1
|
Chlorophyll breakdown during fruit ripening: Qualitative analysis of phyllobilins in the peel of apples (Malus domestica Borkh.) cv. ‘Gala’ during different shelf life stages. Food Res Int 2022; 162:112061. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 09/20/2022] [Accepted: 10/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
|
2
|
Quiles C, Viera I, Roca M. Multiomics Approach To Decipher the Origin of Chlorophyll Content in Virgin Olive Oil. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2022; 70:3807-3817. [PMID: 35290057 PMCID: PMC8972264 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c00031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
The color of virgin olive oils, ranging from intense green to brown-yellow, is one of the main selection factors for consumers and a quality criterion in specific legislations. Such coloration is due to their chlorophyll content and depends on the composition of the olive fruit. Through analytical chemistry (HPLC-hrMSn), biochemistry (enzymatic activity), and molecular biology (qRT-PCR) approaches, we have analyzed the origin of the differences in the chlorophyll content among several varieties of olive fruit throughout their ripening process. The higher chlorophyll biosynthetic capacity in olive fruits is due to the enzyme protochlorophyllide reductase, whereas chlorophyll degradation is accomplished through the stay-green and pheophytinase pathways. For the first time, the implication of chlorophyll dephytylase during the turnover of chlorophylls in fruit is shown to be responsible for the exclusive accumulation of dephytylated chlorophyll in Arbequina fruit. The multiomics results excluded the in vivo participation of chlorophyllase in chlorophyll degradation in olive fruits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - María Roca
- . Tel.: +00 34 954.61.15.50. Fax: +00 34 954.61.67.90
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Research Progress in the Interconversion, Turnover and Degradation of Chlorophyll. Cells 2021; 10:cells10113134. [PMID: 34831365 PMCID: PMC8621299 DOI: 10.3390/cells10113134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlorophylls (Chls, Chl a and Chl b) are tetrapyrrole molecules essential for photosynthetic light harvesting and energy transduction in plants. Once formed, Chls are noncovalently bound to photosynthetic proteins on the thylakoid membrane. In contrast, they are dismantled from photosystems in response to environmental changes or developmental processes; thus, they undergo interconversion, turnover, and degradation. In the last twenty years, fruitful research progress has been achieved on these Chl metabolic processes. The discovery of new metabolic pathways has been accompanied by the identification of enzymes associated with biochemical steps. This article reviews recent progress in the analysis of the Chl cycle, turnover and degradation pathways and the involved enzymes. In addition, open questions regarding these pathways that require further investigation are also suggested.
Collapse
|
4
|
Wang P, Karg CA, Frey N, Frädrich J, Vollmar AM, Moser S. Phyllobilins as a challenging diverse natural product class: Exploration of pharmacological activities. Arch Pharm (Weinheim) 2021; 354:e2100061. [PMID: 34155668 DOI: 10.1002/ardp.202100061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Revised: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Phyllobilins are a group of chlorophyll-derived bilin-type linear tetrapyrroles, generated in the process of chlorophyll breakdown. Since the first phyllobilin was isolated and characterized in 1991, more and more structures of these chlorophyll catabolites were identified alongside the biochemical players involved in chlorophyll breakdown. In the meantime, phyllobilins are known to occur in a large natural structural variety, and new modifications are still being discovered. Phyllobilins have been regarded as products of chlorophyll detoxification for a very long time, hence they have been completely overlooked as a natural product class in terms of their biological role or pharmacological activity. A change of this paradigm, however, is long overdue. Here, we review the current knowledge of the pharmacological activities of phyllobilins and give an overview of the diverse structural modifications, laying the groundwork for analyzing their role(s) as active components in medicinal plants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pengyu Wang
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Cornelia A Karg
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Nadine Frey
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Julian Frädrich
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Angelika M Vollmar
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Simone Moser
