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Chen M, Li Y, Liu H, Zhang D, Guo Y, Shi QS, Xie X. Lignin hydrogenolysis: Tuning the reaction by lignin chemistry. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 279:135169. [PMID: 39218172 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Revised: 08/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/27/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024]
Abstract
Replacing fossil resource with biomass is one of the promising approaches to reduce our carbon footprint. Lignin is one of the three major components of lignocellulosic biomass, accounting for 10-35 wt% of dried weight of the biomass. Hydrogenolytic depolymerization of lignin is attracting increasing attention because of its capacity of utilizing lignin in its uncondensed form and compatibility with the biomass fractionation processes. Lignin is a natural aromatic polymer composed of a variety of monolignols associated with a series of lignin linkage motifs. Hydrogenolysis cleaves various ether bonds in lignin and releases phenolic monomers which can be further upgraded into valuable products, i.e., drugs, terephthalic acid, phenol. This review provides an overview of the state-of-the-art advances of the reagent (lignin), products (hydrol lignin), mass balance, and mechanism of the lignin hydrogenolysis reaction. The chemical structure of lignin is reviewed associated with the free radical coupling of monolignols and the chemical reactions of lignin upon isolation processes. The reactions of lignin linkages upon hydrogenolysis are discussed. The components of hydrol lignin and the selectivity production of phenolic monomers are reviewed. Future challenges on hydrogenolysis of lignin are proposed. This article provides an overview of lignin hydrogenolysis reaction which shows light on the generation of optimized lignin ready for hydrogenolytic depolymerization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjie Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China; Liaoning Key Lab of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center for Lignocellulosic Biorefinery, College of Light Industry and Chemical Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China; Guangdong Dimei New Materials Technology Co. Ltd., 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China
| | - Yan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China; Liaoning Key Lab of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center for Lignocellulosic Biorefinery, College of Light Industry and Chemical Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China
| | - Huiming Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China
| | - Dandan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China
| | - Yanzhu Guo
- Liaoning Key Lab of Lignocellulose Chemistry and BioMaterials, Liaoning Collaborative Innovation Center for Lignocellulosic Biorefinery, College of Light Industry and Chemical Engineering, Dalian Polytechnic University, Dalian 116034, China.
| | - Qing-Shan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
| | - Xiaobao Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou, 510070, China.
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Chen M, Li Y, Lu F, Luterbacher JS, Ralph J. Lignin Hydrogenolysis: Phenolic Monomers from Lignin and Associated Phenolates across Plant Clades. ACS SUSTAINABLE CHEMISTRY & ENGINEERING 2023; 11:10001-10017. [PMID: 37448721 PMCID: PMC10337261 DOI: 10.1021/acssuschemeng.3c01320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
The chemical complexity of lignin remains a major challenge for lignin valorization into commodity and fine chemicals. A knowledge of the lignin features that favor its valorization and which plants produce such lignins can be used in plant selection or to engineer them to produce lignins that are more ideally suited for conversion. Sixteen biomass samples were compositionally surveyed by NMR and analytical degradative methods, and the yields of phenolic monomers following hydrogenolytic depolymerization were assessed to elucidate the key determinants controlling the depolymerization. Hardwoods, including those incorporating monolignol p-hydroxybenzoates into their syringyl/guaiacyl copolymeric lignins, produced high monomer yields by hydrogenolysis, whereas grasses incorporating monolignol p-coumarates and ferulates gave lower yields, on a lignin basis. Softwoods, with their more condensed guaiacyl lignins, gave the lowest yields. Lignins with a high syringyl unit content released elevated monomer levels, with a high-syringyl polar transgenic being particularly striking. Herein, we distinguish phenolic monomers resulting from the core lignin vs those from pendent phenolate esters associated with the biomass cell wall, acylating either polysaccharides or lignins. The basis for these observations is rationalized as a means to select or engineer biomass for optimal conversion to worthy phenolic monomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingjie Chen
- Department
of Energy, Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, United States
| | - Yanding Li
- Department
of Energy, Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, United States
| | - Fachuang Lu
- Department
of Energy, Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, United States
| | - Jeremy S. Luterbacher
- Institute
of Chemical Sciences and Engineering, École
Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne 1015, Switzerland
| | - John Ralph
- Department
of Energy, Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, Wisconsin Energy Institute, Madison, Wisconsin 53726, United States
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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3
