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Wang Q, Wang R, Zheng C, Zhang L, Meng H, Zhang Y, Ma L, Chen B, Wang J. Anticonvulsant Activity of Bombyx batryticatus and Analysis of Bioactive Extracts Based on UHPLC-Q-TOF MS/MS and Molecular Networking. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27238315. [PMID: 36500408 PMCID: PMC9740854 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27238315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Bombyx batryticatus (BB) is an anticonvulsant animal medicine in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and acts on the central nervous system. This research aimed to study the anticonvulsant effects of different polarity fractions of extracts from BB and to explore the components conferring anticonvulsant activity. Materials and methods: Crude extracts of BB at 20 g/kg were divided into different polarity fractions (petroleum ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate, water) and were administered to groups of mice before injecting pentylenetetrazol (PTZ) to induce convulsions. The animals were placed in chambers, and their behaviors were recorded for 30 min following the injection. Latency time, percent of protection, convulsion, convulsion rate, and convulsion score were determined for these mice. The compounds present in the different fractions were analyzed, and those from the fraction that conferred anticonvulsant activity were identified by high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF MS) and molecular networking (MN). The chloroform extract fractions (B-C) clearly increased the seizure latency time and protection percentage and decreased the convulsion percentage compared to the control group. The anticonvulsant effect of other extract fractions was not significant. Our study shows that the chloroform extract fractions (B-C) of BB have a significant anticonvulsant effect. We also identified 17 compounds including lumichrome, pheophorbide A, and episyringaresinol 4'-O-beta-d-glucopyranose that were found for the first time. The results of this study may lay the groundwork for studying compounds derived from Bombyx batryticatus and their anticonvulsant effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinglei Wang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Rong Wang
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Cheng Zheng
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Linlin Zhang
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Hong Meng
- Department of Pharmacological Toxicology, Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Yi Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Linke Ma
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
- Correspondence: (L.M.); (B.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Bilian Chen
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
- Correspondence: (L.M.); (B.C.); (J.W.)
| | - Juanjuan Wang
- NMPA Key Laboratory of Quality Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Traditional Chinese Patent Medicine), Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
- Correspondence: (L.M.); (B.C.); (J.W.)
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Siri-anusornsak W, Kolawole O, Mahakarnchanakul W, Greer B, Petchkongkaew A, Meneely J, Elliott C, Vangnai K. The Occurrence and Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Emerging, and Masked Mycotoxins in Rice Bran and Maize from Southeast Asia. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080567. [PMID: 36006229 PMCID: PMC9412313 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Raw feed materials are often contaminated with mycotoxins, and co-occurrence of mycotoxins occurs frequently. A total of 250 samples i.e., rice bran and maize from Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand were analysed using state-of-the-art liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for monitoring the occurrence of regulated, emerging, and masked mycotoxins. Seven regulated mycotoxins – aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, fumonisin B1, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, HT-2, and T-2 toxin were detected as well as some emerging mycotoxins, such as beauvericin, enniatin type B, stachybotrylactam, sterigmatocystin, and masked mycotoxins, specifically zearalenone-14-glucoside, and zearalenone-16-glucoside. Aspergillus and Fusarium mycotoxins were the most prevalent compounds identified, especially aflatoxins and fumonisin B1 in 100% and 95% of samples, respectively. Of the emerging toxins, beauvericin and enniatin type B showed high occurrences, with more than 90% of rice bran and maize contaminated, whereas zearalenone-14-glucoside and zearalenone-16-glucoside were found in rice bran in the range of 56–60%. Regulated mycotoxins (DON and ZEN) were the most frequent mycotoxin combination with emerging mycotoxins (BEA and ENN type B) in rice bran and maize. This study indicates that mycotoxin occurrence and co-occurrence are common in raw feed materials, and it is critical to monitor mycotoxin levels in ASEAN’s feedstuffs so that mitigation strategies can be developed and implemented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wipada Siri-anusornsak
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Oluwatobi Kolawole
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Warapa Mahakarnchanakul
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Brett Greer
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Awanwee Petchkongkaew
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
- Center of Excellence in Food Science and Innovation, Thammasat University, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Julie Meneely
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Christopher Elliott
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Science, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK
- The International Joint Research Center on Food Security, 113 Thailand Science Park, Phahonyothin Road, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
- School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Pathum Thani 12120, Thailand
| | - Kanithaporn Vangnai
- Department of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Agro-Industry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-2562-5037
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Tolosa J, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ruiz MJ, Vila-Donat P. Multi-mycotoxin occurrence in feed, metabolism and carry-over to animal-derived food products: A review. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 158:112661. [PMID: 34762978 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The world requests for raw materials used in animal feed has been steadily rising in the last years driven by higher demands for livestock production. Mycotoxins are frequent toxic metabolites present in these raw materials. The exposure of farm animals to mycotoxins could result in undesirable residues in animal-derived food products. Thus, the potential ingestion of edible animal products (milk, meat and fish) contaminated with mycotoxins constitutes a public health concern, since they enter the food chain and may cause adverse effects upon human health. The present review summarizes the state-of-the-art on the occurrence of mycotoxins in feed, their metabolism and carry-over into animal source foodstuffs, focusing particularly on the last decade. Maximum levels (MLs) for various mycotoxins have been established for a number of raw feed materials and animal food products. Such values are sometimes exceeded, however. Aflatoxins (AFs), fumonisins (FBs), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (TCs) and zearalenone (ZEN) are the most prevalent mycotoxins in animal feed, with aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) predominating in milk and dairy products, and OTA in meat by-products. The co-occurrence of mycotoxins in feed raw materials tends to be the rule rather than the exception, and the carry-over of mycotoxins from feed to animal source foods is more than proven.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - Y Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - M J Ruiz
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain
| | - P Vila-Donat
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, Valencia, 46100, Spain.