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Department of Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Suryani CL, Wahyuningsih TD, Supriyadi S, Santoso U. THE POTENTIAL OF MATURE PANDAN LEAVES AS A SOURCE OF CHLOROPHYLL FOR NATURAL FOOD COLORANTS. JURNAL TEKNOLOGI DAN INDUSTRI PANGAN 2020. [DOI: 10.6066/jtip.2020.31.2.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Plant leaves are the primary source of natural colorants for food, mainly due to their chlorophyll content. However, the plant types and the degree of leaf maturity determine the quality and quantity of the chlorophyll. This study aimed to determine the best maturity level of pandan (Pandanus amaryllifolius Roxb.) leaves that serves as potential source of chlorophyll for natural food colorants. Eighty three pandan plants obtained from six different farming locations in Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta, Indonesia were used as samples. The leaves were grouped into four levels of maturity using descriptive statistics based on their morphology, anatomy, color, and chlorophyll contents. The results showed that the average number of leaves ranged from 20-24 leaves per plant (at 95% confidence interval), and 96.4% of the plant had a maximum of 24 leaves. The leaf maturity was grouped into (1) young, (2) medium, (3) mature, and (4) over mature, corresponding to leaf number 1-6, 7-12, 13-18, and 19-24, respectively. The higher the leaf maturity, the higher the chlorophyll content. However, the over mature leaves were only slightly different from the mature ones. In addition, pandan leaves have specific flavor and contain carotenoid, phenolic, and flavonoid substances. Anatomically, the mesophyll’s size was greatest in the mature leaves, while the size of chloroplast was not significantly different from medium to over mature leaves. Based on the chlorophyll content and mesophyll size, it was concluded that mature pandan leaves were the best source of chlorophyll, containing chlorophyll of 623.08 mg/100 g dry weight (DW).
Collapse
|
6
|
Roca M, Pérez-Gálvez A. Profile of Chlorophyll Catabolites in Senescent Leaves of Epipremnun aureum Includes a Catabolite Esterified with Hydroxytyrosol 1- O-Glucoside. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2020; 83:873-880. [PMID: 32134654 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b00546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Despite the fact that chlorophyll degradation is a physiological phenomenon occurring daily in all photosynthetic tissues, chlorophyll catabolites are not fully identified. Three new forms (1, 3, and 4) of linear chlorophyll catabolites (phyllobilins) have been characterized in senescent leaves of Epipremnun aureum with spectroscopic data. Compound 1 is a hypermodified blue fluorescent chlorophyll catabolite (hmFCC) esterified with the potent antioxidant hydroxytyrosol. The sequestration of this phenol by a chlorophyll catabolite could explain the physiological meaning of the persistence of hmFCCs in some senescent plants. Compound 3, a yellow chlorophyll catabolite (YCC) originated from the oxidation at C-15 of 1. YCCs have been identified previously and are exclusively formed in the plant vacuole from the final nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs). The presence of 3 in leaves implies a new reaction in chlorophyll catabolism, as the characterization of 3 implies that YCCs can be also be oxidized in the cytosol from FCCs. Finally, phyllobilin 4 represents a new type of YCC characterized by an inflexible bicyclo glucosyl moiety linked through an intramolecular esterification of the propionic acid residue with the C-3 hydroxy group. The corresponding NCC precursor was recently identified and now the characterization of 4 shows that even this rigid structure can be further oxidized. Undoubtedly, the characterization of phyllobilins is essential to completely comprehend chlorophyll degradation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- María Roca
- Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), University Campus, Building 46, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Antonio Pérez-Gálvez
- Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa (CSIC), University Campus, Building 46, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Moser S, Kräutler B. In Search of Bioactivity - Phyllobilins, an Unexplored Class of Abundant Heterocyclic Plant Metabolites from Breakdown of Chlorophyll. Isr J Chem 2019; 59:420-431. [PMID: 31244492 PMCID: PMC6582504 DOI: 10.1002/ijch.201900012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The fate of the green plant pigment chlorophyll (Chl) in de-greening leaves has long been a fascinating biological puzzle. In the course of the last three decades, various bilin-type products of Chl breakdown have been identified, named phyllobilins (PBs). Considered 'mere' leftovers of a controlled biological Chl detoxification originally, the quest for finding relevant bioactivities of the PBs has become a new paradigm. Indeed, the PBs are abundant in senescent leaves, in ripe fruit and in some vegetables, and they display an exciting array of diverse heterocyclic structures. This review outlines briefly which types of Chl breakdown products occur in higher plants, describes basics of their bio-relevant structural and chemical properties and gives suggestions as to 'why' the plants produce vast amounts of uniquely 'decorated' heterocyclic compounds. Clearly, it is worthwhile to consider crucial metabolic roles of PBs in plants, which may have practical consequences in agriculture and horticulture. However, PBs are also part of our plant-based nutrition and their physiological and pharmacological effects in humans are of interest, as well.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Moser