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Becker D, Stegmüller S, Richling E. Characterization of brewer's spent grain extracts by tandem mass spectrometry and HPLC-DAD: Ferulic acid dehydrodimers, phenolamides, and oxylipins. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11:2298-2320. [PMID: 37181325 PMCID: PMC10171517 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a major by-product of the brewing industry which is generated in high amounts. In recent years, sustainable food production has become more and more important. BSG mainly used as cattle feed has gained high interest due to not only its valuable ingredients such as fiber and proteins but also secondary metabolites remaining in BSG after the brewing process and known for many biological effects. In the present study, various methods were applied, such as acetone extraction (A), alkaline hydrolysis followed by ethyl acetate extraction (HE), and acetone extraction of alkaline hydrolysis residue (HA). Compounds present in the respective bioactive extracts were characterized by mass spectrometry to identify the active compounds. Various hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives as well as oxylipins and some dicarboxylic acids, such as azelaic acid, were present in HE and HA extracts. In contrast, some catechins and phenolamides, such as numerous hordatines, as well as oxylipins and phospholipids were detected in A extracts. Quantification using HPLC-DAD revealed hordatine contents up to 172.2 ± 2.1 μg p-coumaric acid equivalents/mg extract. Hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives content accounted for up to 48% of the total extract (HE extracts) but only around 3% of the total HA extracts. In summary, all extracts contained secondary plant metabolites belonging to different classes, ranging from hydroxycinnamic acids to phenolamides, such as not only hordatines but also oxylipins, which were identified for the first time in BSG.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Becker
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and ToxicologyRheinland‐Pfälzische Technische Universität Kaiserslautern‐LandauKaiserslauternGermany
| | - Simone Stegmüller
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and ToxicologyRheinland‐Pfälzische Technische Universität Kaiserslautern‐LandauKaiserslauternGermany
| | - Elke Richling
- Department of Chemistry, Division of Food Chemistry and ToxicologyRheinland‐Pfälzische Technische Universität Kaiserslautern‐LandauKaiserslauternGermany
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4
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Chandrakanth NN, Zhang C, Freeman J, de Souza WR, Bartley LE, Mitchell RA. Modification of plant cell walls with hydroxycinnamic acids by BAHD acyltransferases. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1088879. [PMID: 36733587 PMCID: PMC9887202 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1088879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In the last decade it has become clear that enzymes in the "BAHD" family of acyl-CoA transferases play important roles in the addition of phenolic acids to form ester-linked moieties on cell wall polymers. We focus here on the addition of two such phenolics-the hydroxycinnamates, ferulate and p-coumarate-to two cell wall polymers, glucuronoarabinoxylan and to lignin. The resulting ester-linked feruloyl and p-coumaroyl moities are key features of the cell walls of grasses and other commelinid monocots. The capacity of ferulate to participate in radical oxidative coupling means that its addition to glucuronoarabinoxylan or to lignin has profound implications for the properties of the cell wall - allowing respectively oxidative crosslinking to glucuronoarabinoxylan chains or introducing ester bonds into lignin polymers. A subclade of ~10 BAHD genes in grasses is now known to (1) contain genes strongly implicated in addition of p-coumarate or ferulate to glucuronoarabinoxylan (2) encode enzymes that add p-coumarate or ferulate to lignin precursors. Here, we review the evidence for functions of these genes and the biotechnological applications of manipulating them, discuss our understanding of mechanisms involved, and highlight outstanding questions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Chengcheng Zhang
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, United States
| | - Jackie Freeman
- Plant Sciences, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
| | | | - Laura E. Bartley
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, United States
| | - Rowan A.C. Mitchell
- Plant Sciences, Rothamsted Research, West Common, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, United Kingdom
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5
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Structure elucidation and tentative formation pathway of a red colored enzymatic oxidation product of caffeic acid. Food Chem 2019; 297:124932. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.05.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2019] [Revised: 05/07/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
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6
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Waterstraat M, Bunzel M. A stable isotope dilution approach to analyze ferulic acid oligomers in plant cell walls using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2019; 411:5047-5062. [PMID: 31172238 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-019-01924-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 05/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Diferulic (DFA) and triferulic acids (TriFA) acylate and cross-link plant cell wall polysaccharides, thereby being important structural elements within the cell wall, also affecting physicochemical properties of the isolated polysaccharides. Due to the large number of potential regio- and configurational isomers and due to the fact that oligoferulic acids are not commercially available as standard compounds, analysis of oligoferulic acids after alkaline hydrolysis is challenging. Eighteen di- and triferulic acids were synthesized both non-labeled as well as 13C-labeled. By using these standard compounds, a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) (electrospray ionization, negative mode)-based stable isotope dilution approach was developed, fully validated and applied to plant materials. Whereas this stable isotope dilution approach is most useful to analyze plant materials with complex matrices (especially lignified tissues), less complicated matrices may not require this approach. Therefore, an alternative LC-MS/MS-based method that is based on using a single internal standard compound only was developed, too, validated, and compared to the stable isotope dilution approach. Although the stable isotope dilution approach appears to be superior, plant samples with simple matrices can also be screened by using the single internal standard method developed here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Waterstraat
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Mirko Bunzel
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20a, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany.