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Leite M, Freitas A, Silva AS, Barbosa J, Ramos F. Maize food chain and mycotoxins: A review on occurrence studies. Trends Food Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2021.06.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Chen A, Mao X, Sun Q, Wei Z, Li J, You Y, Zhao J, Jiang G, Wu Y, Wang L, Li Y. Alternaria Mycotoxins: An Overview of Toxicity, Metabolism, and Analysis in Food. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2021; 69:7817-7830. [PMID: 34250809 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.1c03007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The genus Alternaria is widely distributed in the environment. Numerous species of the genus Alternaria can produce a variety of toxic secondary metabolites, called Alternaria mycotoxins. In this review, natural occurrence, toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods are introduced. The contamination of these toxins in foodstuffs is ubiquitous, and most of these metabolites present genotoxic and cytotoxic effects. Moreover, Alternaria toxins are mainly hydroxylated to catechol metabolites and combined with sulfate and glucuronic acid in in vitro arrays. A more detailed summary of the metabolism of Alternaria toxins is presented in this work. To effectively detect and determine the mycotoxins in food, analytical methods with high sensitivity and good accuracy are also reviewed. This review will guide the formulation of maximum residue limit standards in the future, covering both toxicity and metabolic mechanism of Alternaria toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Chen
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Xin Mao
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Qinghui Sun
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Zixuan Wei
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Li
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario N6A 5B9, Canada
| | - Yanli You
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiqiang Zhao
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, People's Republic of China
| | - Yongning Wu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, Chinese Academy of Medical Science Research Unit (2019RU014), China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100017, People's Republic of China
| | - Liping Wang
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan, Hubei 430070, People's Republic of China
| | - Yanshen Li
- College of Life Science, Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, People's Republic of China
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Ducos C, Pinson-Gadais L, Chereau S, Richard-Forget F, Vásquez-Ocmín P, Cerapio JP, Casavilca-Zambrano S, Ruiz E, Pineau P, Bertani S, Ponts N. Natural Occurrence of Mycotoxin-Producing Fusaria in Market-Bought Peruvian Cereals: A Food Safety Threat for Andean Populations. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:172. [PMID: 33672426 PMCID: PMC7926892 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Consumption of cereals contaminated by mycotoxins poses health risks. For instance, Fumonisins B, mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusariumproliferatum, and the type B trichothecene deoxynivalenol, typically produced by Fusarium graminearum, are highly prevalent on cereal grains that are staples of many cultural diets and known to represent a toxic risk hazard. In Peru, corn and other cereals are frequently consumed on a daily basis under various forms, the majority of food grains being sold through traditional markets for direct consumption. Here, we surveyed mycotoxin contents of market-bought grain samples in order to assess the threat these mycotoxins might represent to Peruvian population, with a focus on corn. We found that nearly one sample of Peruvian corn out of six was contaminated with very high levels of Fumonisins, levels mostly ascribed to the presence of F. verticillioides. Extensive profiling of Peruvian corn kernels for fungal contaminants could provide elements to refine the potential risk associated with Fusarium toxins and help define adapted food safety standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Ducos
- INRAE, MycSA, F-33882 Villenave d’Ornon, France; (C.D.); (L.P.-G.); (S.C.); (F.R.-F.)
| | | | - Sylvain Chereau
- INRAE, MycSA, F-33882 Villenave d’Ornon, France; (C.D.); (L.P.-G.); (S.C.); (F.R.-F.)
| | | | - Pedro Vásquez-Ocmín
- Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, UMR 152 PHARMADEV, 31000 Toulouse, France;
| | - Juan Pablo Cerapio
- Unité Organisation Nucléaire et Oncogenèse, Institut Pasteur, UPMC Univ. Paris 06, Sorbonne Universités, 75015 Paris, France;
| | | | - Eloy Ruiz
- Instituto Nacional de Enfermedades Neoplásicas, Departamento de Cirugía en Abdomen, Lima 15038, Peru;
| | - Pascal Pineau
- Institut Pasteur, Unité Organisation Nucléaire et Oncogenèse, INSERM, U 993, 75015 Paris, France;
| | - Stéphane Bertani
- Université de Toulouse, IRD, UPS, UMR 152 PHARMADEV, 31000 Toulouse, France;
| | - Nadia Ponts
- INRAE, MycSA, F-33882 Villenave d’Ornon, France; (C.D.); (L.P.-G.); (S.C.); (F.R.-F.)
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Maize Silage Pretreatment via Steam Refining and Subsequent Enzymatic Hydrolysis for the Production of Fermentable Carbohydrates. Molecules 2020; 25:molecules25246022. [PMID: 33352640 PMCID: PMC7767005 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25246022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize, also called corn, is one of the most available feedstocks worldwide for lignocellulosic biorefineries. However, a permanent biomass supply over the year is essential for industrial biorefinery application. In that context, ensiling is a well-known agricultural application to produce durable animal feed for the whole year. In this study, ensiled maize was used for steam refining experiments with subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis using the Cellic® CTec2 to test the application possibilities of an ensiled material for the biorefinery purpose of fermentable carbohydrate production. Steam refining was conducted from mild (log R0 = 1.59) to severe conditions (log R0 = 4.12). The yields were determined, and the resulting fractions were characterized. Hereafter, enzymatic hydrolysis of the solid fiber fraction was conducted, and the carbohydrate recovery was calculated. A conversion to monomers of around 50% was found for the mildest pretreatment (log R0 = 1.59). After pretreatment at the highest severity of 4.12, it was possible to achieve a conversion of 100% of the theoretical available carbohydrates. From these results, it is clear that a sufficient pretreatment is necessary to achieve sufficient recovery rates. Thus, it can be concluded that ensiled maize pretreated by steam refining is a suitable and highly available feedstock for lignocellulosic biorefineries. Ultimately, it can be assumed that ensiling is a promising storage method to pave the way for a full-year biomass supply for lignocellulosic biorefinery concepts.