- Pharmaceutical Biology, Pharmacy DepartmentLudwig-Maximilians University of MunichButenandtstraße 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of Innsbruck. Innrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Li C, Erhart T, Liu X, Kräutler B. Yellow Dioxobilin-Type Tetrapyrroles from Chlorophyll Breakdown in Higher Plants-A New Class of Colored Phyllobilins. Chemistry 2019; 25:4052-4057. [PMID: 30688378 PMCID: PMC6563717 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201806038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In senescent leaves chlorophyll (Chl) catabolites typically accumulate as colorless tetrapyrroles, classified as formyloxobilin-type (or type-I) or dioxobilin-type (type-II) phyllobilins (PBs). Yellow type-I Chl catabolites (YCCs) also occur in some senescent leaves, in which they are generated by oxidation of colorless type-I PBs. A yellow type-II PB was recently proposed to occur in extracts of fall leaves of grapevine (Vitis vinifera), tentatively identified by its mass and UV/Vis absorption characteristics. Here, the first synthesis of a yellow type-II Chl catabolite (DYCC) from its presumed natural colorless type-II precursor is reported. A homogenate of a Spatiphyllum wallisii leaf was used as "green" means of effective and selective oxidation. The synthetic DYCC was fully characterized and identified with the yellow grapevine leaf pigment. As related yellow type-I PBs do, the DYCC functions as a reversible photoswitch by undergoing selective photo-induced Z/E isomerization of its C15=C16 bond.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengjie Li
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)University of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
- Present address: Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Institute of Fine Chemicals, School of Chemistry & Molecular EngineeringEast China University of Science & TechnologyMeilong Rd 130200237ShanghaiChina
| | - Theresia Erhart
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)University of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Xiujun Liu
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)University of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
- Present address: Research Center of Analysis and TestEast China University of Science & TechnologyMeilong Rd 130200237ShanghaiChina
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular Biosciences Innsbruck (CMBI)University of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Erhart T, Mittelberger C, Liu X, Podewitz M, Li C, Scherzer G, Stoll G, Valls J, Robatscher P, Liedl KR, Oberhuber M, Kräutler B. Novel Types of Hypermodified Fluorescent Phyllobilins from Breakdown of Chlorophyll in Senescent Leaves of Grapevine (Vitis vinifera). Chemistry 2018; 24:17268-17279. [PMID: 30079972 PMCID: PMC6282590 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201803128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
The tetrapyrrolic chlorophyll catabolites (or phyllobilins, PBs) were analyzed in yellow fall leaves of the grape Chardonnay, a common Vitis vinifera white wine cultivar. The major fractions in leaf extracts of V. vinifera, tentatively assigned to PBs, were isolated and their structures elucidated. The dominant fraction is a dioxobilin-type non-fluorescent Chl-catabolite of a previously observed type. Two less polar fluorescent PBs were characterized as a novel dioxobilin-type fluorescent Chl-catabolite with a bicyclo-1',6'-glycosyl architecture, and its new fluorescent formyloxobilin-type analogue. The discovery of persistent hypermodified fluorescent PBs with the architecture of bicyclo-[17.3.1]-PBs (bcPBs), suggests the activity of an unknown enzyme that forges the 20-membered macroring at the tetrapyrrolic core of a fluorescent PB. bcPBs may play specific physiological roles in grapevine plants and represent endogenous anti-infective agents, as found similarly for other organic bicyclo-[n.3.1]-1',6'-glycosyl derivatives.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theresia Erhart
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| | | | - Xiujun Liu
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
- Present address: Research Center of Analysis and TestEast China University of Science & TechnologyMeilong Rd 130200237ShanghaiChina
| | - Maren Podewitz
- Institute of General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Chengjie Li
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
- Present address: Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials & Institute of, Fine Chemicals, School of Chemistry & Molecular EngineeringEast China University of Science & TechnologyMeilong Rd 130200237ShanghaiChina
| | - Gerhard Scherzer
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Gertrud Stoll
- Laimburg Research CentreLaimburg 6-Pfatten (Vadena)39040Auer (Ora), BZItaly