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7
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Waterstraat M, Bunzel M. A Multi-Step Chromatographic Approach to Purify Radically Generated Ferulate Oligomers Reveals Naturally Occurring 5-5/8-8(Cyclic)-, 8-8(Noncyclic)/8-O-4-, and 5-5/8-8(Noncyclic)-Coupled Dehydrotriferulic Acids. Front Chem 2018; 6:190. [PMID: 29951478 PMCID: PMC6008569 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2018.00190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferulate-mediated cross-linking of plant cell wall polymers has various implications on the quality of plant based food products, forage digestibility, and biomass utilization. Besides dehydrodiferulic acids (DFA), dehydrotriferulic acids (TriFA) gained increasing interest over the past two decades, because they potentially cross-link up to three polymers. Here, we describe a separation strategy to obtain several TriFA as analytical standard compounds from a reaction mixture after radical coupling of ethyl ferulate. By using silica flash chromatography, Sephadex LH-20 chromatography, and reversed phase HPLC, six known TriFA as well as three previously unidentified ferulic acid trimers were obtained, and their structures were characterized by mass spectrometry and NMR spectroscopy (1H, HSQC, COSY, HMBC, and NOESY). The novel trimers were identified as 5-5/8-8(cyclic)-, 8-8(noncyclic)/8-O-4-, and, tentatively, 5-5/8-8(noncyclic)-TriFA. Natural occurrence of these TriFA in plant cell walls was demonstrated by LC-MS/MS analyses of alkaline cell wall hydrolyzates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Waterstraat
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Mirko Bunzel
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany
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8
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Lapierre C, Voxeur A, Karlen SD, Helm RF, Ralph J. Evaluation of Feruloylated and p-Coumaroylated Arabinosyl Units in Grass Arabinoxylans by Acidolysis in Dioxane/Methanol. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2018; 66:5418-5424. [PMID: 29763561 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.8b01618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The arabinosyl side chains of grass arabinoxylans are partially acylated by p-coumarate ( pCA) and ferulate (FA). These aromatic side chains can cross-couple wall polymers resulting in modulation of cell wall physical properties. The determination of p-coumaroylated and feruloylated arabinose units has been the target of analytical efforts with trifluoroacetic acid hydrolysis the standard method to release feruloylated and p-coumaroylated arabinose units from arabinoxylans. Herein, we report on a more robust method to measure these acylated units. Acidolysis of extractive-free grass samples in a dioxane/methanol/aqueous 2 M HCl mixture provided the methyl 5- O- p-coumaroyl- and 5- O-feruloyl-l-arabinofuranoside anomers ( pCA-MeAra and FA-MeAra). These conjugates were readily analyzed by liquid chromatography combined with both UV and MS detection. The method revealed the variability of the relative acylation of arabinose units by pCA or FA in grass cell walls. This methodology will permit delineation of hydroxycinnamate acylation patterns in arabinoxylans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Lapierre
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS , Université Paris-Saclay , 78000 Versailles , France
| | - Aline Voxeur
- Institut Jean-Pierre Bourgin, INRA, AgroParisTech, CNRS , Université Paris-Saclay , 78000 Versailles , France
| | - Steven D Karlen
- Department of Biochemistry, and The Department of Energy's Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, The Wisconsin Energy Institute , University of Wisconsin , Madison , Wisconsin 53726 , United States
| | - Richard F Helm
- Department of Biochemistry , Virginia Tech , Blacksburg , Virginia 24061 , United States
| | - John Ralph
- Department of Biochemistry, and The Department of Energy's Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, The Wisconsin Energy Institute , University of Wisconsin , Madison , Wisconsin 53726 , United States
