates energy balance at the whole body level, by responding to hormones that act primarily on the hypothalamus. AMPK monitors energy balance at the cellular level by sensing the ratios of AMP/ATP and ADP/ATP, and recent structural analyses of the AMPK heterotrimer that have provided insight into the complex mechanisms for these effects will be discussed. Given the central importance of energy balance in diseases that are major causes of morbidity or death in humans, such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and inflammatory disorders, there has been a major drive to develop pharmacological activators of AMPK. Many such activators have been described, and the various mechanisms by which these activate AMPK will be discussed. A particularly large class of AMPK activators are natural products of plants derived from traditional herbal medicines. While the mechanism by which most of these activate AMPK has not yet been addressed, I will argue that many of them may be defensive compounds produced by plants to deter infection by pathogens or grazing by insects or herbivores, and that many of them will turn out to be inhibitors of mitochondrial function.

Recent progress in fungus-derived bioactive agents for targeting of signaling machinery in cancer cells

It is becoming increasingly understood that tumor cells may have different mutations and dependencies on diverse intracellular signaling cascades for survival or metastatic potential. Overexpression of oncogenes, inactivation of tumor suppressor genes, genetic/epigenetic mutations, genomic instability, and loss of apoptotic cell death are some of the mechanisms that have been widely investigated in molecular oncology. We partition this multicomponent review into the most recent evidence on the anticancer activity of fungal substances obtained from in vitro and xenografted models, and these fungal substances modulate expression of oncogenic and tumor suppressor miRNAs. There are some outstanding questions regarding fungus-derived chemical-induced modulation of intracellular signaling networks in different cancer cell lines and preclinical models. Certain hints have emerged, emphasizing mechanisms via which apoptosis can be restored in TRAIL-resistant cancer cells. Reconceptualization of the knowledge obtained from these emerging areas of research will enable us to potentially identify natural agents with notable anticancer activity and minimal off-target effects. Integration of experimentally verified evidence obtained from cancer cell line gene expression with large-scale functional screening results and pharmacological sensitivity data will be helpful in identification of therapeutics with substantial efficacy. New tools and technologies will further deepen our understanding of the signaling networks that underlie the development of cancer, metastasis, and resistance to different therapeutics at both a personal and systems-wide level.

Roles of autophagy induced by natural compounds in prostate cancer

Autophagy is a homeostatic mechanism through which intracellular organelles and proteins are degraded and recycled in response to increased metabolic demand or stress. Autophagy dysfunction is often associated with many diseases, including cancer. Because of its role in tumorigenesis, autophagy can represent a new therapeutic target for cancer treatment. Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common cancers in aged men. The evidence on alterations of autophagy related genes and/or protein levels in PCa cells suggests a potential implication of autophagy in PCa onset and progression. The use of natural compounds, characterized by low toxicity to normal tissue associated with specific anticancer effects at physiological levels in vivo, is receiving increasing attention for prevention and/or treatment of PCa. Understanding the mechanism of action of these compounds could be crucial for the development of new therapeutic or chemopreventive options. In this review we focus on the current evidence showing the capacity of natural compounds to exert their action through autophagy modulation in PCa cells.

Anticancer properties of Monascus metabolites

This review provides up-to-date information on the anticancer properties of Monascus-fermented products. Topics covered include clinical evidence for the anticancer potential of Monascus metabolites, bioactive Monascus components with anticancer potential, mechanisms of the anticancer effects of Monascus metabolites, and existing problems as well as future perspectives. With the advancement of related fields, the development of novel anticancer Monascus food products and/or pharmaceuticals will be possible with the ultimate goal of decreasing the incidence and mortality of malignancies in humans.

Resveratrol-induced apoptosis is enhanced by inhibition of autophagy in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma

The anti-cancer activity of resveratrol in human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) was investigated focusing on the role of autophagy and its effects on apoptotic cell death. We demonstrated that resveratrol inhibits ESCC cell growth in a dose-dependent manner by inducing cell cycle arrest at the sub-G1 phase and resulting in subsequent apoptosis. Mechanistically, resveratrol-induced autophagy in the ESCC cells is AMPK/mTOR pathway independent. Since both pharmacological and genetic inhibition of autophagy enhanced the resveratrol-induced cytotoxicity to the ESCC cells, this provided a novel strategy in potentiating the anti-cancer effects of resveratrol and other chemotherapeutic reagents in ESCC cancer treatment.

Autophagy in prostate cancer and androgen suppression therapy

The role of autophagy is known to be highly complex and context-dependent, leading to both cancer suppression and progression in several tumors including melanoma, breast and prostate cancer. In the present review, recent advances in an understanding of the involvement of autophagy in prostate cancer treatment are described. The regulatory effects of androgens on prostate cancer cell autophagy are particularly discussed in order to highlight the effects of autophagy modulation during androgen deprivation. A critical evaluation of the studies examined in the present review suggests the attractive possibility of autophagy inhibition combined with hormonal therapy as a promising approach for prostate cancer treatment.

Preventive effects of Monascus on androgen-related diseases: androgenetic alopecia, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and prostate cancer

Androgen-related diseases impair the well-being of many aging men. Unfortunately, the medications used to treat these diseases have many side effects. Therefore, there is a significant need for the development of novel drugs to treat androgen-related diseases. In this study, we investigated the effects of Monascus cursory extraction (M-CE) on androgen-related diseases, including androgenetic alopecia (AGA), benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and prostate cancer. We found that M-CE suppressed baldness in male B6CBAF1/j mice. Furthermore, M-CE decreased PSA levels, indicating a protective effect of M-CE on testosterone-induced hyperplasia. M-CE also significantly decreased tumor volume and tumor incidence in an N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU)/testosterone-induced rat prostate cancer model and markedly decreased dihydrotestosterone (DHT) but not testosterone. Additionally, PCNA expression was decreased in the prostate of rats treated with M-CE. These results suggest that M-CE could be a new potential therapeutic candidate for the treatment of androgen-related diseases.