| | - Josep Valls
- Laimburg Research CentreLaimburg 6-Pfatten (Vadena)39040Auer (Ora), BZItaly
- Present address: Faculté des Sciences Pharmaceutiques, Unité de Recherche Enologie EA 4577Université de Bordeaux33882Villenave d'OrnonFrance
| | - Peter Robatscher
- Laimburg Research CentreLaimburg 6-Pfatten (Vadena)39040Auer (Ora), BZItaly
| | - Klaus R. Liedl
- Institute of General, Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry & Centre of, Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| | - Michael Oberhuber
- Laimburg Research CentreLaimburg 6-Pfatten (Vadena)39040Auer (Ora), BZItaly
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/826020InnsbruckAustria
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Kuai B, Chen J, Hörtensteiner S. The biochemistry and molecular biology of chlorophyll breakdown. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2018; 69:751-767. [PMID: 28992212 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erx322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chlorophyll breakdown is one of the most obvious signs of leaf senescence and fruit ripening. The resulting yellowing of leaves can be observed every autumn, and the color change of fruits indicates their ripening state. During these processes, chlorophyll is broken down in a multistep pathway, now termed the 'PAO/phyllobilin' pathway, acknowledging the core enzymatic breakdown step catalysed by pheophorbide a oxygenase, which determines the basic linear tetrapyrrole structure of the products of breakdown that are now called 'phyllobilins'. This review provides an update on the PAO/phyllobilin pathway, and focuses on recent biochemical and molecular progress in understanding phyllobilin-modifying reactions as the basis for phyllobilin diversity, on the evolutionary diversity of the pathway, and on the transcriptional regulation of the pathway genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Benke Kuai
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Biodiversity Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Junyi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute of Biodiversity Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Stefan Hörtensteiner
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Moser S, Scherzer G, Kräutler B. On the Nature of Isomeric Nonfluorescent Chlorophyll Catabolites in Leaves and Fruit - A Study with a Ubiquitous Phylloleucobilin and its Main Isomerization Product. Chem Biodivers 2017; 14. [DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201700368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Moser
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences; University of Innsbruck; Innrain 80/82 A-6020 Innsbruck Austria
| | - Gerhard Scherzer
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences; University of Innsbruck; Innrain 80/82 A-6020 Innsbruck Austria
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center for Molecular Biosciences; University of Innsbruck; Innrain 80/82 A-6020 Innsbruck Austria
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Roca M, Ríos JJ, Chahuaris A, Pérez-Gálvez A. Non-fluorescent and yellow chlorophyll catabolites in Japanese plum fruits (Prunus salicina, Lindl.). Food Res Int 2017; 100:332-338. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2017.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2017] [Revised: 07/09/2017] [Accepted: 07/13/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
13
|
Mittelberger C, Yalcinkaya H, Pichler C, Gasser J, Scherzer G, Erhart T, Schumacher S, Holzner B, Janik K, Robatscher P, Müller T, Kräutler B, Oberhuber M. Pathogen-Induced Leaf Chlorosis: Products of Chlorophyll Breakdown Found in Degreened Leaves of Phytoplasma-Infected Apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) and Apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.) Trees Relate to the Pheophorbide a Oxygenase/Phyllobilin Pathway. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2017; 65:2651-2660. [PMID: 28267924 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b05501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Phytoplasmoses such as apple proliferation (AP) and European stone fruit yellows (ESFY) cause severe economic losses in fruit production. A common symptom of both phytoplasma diseases is early yellowing or leaf chlorosis. Even though chlorosis is a well-studied symptom of biotic and abiotic stresses, its biochemical pathways are hardly known. In particular, in this context, a potential role of the senescence-related pheophorbide a oxygenase/phyllobilin (PaO/PB) pathway is elusive, which degrades chlorophyll (Chl) to phyllobilins (PBs), most notably to colorless nonfluorescent Chl catabolites (NCCs). In this work, we identified the Chl catabolites in extracts of healthy senescent apple and apricot leaves. In extracts of apple tree leaves, a total of 12 Chl catabolites were detected, and in extracts of leaves of the apricot tree 16 Chl catabolites were found. The seven major NCC fractions in the leaves of both fruit tree species were identical and displayed known structures. All of the major Chl catabolites were also found in leaf extracts from AP- or ESFY-infected trees, providing the first evidence that the PaO/PB pathway is relevant also for pathogen-induced chlorosis. This work supports the hypothesis that Chl breakdown in senescence and phytoplasma infection proceeds via a common pathway in some members of the Rosaceae family.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia Mittelberger