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9
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Regner M, Bartuce A, Padmakshan D, Ralph J, Karlen SD. Reductive Cleavage Method for Quantitation of Monolignols and Low-Abundance Monolignol Conjugates. CHEMSUSCHEM 2018; 11:1600-1605. [PMID: 29603658 PMCID: PMC6001451 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201800617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
As interest in biomass utilization has grown, the manipulation of lignin biosynthesis has received significant attention, such that recent work has demanded more robust lignin analytical methods. As the derivatization followed by reductive cleavage (DFRC) method is particularly effective for structurally characterizing natively acylated lignins, we used an array of synthetic β-ether γ-acylated model compounds to determine theoretical yields for all monolignol conjugates currently known to exist in lignin, and we synthesized a new set of deuterated analogs as internal standards for quantification using GC-MS/MS. Yields of the saturated ester conjugates ranged from 40 to 90 %, and NMR analysis revealed the presence of residual unsaturated conjugates in yields of 20 to 35 %. In contrast to traditional selected-ion-monitoring, we demonstrated the superior sensitivity and accuracy of multiple-reaction-monitoring detection methods, and further highlighted the inadequacy of traditional standards relative to isotopically labeled analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matt Regner
- DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Allison Bartuce
- DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Dharshana Padmakshan
- DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - John Ralph
- DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
| | - Steven D Karlen
- DOE Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center, the Wisconsin Energy Institute, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53726, USA
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10
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Varga M, Berkesi O, Darula Z, May NV, Palágyi A. Structural characterization of allomelanin from black oat. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2016; 130:313-20. [PMID: 27427433 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2016.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2016] [Revised: 06/05/2016] [Accepted: 07/02/2016] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
The brown to black coloration found in plants is due to the melanins, which have been relatively poorly investigated among the plant pigments. The aim of this work was to study the dark pigment extracted from the black oat hull with respect to composition and structure. Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS) and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy were applied for the characterization of the pigment. UV-Vis spectroscopy revealed that the extracted material displays a broadband, structureless absorption profile a common feature of melanins. MALDI-TOF MS measurements demonstrated that oat melanin is a homopolymer built up from p-coumaric acid and consists mainly of low molecular weight (527-1499 Da) oligomers of 3-9 monomer units. The tetramer oligomer proved to be dominant. The results of the FT-IR analysis indicated that oat melanin is a fully conjugated aromatic system containing tetrasubstituted aromatic rings linked by CC coupling. The in vitro preparation of melanin from p-coumaric acid by horseradish peroxidase was performed for comparison. The resulting polymer consisted of oligomers of 4-9 monomer units similarly to those in oat melanin. However, the building blocks proved to be connected to each other via COC linkages in contrast with the CC linkages in oat melanin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónika Varga
- National Agricultural Research and Innovation Centre, Research Department of Field Crops, H-6726, Szeged, Alsókikötő sor 9, Hungary; Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., H-6726, Szeged, Alsókikötő sor 9, Hungary.