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Mycotoxins Analysis in Cereals and Related Foodstuffs by Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Techniques. J FOOD QUALITY 2020. [DOI: 10.1155/2020/8888117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
In the entire world, cereals and related foodstuffs are used as an important source of energy, minerals, and vitamins. Nevertheless, their contamination with mycotoxins kept special attention due to harmful effects on human health. The present paper was conducted to evaluate published studies regarding the identification and characterization of mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs by liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) techniques. For sample preparation, published studies based on the development of extraction and clean-up strategies including solid-phase extraction, solid-liquid extraction, and immunoaffinity columns, as well as on methods based on minimum clean-up (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe (QuEChERS)) technology, are examined. LC-MS/MS has become the golden method for the simultaneous multimycotoxin analysis, with different sample preparation approaches, due to the range of different physicochemical properties of these toxic products. Therefore, this new strategy can be an alternative for fast, simple, and accurate determination of multiclass mycotoxins in complex cereal samples.
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Urbaniak M, Waśkiewicz A, Stępień Ł. Fusarium Cyclodepsipeptide Mycotoxins: Chemistry, Biosynthesis, and Occurrence. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120765. [PMID: 33287253 PMCID: PMC7761704 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Most of the fungi from the Fusarium genus are pathogenic to cereals, vegetables, and fruits and the products of their secondary metabolism mycotoxins may accumulate in foods and feeds. Non-ribosomal cyclodepsipeptides are one of the main mycotoxin groups and include beauvericins (BEAs), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvenniatins (BEAEs). When ingested, even small amounts of these metabolites significantly affect human and animal health. On the other hand, in view of their antimicrobial activities and cytotoxicity, they may be used as components in drug discovery and processing and are considered as suitable candidates for anti-cancer drugs. Therefore, it is crucial to expand the existing knowledge about cyclodepsipeptides and to search for new analogues of these compounds. The present manuscript aimed to highlight the extensive variability of cyclodepsipeptides by describing chemistry, biosynthesis, and occurrence of BEAs, ENNs, and BEAEs in foods and feeds. Moreover, the co-occurrence of Fusarium species was compared to the amounts of toxins in crops, vegetables, and fruits from different regions of the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Urbaniak
- Plant-Pathogen Interaction Team, Department of Pathogen Genetics and Plant Resistance, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.U.); (Ł.S.); Tel.: +48-616-55-02-34 (M.U.)
| | - Agnieszka Waśkiewicz
- Department of Chemistry, Poznan University of Life Sciences, Wojska Polskiego 75, 60-625 Poznań, Poland;
| | - Łukasz Stępień
- Plant-Pathogen Interaction Team, Department of Pathogen Genetics and Plant Resistance, Institute of Plant Genetics of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Strzeszyńska 34, 60-479 Poznań, Poland
- Correspondence: (M.U.); (Ł.S.); Tel.: +48-616-55-02-34 (M.U.)
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Pontes JGDM, Fernandes LS, Dos Santos RV, Tasic L, Fill TP. Virulence Factors in the Phytopathogen-Host Interactions: An Overview. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:7555-7570. [PMID: 32559375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c02389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Phytopathogens are responsible for great losses in agriculture, once they are able to subvert or elude the host defense mechanisms through virulence factors secretion for their dissemination. Herein, it is reviewed phytotoxins that act as virulence factors and are produced by bacterial phytopathogens (Candidatus Liberibacter spp., Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas syringae pvs and Xanthomonas spp.) and fungi (Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, Cochliobolus spp., Fusarium spp., Magnaporthe spp., and Penicillium spp.), which were selected in accordance to their worldwide importance due to the biochemical and economical aspects. In the current review, it is sought to understand the role of virulence factors in the pathogen-host interactions that result in plant diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Soler Fernandes
- Laboratório de Biologia Quı́mica Microbiana (LaBioQuiMi), IQ-UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Ljubica Tasic
- Laboratório de Quı́mica Biológica (LQB), IQ-UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Taicia Pacheco Fill
- Laboratório de Biologia Quı́mica Microbiana (LaBioQuiMi), IQ-UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Institute of Chemistry, Universidade Estadual de Campinas (UNICAMP), P.O. Box 6154, 13083970 Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Leite M, Freitas A, Silva AS, Barbosa J, Ramos F. Maize (Zea mays L.) and mycotoxins: A review on optimization and validation of analytical methods by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. Trends Food Sci Technol 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Reisinger N, Schürer-Waldheim S, Mayer E, Debevere S, Antonissen G, Sulyok M, Nagl V. Mycotoxin Occurrence in Maize Silage-A Neglected Risk for Bovine Gut Health? Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E577. [PMID: 31590302 PMCID: PMC6832361 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11100577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2019] [Revised: 09/30/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Forages are important components of dairy cattle rations but might harbor a plethora of mycotoxins. Ruminants are considered to be less susceptible to the adverse health effects of mycotoxins, mainly because the ruminal microflora degrades certain mycotoxins. Yet, impairment of the ruminal degradation capacity or high ruminal stability of toxins can entail that the intestinal epithelium is exposed to significant mycotoxin amounts. The aims of our study were to assess i) the mycotoxin occurrence in maize silage and ii) the cytotoxicity of relevant mycotoxins on bovine intestinal cells. In total, 158 maize silage samples were collected from European dairy cattle farms. LC-MS/MS-based analysis of 61 mycotoxins revealed the presence of emerging mycotoxins (e.g. emodin, culmorin, enniatin B1, enniatin B, and beauvericin) in more than 70% of samples. Among the regulated mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone were most frequently detected (67.7%). Overall, 87% of maize silages contained more than five mycotoxins. Using an in vitro model with calf small intestinal epithelial cells B, the cytotoxicity of deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1 and enniatin B was evaluated (0-200 µM). Absolute IC50 values varied in dependence of employed assay and were 1.2-3.6 µM, 0.8-1.0 µM, 8.6-18.3 µM, and 4.0-6.7 µM for deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, fumonisin B1, and enniatin B, respectively. Results highlight the potential relevance of mycotoxins for bovine gut health, a previously neglected target in ruminants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Sandra Debevere
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium.