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Hacer Yalcinkaya
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Christa Pichler
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Johanna Gasser
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gerhard Scherzer
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Theresia Erhart
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Sandra Schumacher
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Barbara Holzner
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Katrin Janik
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Peter Robatscher
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| | - Thomas Müller
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck , Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Michael Oberhuber
- Laimburg Research Center , Laimburg 6 - Pfatten (Vadena), 39040 Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Vergara-Domínguez H, Ríos JJ, Gandul-Rojas B, Roca M. Chlorophyll catabolism in olive fruits (var. Arbequina and Hojiblanca) during maturation. Food Chem 2016; 212:604-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
|
15
|
Erhart T, Mittelberger C, Vergeiner C, Scherzer G, Holzner B, Robatscher P, Oberhuber M, Kräutler B. Chlorophyll Catabolites in Senescent Leaves of the Plum Tree (Prunus domestica). Chem Biodivers 2016; 13:1441-1453. [PMID: 27533340 PMCID: PMC5123584 DOI: 10.1002/cbdv.201600181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
In cold extracts of senescent leaves of the plum tree (Prunus domestica ssp. domestica), six colorless non-fluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs) were characterized, named Pd-NCCs. In addition, several minor NCC fractions were tentatively classified. The structure of the most polar one of the NCCs, named Pd-NCC-32, featured an unprecedented twofold glycosidation pattern. Three of the NCCs are also functionalized at their 32 -position by a glucopyranosyl group. In addition, two of these glycosidated NCCs carry a dihydroxyethyl group at their 18-position. In the polar Pd-NCC-32, the latter group is further glycosidated at the terminal 182 -position. Four other major Pd-NCCs and one minor Pd-NCC were identified with five NCCs from higher plants known to belong to the 'epi'-series. In addition, tentative structures were derived for two minor fractions, classified as yellow chlorophyll catabolites, which represented (formal) oxidation products of two of the observed Pd-NCCs. The chlorophyll catabolites in leaves of plum feature the same basic structural pattern as those found in leaves of apple and pear trees.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Theresia Erhart
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/82AT‐6020Innsbruck
| | - Cecilia Mittelberger
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and ForestryLaimburg 6 – Pfatten (Vadena)IT‐39040Auer (Ora)BZ
| | - Clemens Vergeiner
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/82AT‐6020Innsbruck
| | - Gerhard Scherzer
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/82AT‐6020Innsbruck
| | - Barbara Holzner
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and ForestryLaimburg 6 – Pfatten (Vadena)IT‐39040Auer (Ora)BZ
| | - Peter Robatscher
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and ForestryLaimburg 6 – Pfatten (Vadena)IT‐39040Auer (Ora)BZ
| | - Michael Oberhuber
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and ForestryLaimburg 6 – Pfatten (Vadena)IT‐39040Auer (Ora)BZ
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry and Center of Molecular BiosciencesUniversity of InnsbruckInnrain 80/82AT‐6020Innsbruck
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Christ B, Hauenstein M, Hörtensteiner S. A liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry platform for the analysis of phyllobilins, the major degradation products of chlorophyll in Arabidopsis thaliana. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2016; 88:505-518. [PMID: 27349589 DOI: 10.1111/tpj.13253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