| | - Ottó Berkesi
- Department of Physical Chemistry and Materials Science, University of Szeged, Aradi Vt. 1., H-6720, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Zsuzsanna Darula
- Laboratory of Proteomics Research, Institute of Biochemistry, Biological Research Centre of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, H-6726, Szeged, Temesvári krt 62, Hungary
| | - Nóra Veronika May
- Institute of Organic Chemistry, Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, H-1117, Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Palágyi
- Cereal Research Non-Profit Ltd., H-6726, Szeged, Alsókikötő sor 9, Hungary
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11
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Waterstraat M, Bunzel D, Bunzel M. Identification of 8-O-4/8-5(Cyclic)- and 8-8(Cyclic)/5-5-Coupled Dehydrotriferulic Acids, Naturally Occurring in Cell Walls of Mono- and Dicotyledonous Plants. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:7244-7250. [PMID: 27540862 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b02720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Besides ferulate dimers, higher oligomers of ferulic acid such as trimers and tetramers were previously demonstrated to occur in plant cell walls. This paper reports the identification of two new triferulic acids. 8-O-4/8-5(cyclic)-triferulic acid was synthesized from ethyl ferulate under oxidative conditions using copper(II)-tetramethylethylenediamine [CuCl(OH)-TMEDA] as a catalyst, whereas 8-8(cyclic)/5-5-triferulic acid was isolated (preparative size exclusion chromatography, reversed-phase HPLC) from saponified insoluble maize fiber. Structures of both trimers were unambiguously elucidated by high-resolution LC-ToF-MS/MS and one- ((1)H) and two-dimensional (HSQC, HMBC, COSY, NOESY) NMR spectroscopy. The newly described trimers were identified by LC-MS/MS in alkaline hydrolysates of insoluble fibers from maize, wheat, and sugar beet, indicating that ferulic acid cross-links between cell wall polymers are more diverse than previously recognized. Saponification experiments also suggest that the newly identified 8-O-4/8-5(cyclic)-triferulic acid is the naturally occurring precursor of the previously identified 8-O-4/8-5(noncyclic)-triferulic acid in plant cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Waterstraat
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Adenauerring 20a, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Diana Bunzel
- Department of Safety and Quality of Fruit and Vegetables, Max Rubner-Institut, Federal Research Institute of Nutrition and Food , Haid-und-Neu-Straße 9, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Mirko Bunzel
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Adenauerring 20a, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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12
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Izawa H, Miyazaki Y, Ifuku S, Morimoto M, Saimoto H. Fully Biobased Oligophenolic Nanoparticle Prepared by Horseradish Peroxidase-catalyzed Polymerization. CHEM LETT 2016. [DOI: 10.1246/cl.160205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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13
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Barrière Y, Courtial A, Chateigner-Boutin AL, Denoue D, Grima-Pettenati J. Breeding maize for silage and biofuel production, an illustration of a step forward with the genome sequence. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 242:310-329. [PMID: 26566848 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2015.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 08/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/13/2015] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
The knowledge of the gene families mostly impacting cell wall digestibility variations would significantly increase the efficiency of marker-assisted selection when breeding maize and grass varieties with improved silage feeding value and/or with better straw fermentability into alcohol or methane. The maize genome sequence of the B73 inbred line was released at the end of 2009, opening up new avenues to identify the genetic determinants of quantitative traits. Colocalizations between a large set of candidate genes putatively involved in secondary cell wall assembly and QTLs for cell wall digestibility (IVNDFD) were then investigated, considering physical positions of both genes and QTLs. Based on available data from six RIL progenies, 59 QTLs corresponding to 38 non-overlapping positions were matched up with a list of 442 genes distributed all over the genome. Altogether, 176 genes colocalized with IVNDFD QTLs and most often, several candidate genes colocalized at each QTL position. Frequent QTL colocalizations were found firstly with genes encoding ZmMYB and ZmNAC transcription factors, and secondly with genes encoding zinc finger, bHLH, and xylogen regulation factors. In contrast, close colocalizations were less frequent with genes involved in monolignol biosynthesis, and found only with the C4H2, CCoAOMT5, and CCR1 genes. Close colocalizations were also infrequent with genes involved in cell wall feruloylation and cross-linkages. Altogether, investigated colocalizations between candidate genes and cell wall digestibility QTLs suggested a prevalent role of regulation factors over constitutive cell wall genes on digestibility variations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yves Barrière
- INRA, UR889, Unité de Génétique et d'Amélioration des Plantes Fourragères, 86600 Lusignan, France.