| | - Michael Sulyok
- Institute for Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad Lorenz-Straße 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Veronika Nagl
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
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Sun D, Qiu N, Zhou S, Lyu B, Zhang S, Li J, Zhao Y, Wu Y. Development of Sensitive and Reliable UPLC-MS/MS Methods for Food Analysis of Emerging Mycotoxins in China Total Diet Study. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:E166. [PMID: 30884911 PMCID: PMC6468665 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11030166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
With the climatic changes that have taken place during the last decade, the spectrum of fungal pathogens as well as mycotoxins has considerably changed. As a result, some emerging mycotoxins have been shown to occur frequently in agricultural products. In this study, a sensitive and reliable method for the determination of 10 emerging mycotoxins (beauvericin, enniatin A, enniatin A1, enniatin B, enniatin B1, alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene, tentoxin, and tenuazonic acid) in 12 different food matrices (cereals, legumes, potatoes, meats, eggs, aquatic foods, dairy products, vegetables, fruits, sugars, beverages, and alcohol beverages) was developed and validated. After a simple extraction, a one-step sample clean-up by a HLB solid phase extraction (SPE) column was sufficient for all 12 food matrices prior to analysis with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS). Isotope internal standards 13C-TeA, TEN-d₃, and 13C-AFB2 were used for accurate quantification. Validation in terms of linearity, selectivity, sensitivity, accuracy, and precision (intra and inter-day variability) were evaluated for the 10 mycotoxins in all selected matrices. The sensitivity varied from 0.0004 to 0.3 ng mL-1 (limits of detection) and from 0.002 to 0.9 ng mL-1 (limits of quantitation). The recoveries of 10 mycotoxins in fortified samples were from 60.6% to 164% including very low spiking levels in all 12 food matrices, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) less than 12%. The proposed methodology was applied to the analysis of 60 samples collected from five provinces within the 6th China Total Diet Study with the results discussed in detail. The advantages of sensitivity, accuracy, and robustness made it a powerful tool for emerging mycotoxin monitoring and dietary exposure assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danlei Sun
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Nannan Qiu
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Shuang Zhou
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Bing Lyu
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Shuo Zhang
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Jingguang Li
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Yunfeng Zhao
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Yongning Wu
- China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, National Health Commission, Beijing 100021, China.
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15
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Review: Biotechnology of mycotoxins detoxification using microorganisms and enzymes. Toxicon 2019; 160:12-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2019.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 12/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/03/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Tolosa J, Rodríguez-Carrasco Y, Ferrer E, Mañes J. Identification and Quantification of Enniatins and Beauvericin in Animal Feeds and Their Ingredients by LC-QTRAP/MS/MS. Metabolites 2019; 9:metabo9020033. [PMID: 30781843 PMCID: PMC6409939 DOI: 10.3390/metabo9020033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2019] [Revised: 02/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Emerging fusariotoxins, mainly enniatins (ENNs) and beauvericin (BEA), are secondary toxic metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. and are widely distributed contaminants of cereals and by-products. Mycotoxin contamination in these products supposes an important risk to feed supply security in the feed industry due to the common use of cereals in feed formulations. Hence, continuous monitoring of both raw materials and feed mixtures is highly recommended as stated by sanitary authorities. Therefore, an analytical procedure based on liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry and an acetonitrile-based extraction followed by a d-SPE (QuEChERS) step for the simultaneous determination of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins was in-house validated and successfully applied to raw materials (n = 39) and feed manufactured with them (n = 48). The analytical method was validated following the European guidelines and satisfactory results were obtained. Both raw materials and complete feedstuffs showed mycotoxin contamination at incidences of 18% and 92%, respectively. ENN B was the most commonly found mycotoxin in the analyzed samples at concentrations up to several tens of µg/kg. On the other hand, the co-occurrence of mycotoxins was observed in 47% of samples, ENN B and BEA being the most common combination. These results highlight the necessity to take a vigilant attitude to monitor the occurrence of contaminants in raw materials and feedstuffs throughout the manufacturing chain and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josefa Tolosa
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
- ProtoQSAR, CEEI, Avda. Benjamin Franklin 12, Desp. 8, Paterna, 46980 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Yelko Rodríguez-Carrasco
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Emilia Ferrer
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
| | - Jordi Mañes
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Valencia, Av/ Vicent A. Estellés, s/n, Burjassot, 46100 Valencia, Spain.
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17
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Han X, Xu W, Zhang J, Xu J, Li F. Natural Occurrence of Beauvericin and Enniatins in Corn- and Wheat-Based Samples Harvested in 2017 Collected from Shandong Province, China. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 11:toxins11010009. [PMID: 30591635 PMCID: PMC6356366 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Totals of 158 corn and corn-based samples and 291 wheat and wheat-based samples from Shandong province, China in 2017 were analyzed for five mycotoxins including beauvericin (BEA), enniatin A (ENA), enniatin A1 (ENA1), enniatin B (ENB), and enniatin B1 (ENB1) by high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). BEA was the predominant toxin detected, followed by ENB, ENA1, ENA, and ENB1. Corn and corn-based samples were more easily contaminated by BEA with an average concentration of 65.26 µg/kg, compared with that in wheat and wheat-based samples (average = 0.41 µg/kg). Concentrations of BEA, ENA, and ENB1 in corn kernels, flours, and flakes were significantly different (Kruskal–Wallis Test, p < 0.05), as well as for BEA, ENA, ENB, and ENB1 in wheat kernels, flours, and noodles (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.05). Furthermore, 59.5% (94/158) and 59.8% (174/291) corn- and wheat-based samples were co-contaminated by at least two mycotoxins, respectively. Positive correlations in concentrations were observed in corn between levels of ENA and ENB1, ENA and ENB, ENA1 and ENB1, as well as in wheat between BEA and ENA, BEA and ENA1, BEA and ENB, BEA and ENB1, ENA and ENA1, ENA and ENB, ENA and ENB1, ENA1 and ENB, ENA1 and ENB1, and ENB and ENB1. These results demonstrate that co-contamination of BEA and enniatins (ENNs) in corn- and wheat-based samples from Shandong, China is very common. More data on the contamination of five mycotoxins in cereal and cereal-based samples nationwide are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomin Han
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Wenjing Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Jing Zhang
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Jin Xu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
| | - Fengqin Li
- NHC Key Laboratory of Food Safety Risk Assessment, China National Center for Food Safety Risk Assessment, Beijing 100021, China.