During senescence, chlorophyll is broken down to a set of structurally similar, but distinct linear tetrapyrrolic compounds termed phyllobilins. Structure identification of phyllobilins from over a dozen plant species revealed that modifications at different peripheral positions may cause complex phyllobilin composition in a given species. For example, in Arabidopsis thaliana wild-type, eight different phyllobilins have structurally been characterized to date. Accurate phyllobilin identification and quantification, which classically have been performed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and UV/vis detection, are, however, hampered because of their similar physiochemical properties and vastly differing abundances in plant extracts. Here we established a rapid method for phyllobilin identification and quantification that couples ultra-HPLC with high-resolution/high-precision tandem mass spectrometry. Using Arabidopsis wild-type and mutant lines that are deficient in specific phyllobilin-modifying reactions, we identified a total of 16 phyllobilins, among them two that have not been described before in Arabidopsis. The single and collision-induced dissociation tandem mass spectrometry data of all 16 Arabidopsis phyllobilins were collected in a mass spectrometry library, which is available to the scientific community. The library allows rapid detection and quantification of phyllobilins within and across Arabidopsis genotypes and we demonstrate its potential use for high-throughput approaches and genome-wide association studies in chlorophyll breakdown. By extending the library with phyllobilin data from other plant species in the future, we aim providing a tool for chlorophyll metabolite analysis as a measure of senescence for practical applications, such as post-harvest quality control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bastien Christ
- Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mareike Hauenstein
- Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Hörtensteiner
- Institute of Plant Biology, University of Zurich, Zollikerstrasse 107, CH-8008, Zurich, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kräutler B. Breakdown of Chlorophyll in Higher Plants--Phyllobilins as Abundant, Yet Hardly Visible Signs of Ripening, Senescence, and Cell Death. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:4882-907. [PMID: 26919572 PMCID: PMC4950323 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201508928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Fall colors have always been fascinating and are still a remarkably puzzling phenomenon associated with the breakdown of chlorophyll (Chl) in leaves. As discovered in recent years, nongreen bilin-type Chl catabolites are generated, which are known as the phyllobilins. Collaborative chemical-biological efforts have led to the elucidation of the key Chl-breakdown processes in senescent leaves and in ripening fruit. Colorless and largely photoinactive phyllobilins are rapidly produced from Chl, apparently primarily as part of a detoxification program. However, fluorescent Chl catabolites accumulate in some senescent leaves and in peels of ripe bananas and induce a striking blue glow. The structural features, chemical properties, and abundance of the phyllobilins in the biosphere suggest biological roles, which still remain to be elucidated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Kräutler
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Center of Molecular Biosciences (CMBI), University of Innsbruck, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Kräutler B. Der Chlorophyllabbau in höheren Pflanzen - Phyllobiline als weitverbreitete, aber kaum sichtbare Zeichen von Reifung, Seneszenz und Zelltod. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201508928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard Kräutler
- Institut für Organische Chemie & Centrum für MolekulareBiowissenschaften (CMBI); Universität Innsbruck; 6020 Innsbruck Österreich
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Li C, Kräutler B. Transition metal complexes of phyllobilins - a new realm of bioinorganic chemistry. Dalton Trans 2016; 44:10116-27. [PMID: 25923782 PMCID: PMC4447063 DOI: 10.1039/c5dt00474h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Phyllobilins may function as natural ligand molecules for biologically important transition metal ions, giving complexes with remarkable chemical and photophysical properties.
Natural cyclic tetrapyrroles feature outstanding capacity for binding transition metal ions, furnishing Nature with the important metallo-porphyrinoid ‘Pigments of Life’, such as heme, chlorophyll (Chl) and vitamin B12. In contrast, linear tetrapyrroles are not generally ascribed a biologically relevant ability for metal-binding. Indeed, when heme or Chl are degraded to natural linear tetrapyrroles, their central Fe- or Mg-ions are set free. Some linear tetrapyrroles are, however, effective multi-dentate ligands and their transition metal complexes have remarkable chemical properties. The focus of this short review is centred on such complexes of the linear tetrapyrroles derived from natural Chl-breakdown, called phyllobilins. These natural bilin-type compounds are massively produced in Nature and in highly visible processes. Colourless non-fluorescing Chl-catabolites (NCCs) and the related dioxobilin-type NCCs, which typically accumulate in leaves as ‘final’ products of Chl-breakdown, show low affinity for transition metal-ions. However, NCCs are oxidized in leaves to give less saturated coloured phyllobilins, such as yellow or pink Chl-catabolites (YCCs or PiCCs). YCCs and PiCCs are ligands for various biologically relevant transition metal-ions, such as Zn(ii)-, Ni(ii)- and Cu(ii)-ions. Complexation of Zn(ii)- and Cd(ii)-ions by the effectively tridentate PiCC produces blue metal-complexes that exhibit an intense red fluorescence, thus providing a tool for the sensitive detection of these metal ions. Outlined here are fundamental aspects of structure and metal coordination of phyllobilins, including a comparison with the corresponding properties of bilins. This knowledge may be valuable in the quest of finding possible biological roles of the phyllobilins. Thanks to their capacity for metal-ion coordination, phyllobilins could, e.g., be involved in heavy-metal transport and detoxification, and some of their metal-complexes could act as sensitizers for singlet oxygen or as plant toxins against pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengjie Li