| | - Audrey Courtial
- LRSV, Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, UMR5546, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III / CNRS, Auzeville, BP 42617, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France; INRA, US1258, Centre National de Ressources Génomiques Végétales, CS 52627, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
| | | | - Dominique Denoue
- INRA, UR889, Unité de Génétique et d'Amélioration des Plantes Fourragères, 86600 Lusignan, France
| | - Jacqueline Grima-Pettenati
- LRSV, Laboratoire de Recherche en Sciences Végétales, UMR5546, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III / CNRS, Auzeville, BP 42617, 31326 Castanet-Tolosan, France
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14
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Grúz J, Pospíšil J, Kozubíková H, Pospíšil T, Doležal K, Bunzel M, Strnad M. Determination of free diferulic, disinapic and dicoumaric acids in plants and foods. Food Chem 2014; 171:280-6. [PMID: 25308670 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.08.131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 08/30/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxycinnamates are common phenolic compounds of plants and plant foods, often found in substantial quantities. Due to their high in vitro antioxidant activity they can easily be oxidized under oxidative conditions. In this study, we found that in vitro oxidation of coumaric, ferulic and sinapic acids resulted mainly in dimeric compounds. We hypothesized that these dimers are present in plants and plant foods not only in their bound form but also as free acids that can be extracted from non-hydrolyzed samples. By applying sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS method, we were able to identify and quantify four free hydroxycinnamic acid dimers for the first time, namely 8-8'-disinapic, 8-5'-diferulic, 8-O-4'-diferulic and 8-3'-dicoumaric acids, in wheat sprouts, Chinese cabbage, millet sprouts, light beer and parsley. Concentrations of dicinnamates in plant tissues ranged from 0.05 to 2.8 μg g(-1) DW and the monomer:dimer ratio ranged from 2 to 850.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiří Grúz
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacky University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic; Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic.
| | - Jiří Pospíšil
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacky University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic; Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Hana Kozubíková
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Pospíšil
- Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Doležal
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacky University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic; Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
| | - Mirko Bunzel
- Department of Food Chemistry and Phytochemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Adenauerring 20A, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Miroslav Strnad
- Laboratory of Growth Regulators, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Institute of Experimental Botany ASCR & Palacky University, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc, Czech Republic; Department of Chemical Biology and Genetics, Centre of the Region Haná for Biotechnological and Agricultural Research, Faculty of Science, Palacký University and Institute of Experimental Botany, Academy of Sciences of Czech Republic, Šlechtitelů 11, 783 71 Olomouc-Holice, Czech Republic
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15
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Vismeh R, Lu F, Chundawat SPS, Humpula JF, Azarpira A, Balan V, Dale BE, Ralph J, Jones AD. Profiling of diferulates (plant cell wall cross-linkers) using ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Analyst 2014; 138:6683-92. [PMID: 24040649 DOI: 10.1039/c3an36709f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Recalcitrance of grasses to enzymatic digestion arises to a significant degree from a complex array of phenolic crosslinks between cell wall polysaccharide chains that inhibit their conversion to biofuels and lower their nutritive value for animal feed applications. Polysaccharide esters of ferulic acid are abundant in plant cell walls. Crosslinks between polysaccharides are formed through oxidative dehydrodimerization of ferulates, producing dehydrodiferulates (henceforth termed diferulates). Such ferulates and diferulates further crosslink plant cell walls by radical coupling cross-reactions during lignification. Although cell wall digestibility can be improved by cell wall metabolic engineering, or post-harvest by various pretreatment processes, a more comprehensive understanding of the role and impact of ferulate crosslinking on polysaccharide hydrolysis would be accelerated by availability of analytical methods that can distinguish the various diferulates released during biomass pretreatments, many of which are isomers. In this report, we present an ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC/MS/MS) strategy for comprehensive separation and identification of diferulate isomers. Collision-induced dissociation (CID) mass spectra of [M + H](+) ions distinguished various isomers without requiring derivatization. Characteristic product ions for 8-O-4-, 8-8-non-cyclic, 8-8-cyclic, 8-5-cyclic, 8-5-non-cyclic, and 5-5-linked isomers were identified. All diferulates were identified either as di-acids in extracts of NaOH-hydrolyzed corn stover, or as a diverse group of diferulate mono- and di-amides in extracts of Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX™)-treated corn stover. This approach allows for direct analysis of released diferulates with minimal sample preparation, and can serve as the foundation for high-throughput profiling and correlating pretreatment conditions with biomass digestibility in biorefineries producing biofuels and biochemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramin Vismeh