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18
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Ogunade IM, Martinez-Tuppia C, Queiroz OCM, Jiang Y, Drouin P, Wu F, Vyas D, Adesogan AT. Silage review: Mycotoxins in silage: Occurrence, effects, prevention, and mitigation. J Dairy Sci 2018; 101:4034-4059. [PMID: 29685276 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2017-13788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 10/28/2017] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Ensiled forage, particularly corn silage, is an important component of dairy cow diets worldwide. Forages can be contaminated with several mycotoxins in the field pre-harvest, during storage, or after ensiling during feed-out. Exposure to dietary mycotoxins adversely affects the performance and health of livestock and can compromise human health. Several studies and surveys indicate that ruminants are often exposed to mycotoxins such as aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins, zearalenone, and many other fungal secondary metabolites, via the silage they ingest. Problems associated with mycotoxins in silage can be minimized by preventing fungal growth before and after ensiling. Proper silage management is essential to reduce mycotoxin contamination of dairy cow feeds, and certain mold-inhibiting chemical additives or microbial inoculants can also reduce the contamination levels. Several sequestering agents also can be added to diets to reduce mycotoxin levels, but their efficacy varies with the type and level of mycotoxin contamination. This article gives an overview of the types, prevalence, and levels of mycotoxin contamination in ensiled forages in different countries, and describes their adverse effects on health of ruminants, and effective prevention and mitigation strategies for dairy cow diets. Future research priorities discussed include research efforts to develop silage additives or rumen microbial innocula that degrade mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- I M Ogunade
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - C Martinez-Tuppia
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - O C M Queiroz
- Chr Hansen, Animal Health and Nutrition, Chr. Hansen, Buenos Aires 1107, Argentina
| | - Y Jiang
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - P Drouin
- Lallemand Animal Nutrition, Lallemand SAS, 19 rue des Briquetiers, B.P. 59, F-31702 Blagnac, France
| | - F Wu
- Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Department of Agricultural, Food, and Resource Economics, Michigan State University, East Lansing 48824
| | - D Vyas
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608
| | - A T Adesogan
- Department of Animal Sciences, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville 32608.
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19
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Rat feeding trials: A comprehensive assessment of contaminants in both genetically modified maize and resulting pellets. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 121:573-582. [PMID: 30253247 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2018] [Revised: 09/14/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
We analyzed a comprehensive set of contaminants in MON810 and NK603 genetically modified (GM) maize, and their non-GM counterparts, used in a rat feeding study (the GMO90 + project). Both the maize grains and the manufactured pellets were characterized. Only minor differences in contaminant levels between GM and corresponding non-GM harvests were evidenced. Fumonisin and deoxynivalenol mycotoxins were the pollutants present in the highest amounts, with concentrations that were however largely below acceptance reference values. Our data reporting slightly lower levels of fumonisin in MON810 compared to its non-GM counterpart corroborate the lower susceptibility of insect resistant Bt maize to fumonisin-producing fungi. Traces of glyphosate (0.016 mg/kg) were evidenced in grains from NK603 treated crops. Regarding the pellets, analysis of more than 650 potentially toxic substances revealed low amounts of various mycotoxins, pesticides and heavy metals. Concentrations of contaminants quantified in the pellets were however far below the maximum level of residues values set by regulatory agencies, and no substantial differences in contaminants between GM and non-GM pellets were observed. Moreover, when comparing the contamination status of grains and pellets, we demonstrate yet again that characterizing the grains is actually not sufficient to foresee the quality of the produced pellets.
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20
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Boecker S, Grätz S, Kerwat D, Adam L, Schirmer D, Richter L, Schütze T, Petras D, Süssmuth RD, Meyer V. Aspergillus niger is a superior expression host for the production of bioactive fungal cyclodepsipeptides. Fungal Biol Biotechnol 2018; 5:4. [PMID: 29507740 PMCID: PMC5833056 DOI: 10.1186/s40694-018-0048-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 02/03/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Fungal cyclodepsipeptides (CDPs) are non-ribosomally synthesized peptides produced by a variety of filamentous fungi and are of interest to the pharmaceutical industry due to their anticancer, antimicrobial and anthelmintic bioactivities. However, both chemical synthesis and isolation of CDPs from their natural producers are limited due to high costs and comparatively low yields. These challenges might be overcome by heterologous expression of the respective CDP-synthesizing genes in a suitable fungal host. The well-established industrial fungus Aspergillus niger was recently genetically reprogrammed to overproduce the cyclodepsipeptide enniatin B in g/L scale, suggesting that it can generally serve as a high production strain for natural products such as CDPs. In this study, we thus aimed to determine whether other CDPs such as beauvericin and bassianolide can be produced with high titres in A. niger, and whether the generated expression strains can be used to synthesize new-to-nature CDP derivatives. Results The beauvericin and bassianolide synthetases were expressed under control of the tuneable Tet-on promoter, and titres of about 350–600 mg/L for bassianolide and beauvericin were achieved when using optimized feeding conditions, respectively. These are the highest concentrations ever reported for both compounds, whether isolated from natural or heterologous expression systems. We also show that the newly established Tet-on based expression strains can be used to produce new-to-nature beauvericin derivatives by precursor directed biosynthesis, including the compounds 12-hydroxyvalerate-beauvericin and bromo-beauvericin. By feeding deuterated variants of one of the necessary precursors (d-hydroxyisovalerate), we were able to purify deuterated analogues of beauvericin and bassianolide from the respective A. niger expression strains. These deuterated compounds could potentially be used as internal standards in stable isotope dilution analyses to evaluate and quantify fungal spoilage of food and feed products. Conclusion In this study, we show that the product portfolio of A. niger can be expanded from enniatin to other CDPs such as beauvericin and bassianolide, as well as derivatives thereof. This illustrates the capability of A. niger to produce a range of different peptide natural products in titres high enough to become industrially relevant. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40694-018-0048-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Boecker
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany.,2Department Applied and Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Grätz
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Dennis Kerwat
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lutz Adam
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - David Schirmer
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lennart Richter
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Tabea Schütze
- 2Department Applied and Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Daniel Petras
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Roderich D Süssmuth
- 1Department Biological Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 124, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Vera Meyer