- Institute of Organic Chemistry & Centre of Molecular Biosciences, University of Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Süssenbacher I, Hörtensteiner S, Kräutler B. A Dioxobilin-Type Fluorescent Chlorophyll Catabolite as a Transient Early Intermediate of the Dioxobilin-Branch of Chlorophyll Breakdown in Arabidopsis thaliana. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015; 54:13777-81. [PMID: 26426977 PMCID: PMC4678512 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201506299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Chlorophyll breakdown in higher plants occurs by the so called "PaO/phyllobilin" path. It generates two major types of phyllobilins, the characteristic 1-formyl-19-oxobilins and the more recently discovered 1,19-dioxobilins. The hypothetical branching point at which the original 1-formyl-19-oxobilins are transformed into 1,19-dioxobilins is still elusive. Here, we clarify this hypothetical crucial transition on the basis of the identification of the first natural 1,19-dioxobilin-type fluorescent chlorophyll catabolite (DFCC). This transient chlorophyll breakdown intermediate was isolated from leaf extracts of Arabidopsis thaliana at an early stage of senescence. The fleetingly existent DFCC was then shown to represent the direct precursor of the major nonfluorescent 1,19-dioxobilin that accumulated in fully senescent leaves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Iris Süssenbacher
- Institut für Organische Chemie und Centrum für Molekulare Biowissenschaften, Universität Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck (Austria)
| | - Stefan Hörtensteiner
- Institut für Pflanzenbiologie, Universität Zürich, Zollikerstrasse 107, 8008 Zürich (Switzerland)
| | - Bernhard Kräutler
- Institut für Organische Chemie und Centrum für Molekulare Biowissenschaften, Universität Innsbruck, Innrain 80/82, 6020 Innsbruck (Austria).
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Süssenbacher I, Hörtensteiner S, Kräutler B. Ein fluoreszierender Chlorophyll-Katabolit des Dioxobilin-Typs als transientes und frühes Zwischenprodukt des Dioxobilin-Astes des Chlorophyllabbaus inArabidopsis thaliana. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201506299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
22
|
Tamiaki H, Tanaka T. Synthesis and physical properties of carbonylated chlorophyll derivatives. Tetrahedron 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tet.2015.02.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
|
23
|
Ríos JJ, Roca M, Pérez-Gálvez A. Systematic HPLC/ESI-High Resolution-qTOF-MS Methodology for Metabolomic Studies in Nonfluorescent Chlorophyll Catabolites Pathway. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2015; 2015:490627. [PMID: 25741450 PMCID: PMC4337177 DOI: 10.1155/2015/490627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2014] [Revised: 12/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/12/2015] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Characterization of nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolites (NCCs) and dioxobilane-type nonfluorescent chlorophyll catabolite (DNCC) in peel extracts of ripened lemon fruits (Citrus limon L.) was performed by HPLC/ESI-high resolution-qTOF-MS method. Compounds were identified in samples on the basis of measured accurate mass, isotopic pattern, and characteristic fragmentation profile with an implemented software postprocessing routine. Three NCC structures already identified in other vegetal tissues were present in the lemon fruit peels (Cl-NCC1; Cl-NCC2; Cl-NCC4) while a new structure not defined so far was characterized (Cl-NCC3). This catabolite exhibits an exceptional arrangement of the peripheral substituents, allowing concluding that the preferences for the NCC modifications could be a species-related matter.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- José Julián Ríos
- Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Pablo de Olavide University Campus, Carretera de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| | - María Roca
- Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Pablo de Olavide University Campus, Carretera de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Antonio Pérez-Gálvez
- Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Pablo de Olavide University Campus, Carretera de Utrera Km 1, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| |
Collapse
|