- Department of Chemistry, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
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16
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Laccase-catalysed oxidation of ferulic acid and ethyl ferulate in aqueous medium: A green procedure for the synthesis of new compounds. Food Chem 2014; 145:1046-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.07.119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2013] [Revised: 06/04/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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17
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Bartley LE, Peck ML, Kim SR, Ebert B, Manisseri C, Chiniquy DM, Sykes R, Gao L, Rautengarten C, Vega-Sánchez ME, Benke PI, Canlas PE, Cao P, Brewer S, Lin F, Smith WL, Zhang X, Keasling JD, Jentoff RE, Foster SB, Zhou J, Ziebell A, An G, Scheller HV, Ronald PC. Overexpression of a BAHD acyltransferase, OsAt10, alters rice cell wall hydroxycinnamic acid content and saccharification. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 161:1615-33. [PMID: 23391577 PMCID: PMC3613443 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.208694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Grass cell wall properties influence food, feed, and biofuel feedstock usage efficiency. The glucuronoarabinoxylan of grass cell walls is esterified with the phenylpropanoid-derived hydroxycinnamic acids ferulic acid (FA) and para-coumaric acid (p-CA). Feruloyl esters undergo oxidative coupling with neighboring phenylpropanoids on glucuronoarabinoxylan and lignin. Examination of rice (Oryza sativa) mutants in a grass-expanded and -diverged clade of BAHD acyl-coenzyme A-utilizing transferases identified four mutants with altered cell wall FA or p-CA contents. Here, we report on the effects of overexpressing one of these genes, OsAt10 (LOC_Os06g39390), in rice. An activation-tagged line, OsAT10-D1, shows a 60% reduction in matrix polysaccharide-bound FA and an approximately 300% increase in p-CA in young leaf tissue but no discernible phenotypic alterations in vegetative development, lignin content, or lignin composition. Two additional independent OsAt10 overexpression lines show similar changes in FA and p-CA content. Cell wall fractionation and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry experiments isolate the cell wall alterations in the mutant to ester conjugates of a five-carbon sugar with p-CA and FA. These results suggest that OsAT10 is a p-coumaroyl coenzyme A transferase involved in glucuronoarabinoxylan modification. Biomass from OsAT10-D1 exhibits a 20% to 40% increase in saccharification yield depending on the assay. Thus, OsAt10 is an attractive target for improving grass cell wall quality for fuel and animal feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Bartley
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Biology, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, USA.
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18
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Santiago R, Barros-Rios J, Malvar RA. Impact of cell wall composition on maize resistance to pests and diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:6960-80. [PMID: 23535334 PMCID: PMC3645672 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14046960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In cereals, the primary cell wall is built of a skeleton of cellulosic microfibrils embedded in a matrix of hemicelluloses and smaller amounts of pectins, glycoproteins and hydroxycinnamates. Later, during secondary wall development, p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohols are copolymerized to form mixed lignins. Several of these cell wall components show a determinative role in maize resistance to pest and diseases. However, defense mechanisms are very complex and vary among the same plant species, different tissues or even the same tissue at different developmental stages. Thus, it is important to highlight that the role of the cell wall components needs to be tested in diverse genotypes and specific tissues where the feeding or attacking by the pathogen takes place. Understanding the role of cell wall constituents as defense mechanisms may allow modifications of crops to withstand pests and diseases.
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19
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Hu XJ, Wang XB, Kong LY. α-Glucosidase inhibitors via green pathway: biotransformation for bicoumarins catalyzed by Momordica charantia peroxidase. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:1501-1508. [PMID: 23360233 DOI: 10.1021/jf304384b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Peroxidase extracted from Momordica charantia catalyzed the H(2)O(2)-dependent oxidative coupling of 7-hydroxy-4-methylcoumarin to form four new dimers (1-4) and two known ones (5, 6). The structures, including the absolute configurations of axially chiral compounds, were unambiguously characterized by NMR spectroscopy, online HPLC-CD, and a variety of computational methods. Bioactive experiments demonstrated that compounds 1 and 2 had significant inhibitory effects on yeast α-glucosidase, much better than the controls. Noncompetitive binding mode was found by the graphical analysis of steady-state inhibition data. The mechanism of enzymatic inhibition confirmed in some depth that the inhibitors altered the secondary structure of α-glucosidase by decreasing the α-helix and increasing the β-sheet content. In summary, bicoumarins 1 and 2 might be exploited as the lead compounds for further research of antidiabetic agents, and this research provided a "green" method to synthesize compounds with the chiral biaryl axis generally calling for multistep reactions in organic chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Jun Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, People's Republic of China