- 2Department Applied and Molecular Microbiology, Institute of Biotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Gustav-Meyer-Allee 25, 13355 Berlin, Germany
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21
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Renaud JB, Kelman MJ, McMullin DR, Yeung KKC, Sumarah MW. Application of C8 liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the analysis of enniatins and bassianolides. J Chromatogr A 2017; 1508:65-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.05.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2017] [Revised: 05/29/2017] [Accepted: 05/31/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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22
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Svingen T, Lund Hansen N, Taxvig C, Vinggaard AM, Jensen U, Have Rasmussen P. Enniatin B and beauvericin are common in Danish cereals and show high hepatotoxicity on a high-content imaging platform. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2017; 32:1658-1664. [PMID: 27628925 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 08/10/2016] [Accepted: 08/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are fungi-born metabolites that can contaminate foods through mould-infected crops. They are a significant food/feed-safety issue across the globe and represent a substantial financial burden for the world economy. Moreover, with a changing climate and fungal biota, there is now much discussion about emerging mycotoxins that are measurable at significant levels in crops world-wide. Unfortunately, we still know very little about the bioavailability and toxic potentials of many of these less characterized mycotoxins, including the large family of enniatins. In this study, we present new occurrence data for enniatin A, A1, B, B1 and beauvericin in four Danish crops: oat, wheat, and barley from the 2010 harvest, and rye from 2011 harvest. The occurrence of the four enniatins were B > B1 > A1 > A. Enniatin B was detected in 100% of tested samples regardless of crop type. In addition to occurrence data, we report a proof-of-concept study using a human-relevant high-content hepatotoxicity, or "quadroprobe," assay to screen mycotoxins for their cytotoxic potential. The assay was sensitive for most cytotoxic compounds in the 0.009-100 µM range. Among eight tested mycotoxins (enniatin B, beauvericin, altenariol, deoxynivalenol, aflatoxin B1, andrastin A, citrinin, and penicillic acid), enniatin B and beauvericin showed significant cytotoxicity at a concentration lower than that for aflatoxin B1, which is the archetypal acute hepatotoxic and liver-carcinogenic mycotoxin. Hence, the quadroprobe hepatotoxicity assay may become a valuable assessment tool for toxicity assessment of mycotoxins in the future. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 32: 1658-1664, 2017.
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Affiliation(s)
- Terje Svingen
- Divisions of Diet, Disease Preventative and Toxicology, National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, DK, 2860, Denmark
| | - Niels Lund Hansen
- Divisions of Diet, Disease Preventative and Toxicology, National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, DK, 2860, Denmark
| | - Camilla Taxvig
- Divisions of Diet, Disease Preventative and Toxicology, National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, DK, 2860, Denmark
| | - Anne Marie Vinggaard
- Divisions of Diet, Disease Preventative and Toxicology, National Food Institute Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, DK, 2860, Denmark
| | - Udo Jensen
- Department of Food Chemistry, Danish Veterinary and Food Administration, Søndervang 4, Ringsted, DK, 4100, Denmark
| | - Peter Have Rasmussen
- Research Group for Chemical Food Analysis, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Søborg, DK, 2860, Denmark
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23
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Chilaka CA, De Boevre M, Atanda OO, De Saeger S. The Status of Fusarium Mycotoxins in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Emerging Trends and Post-Harvest Mitigation Strategies towards Food Control. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E19. [PMID: 28067768 PMCID: PMC5308251 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 12/28/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Fusarium fungi are common plant pathogens causing several plant diseases. The presence of these molds in plants exposes crops to toxic secondary metabolites called Fusarium mycotoxins. The most studied Fusarium mycotoxins include fumonisins, zearalenone, and trichothecenes. Studies have highlighted the economic impact of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium. These arrays of toxins have been implicated as the causal agents of wide varieties of toxic health effects in humans and animals ranging from acute to chronic. Global surveillance of Fusarium mycotoxins has recorded significant progress in its control; however, little attention has been paid to Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, thus translating to limited occurrence data. In addition, legislative regulation is virtually non-existent. The emergence of modified Fusarium mycotoxins, which may contribute to additional toxic effects, worsens an already precarious situation. This review highlights the status of Fusarium mycotoxins in sub-Saharan Africa, the possible food processing mitigation strategies, as well as future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia Adaku Chilaka
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Applied Food Science and Tourism, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umuahia-Ikot Ekpene Road, Umudike, Umuahia PMB 7267, Abia State, Nigeria.
| | - Marthe De Boevre
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Olusegun Oladimeji Atanda
- Department of Biological Sciences, McPherson University, KM 96 Lagos-Ibadan Expressway, 110117 Seriki Sotayo, Ogun State, Nigeria.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Department of Bioanalysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent 9000, Belgium.
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24
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Tolosa J, Font G, Mañes J, Ferrer E. Mitigation of enniatins in edible fish tissues by thermal processes and identification of degradation products. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 101:67-74. [PMID: 28043835 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.12.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2016] [Revised: 12/29/2016] [Accepted: 12/30/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Emerging mycotoxins, such as enniatins and beauvericin, are common contaminants in vegetal matrices, but recently, the occurrence of mycotoxins in foodstuffs from animal origin has been also reported as they can be present in edible tissues of animals fed with contaminated feedstuffs. Sea bass, sea bream, Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout from aquaculture analyzed in the present survey showed contamination by emerging Fusarium mycotoxins enniatins (ENs). ENs were extracted from raw and cooked fish with acetonitrile and analyzed by Liquid Chromatography coupled to Mass Spectrometry. In this study, the stability of ENs was evaluated during food processing by the application of different cooking methods (broiling, boiling, microwaving and baking treatments). All treated samples showed a reduction in mycotoxin levels with different percentages depending on the type of EN and the fish species. Thus, the reduction obtained ranged from 30 to 100%. The thermal treatments have shown to be a good strategy to mitigate ENs content in edible fish tissues. On the other hand, some ENs degradation products originated during the application of thermal treatments were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Tolosa
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - G Font
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - J Mañes
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain
| | - E Ferrer
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Avenue Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100, Burjassot, Spain.