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20
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Zaidel DNA, Meyer AS. Biocatalytic cross-linking of pectic polysaccharides for designed food functionality: Structures, mechanisms, and reactions. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2012.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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21
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Zaidel DNA, Arnous A, Holck J, Meyer AS. Kinetics of enzyme-catalyzed cross-linking of feruloylated arabinan from sugar beet. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2011; 59:11598-11607. [PMID: 21954887 DOI: 10.1021/jf203138u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Ferulic acid (FA) groups esterified to the arabinan side chains of pectic polysaccharides can be oxidatively cross-linked in vitro by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) catalysis in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) to form ferulic acid dehydrodimers (diFAs). The present work investigated whether the kinetics of HRP catalyzed cross-linking of FA esterified to α-(1,5)-linked arabinans are affected by the length of the arabinan chains carrying the feruloyl substitutions. The kinetics of the HRP-catalyzed cross-linking of four sets of arabinan samples from sugar beet pulp, having different molecular weights and hence different degrees of polymerization, were monitored by the disappearance of FA absorbance at 316 nm. MALDI-TOF/TOF-MS analysis confirmed that the sugar beet arabinans were feruloyl-substituted, and HPLC analysis verified that the amounts of diFAs increased when FA levels decreased as a result of the enzymatic oxidation treatment with HRP and H(2)O(2). At equimolar levels of FA (0.0025-0.05 mM) in the arabinan samples, the initial rates of the HRP-catalyzed cross-linking of the longer chain arabinans were slower than those of the shorter chain arabinans. The lower initial rates may be the result of the slower movement of larger molecules coupled with steric phenomena, making the required initial reaction of two FAs on longer chain arabinans slower than on shorter arabinans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dayang Norulfairuz Abang Zaidel
- Department of Bioprocess Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Skudai Johor, Malaysia
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22
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Thakkar JN, Tiwari V, Desai UR. Nonsulfated, cinnamic acid-based lignins are potent antagonists of HSV-1 entry into cells. Biomacromolecules 2010; 11:1412-6. [PMID: 20411926 DOI: 10.1021/bm100161u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
In an effort to discover macromolecular mimetics of heparan sulfate (HS), we previously designed sulfated lignins (Raghuraman et al. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 1759-1763). To probe the relevance of sulfate groups of HS in viral entry, lignins completely devoid of sulfate moieties, and yet possessing an electrostatic surface equivalent to that of HS, were designed. Two carboxylated lignins based on a 4-hydroxy cinnamic acid scaffold were synthesized using enzymatic oxidative coupling in high yields, fractionated according to their sizes, and tested in cellular assays of herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) infection. The two carboxylated lignins were found to not only inhibit HSV-1 entry into mammalian cells (IC(50) = 8-56 nM), but were more potent than sulfated lignins. In addition, shorter carboxylated lignins were found to be as active as the longer chains, suggesting that structural features, in addition to carboxylate groups, may be important. It can be expected that carboxylated lignins also antagonize the entry of other enveloped viruses, for example, HIV-1, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpes virus, and hepatitis C virus, that utilize HS to gain entry into cells. The results present major opportunities for developing lignin-based antiviral formulations for topical use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay N Thakkar
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, 800 East Leigh Street, Suite 212, Richmond, Virginia 23219, USA
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23
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de O Buanafina MM. Feruloylation in grasses: current and future perspectives. MOLECULAR PLANT 2009; 2:861-72. [PMID: 19825663 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssp067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In the cell walls of forage grasses, ferulic acid is esterified to arabinoxylans and participates with lignin monomers in oxidative coupling pathways to generate ferulate-polysaccharide-lignin complexes that cross-link the cell wall. The accumulation of ferulates and the cross-linking of arabinoxylans via diferulate esters are hypothesized to function in various processes in plants. The specific roles of arabinoxylan feruloylation as well as the nature, cellular localization, and substrate for arabinoxylans feruloylation of cell walls are reviewed. The various approaches that have been used for assessing the specific roles of feruloylation are described and assessed. I argue that, until recently, the specific role of feruloylation in these various processes has been established largely by indirect experiments and, although these studies reached similar conclusions about the potential importance of wall feruloylation, they suffer from a common problem: namely they depend on correlations between two processes and do not stem from a detailed understanding of the mechanisms of feruloylation. I also argue that the nature of arabinoxylan feruloylation remains uncertain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcia M de O Buanafina
- Department of Biology, 208 Mueller Laboratory, Pennsylvania University, University Park, PA 16802, USA.
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