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25
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Decleer M, Rajkovic A, Sas B, Madder A, De Saeger S. Development and validation of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry methods for the simultaneous determination of beauvericin, enniatins (A, A1, B, B1) and cereulide in maize, wheat, pasta and rice. J Chromatogr A 2016; 1472:35-43. [PMID: 27776774 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2016.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Revised: 09/22/2016] [Accepted: 10/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Rapid and accurate UPLC-MS/MS methods for the simultaneous determination of beauvericin and the related enniatins (A, A1, B, B1), together with cereulide were successfully developed and validated in cereal and cereal-based food matrices such as wheat, maize, rice and pasta. Although these emerging foodborne toxins are of different microbial origin, the similar structural, toxicological and food safety features provided rationale for their concurrent detection in relevant food matrices. A Waters Acquity UPLC system coupled to a Waters Quattro Premier XE™ Mass Spectrometer operating in ESI+ mode was employed. Sample pretreatment involved a fast and simple liquid extraction of the target toxins without any further clean-up step. For all toxins the sample preparation resulted in acceptable extraction recoveries with values of 85-105% for wheat, 87-106% for maize, 84-106% for rice and 85-105% for pasta. The efficient extraction protocol, together with a fast chromatographic separation of 7min allowed substantial saving costs and time showing its robustness and performance. The validation of the developed method was performed based on Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The obtained limits of detection ranged from 0.1 to 1.0μgkg-1 and the limits of quantification from 0.3 to 2.9μgkg-1 for the targeted toxins in the selected matrices. The obtained sensitivities allow detection of relevant toxicological concentrations. All relative standard deviations for repeatability (intra-day) and intermediate precision (inter-day) were lower than 20%. Trueness, expressed as the apparent recovery varied from 80 to 107%. The highly sensitive and repeatable validated method was applied to 57 naturally contaminated samples allowing detection of sub-clinical doses of the toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlies Decleer
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium; Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Andreja Rajkovic
- Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Laboratory of Food Microbiology and Food Preservation, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Benedikt Sas
- Department of Food Safety and Food Quality, Food2Know, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Annemieke Madder
- Department of Organic Chemistry, Organic and Biomimetic Chemistry Research Group, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Department of Bioanalysis, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Ghent, Belgium
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Yoshinari T, Suzuki Y, Sugita-Konishi Y, Ohnishi T, Terajima J. Occurrence of beauvericin and enniatins in wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market, and their co-contamination with type B trichothecene mycotoxins. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2016; 33:1620-1626. [PMID: 27579623 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2016.1228126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The contamination levels of beauvericin and four enniatins, A, A1, B and B1, in 207 samples of wheat flour and corn grits on the Japanese market were determined by an analytical method based on LC-MS/MS. The toxins were extracted from samples with acetonitrile-water (85:15, v/v) and then purified with C18 cartridges. The method was validated in a single laboratory using spiked samples at two levels; the recovery of the five toxins ranged from 91.1% to 113.8%. Enniatin B was frequently detected in imported wheat flour (81.8%) and domestic wheat flour (85.6%), and the highest concentration of enniatin B was present in a domestic wheat sample (633 μg kg-1). In corn grits, beauvericin was found in 34% of the samples, but enniatins were not detected at all. The maximum concentration of beauvericin in corn grits was 26.1 μg kg-1. Deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in the same samples were determined by a method using an immunoaffinity column. Co-contamination of deoxynivalenol and enniatins was observed in 61% of the imported wheat samples and in 58% of the domestic wheat samples. These results suggest the need for a risk assessment for cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins in Japan and a study on the synergistic effect of deoxynivalenol and enniatins.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuiko Suzuki
- b Department of Food and Life Science , Azabu University , Kanagawa , Japan
| | | | | | - Jun Terajima
- a National Institute of Health Sciences , Tokyo , Japan
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Habler K, Rychlik M. Multi-mycotoxin stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method for Fusarium toxins in cereals. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 408:307-17. [PMID: 26514672 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-9110-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
A multi-mycotoxin stable isotope dilution LC-MS/MS method was developed for 14 Fusarium toxins including modified mycotoxins in cereals (deoxynivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, HT2-toxin, T2-toxin, enniatin B, enniatin B1, enniatin A1, enniatin A, beauvericin, fusarenone X, nivalenol, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside, and zearalenone). The chromatographic separation of the toxins with particular focus on deoxynivalenol and deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside was achieved using a C18-hydrosphere column. An expedient sample preparation method was developed that uses solid-phase extraction for the purification of trichothecenes combined with zearalenone, enniatins, and beauvericin and provides excellent validation data. Linearity, intra-day precision, inter-day precision, and recoveries were ≥0.9982, 1-6%, 5-12%, and 79-117%, respectively. Method accuracy was verified by analyzing certified reference materials for deoxynivalenol, HT2-toxin, and T2-toxin with deviations below 7%. The results of this method found barley malt samples from 2012, 2013, and 2014 frequently contaminated with high concentrations of enniatin B, deoxynivalenol, and its modified mycotoxin deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside. Samples from 2012 were especially contaminated. Fusarenone X was not detected in any of the analyzed samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Habler
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, 85354, Freising, Germany
| | - Michael Rychlik
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, 85354, Freising, Germany.
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McElhinney C, O'Kiely P, Elliott C, Danaher M. Development and validation of an UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of mycotoxins in grass silages. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2015; 32:2101-12. [PMID: 26374621 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2015.1094830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
An ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) multi-mycotoxin analytical method was developed to simultaneously identify and quantify 20 mycotoxins in grass silages, inclusive of mycotoxins that are currently regulated in European Union feeds. Extraction of mycotoxins from dried grass silages was performed using of a modified QuEChERS extraction employing an acidified aqueous extraction (0.1 N HCl) with no further clean-up. Following chromatographic separation, analytes were detected using a fast polarity-switching MS/MS method that allowed both positive and negative ions to be analysed from a single injection, thus the reducing time and cost of analysis. The limits of detection and quantification ranged between 3 µg kg(-1) DM (aflatoxin B1, beauvericin and enniatin A and A1) and 200 µg kg(-1) DM (deoxynivalenol), and between 10 µg kg(-1) DM (aflatoxin B1, beauvericin and enniatin A1) and 500 µg kg(-1) DM (deoxynivalenol), respectively. Inter-assay accuracy and precision ranged between 90% and 107% and between 3.9% and 15.0% CV, respectively. The accuracy of the method was assessed through the application to a range of incurred samples in an inter-laboratory study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cormac McElhinney
- a Animal & Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Teagasc, Grange, Dunsany, Co. Meath , Ireland.,b Institute for Global Food Security , Queen's University Belfast , Belfast , Northern Ireland.,c Food Safety Department , Teagasc Food Research Centre , Ashtown , Dublin 15 , Ireland
| | - Pádraig O'Kiely
- a Animal & Grassland Research and Innovation Centre, Teagasc, Grange, Dunsany, Co. Meath , Ireland
| | - Chris Elliott
- b Institute for Global Food Security , Queen's University Belfast , Belfast , Northern Ireland
| | - Martin Danaher
- c Food Safety Department , Teagasc Food Research Centre , Ashtown , Dublin 15 , Ireland
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29
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Recent developments in stable isotope dilution assays in mycotoxin analysis with special regard to Alternaria toxins. Anal Bioanal Chem 2015; 407:7563-77. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-015-8904-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2015] [Revised: 06/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/06/2015] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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30
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Taevernier L, Veryser L, Vandercruyssen K, D’Hondt M, Vansteelandt S, De Saeger S, De Spiegeleer B. UHPLC-MS/MS method for the determination of the cyclic depsipeptide mycotoxins beauvericin and enniatins in in vitro transdermal experiments. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 100:50-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.07.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Revised: 07/16/2014] [Accepted: 07/19/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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31
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Scientific Opinion on the risks to human and animal health related to the presence of beauvericin and enniatins in food and feed. EFSA J 2014. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2014.3802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
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32
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Storm IMLD, Rasmussen RR, Rasmussen PH. Occurrence of pre- and post-harvest mycotoxins and other secondary metabolites in Danish maize silage. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:2256-69. [PMID: 25089350 PMCID: PMC4147581 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6082256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2014] [Revised: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 07/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize silage is a widely used feed product for cattle worldwide, which may be contaminated with mycotoxins, pre- and post-harvest. This concerns both farmers and consumers. To assess the exposure of Danish cattle to mycotoxins from maize silage, 99 samples of whole-crop maize (ensiled and un-ensiled) were analyzed for their contents of 27 mycotoxins and other secondary fungal metabolites by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The method specifically targets the majority of common pre- and post-harvest fungi associated with maize silage in Denmark. Sixty-one samples contained one or more of the 27 analytes in detectable concentrations. The most common mycotoxins were zearalenone, enniatin B nivalenol and andrastin A, found in 34%, 28%, 16% and 15% of the samples, respectively. None of the samples contained mycotoxins above the EU recommended maximum concentrations for Fusarium toxins in cereal-based roughage. Thus, the present study does not indicate that Danish maize silage in general is a cause of acute single mycotoxin intoxications in cattle. However, 31 of the samples contained multiple analytes; two samples as much as seven different fungal metabolites. Feed rations with maize silage may therefore contain complex mixtures of fungal secondary metabolites with unknown biological activity. This emphasizes the need for a thorough examination of the effects of chronic exposure and possible synergistic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida M L Drejer Storm
- Center for Microbial Biotechnology, Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark.
| | - Rie Romme Rasmussen
- Department of Food Chemistry, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark.
| | - Peter Have Rasmussen
- Department of Food Chemistry, National Food Institute, Technical University of Denmark, Mørkhøj Bygade 19, DK-2860 Søborg, Denmark.
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33
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Hu L, Rychlik M. Occurrence of enniatins and beauvericin in 60 Chinese medicinal herbs. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:1240-5. [PMID: 24720681 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.913813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A total of 60 Chinese medicinal herbs were examined for contamination of the emerging Fusarium mycotoxins enniatins (ENNs) A, A1, B, B1 and beauvericin (BEA). The herbs under study are commonly used in China as both medicines and food. The dried samples of herbs were randomly collected from traditional Chinese medicine stores in Zhejiang province, China. Sample preparation was achieved by methanol extraction, followed by a simple membrane filtration step; no tedious clean-ups were involved. ENNs A, A1, B, B1 and BEA were analysed by the recently developed stable isotope dilution assays, using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). With limits of detection ranging between 0.8 and 1.2 µg kg(-1) for the analytes under study, 25% of all analysed samples were contaminated with at least one of the ENNs and BEA. BEA was the most frequently detected toxin with a 20% incidence in all samples. The percentages of ENN-positive samples were lower: each single ENN was detected in 6.7-11.7% of all samples. Considering the total amounts of the five mycotoxins in single samples, values between 2.5 and 751 µg kg(-1) were found. The mean total amount in positive samples was 126 µg kg(-1). Regarding ginger, the frequent occurrence of ENNs and BEA in dried ginger could be confirmed in samples from Germany. However, in fresh ginger root the toxins were not detectable. This is the first report on the presence of ENNs and BEA in Chinese medicinal herbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Hu
- a Analytical Food Chemistry , Technische Universität München , Freising , Germany
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34
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Hu L, Gastl M, Linkmeyer A, Hess M, Rychlik M. Fate of enniatins and beauvericin during the malting and brewing process determined by stable isotope dilution assays. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2013.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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35
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Hu L, Koehler P, Rychlik M. Effect of sourdough processing and baking on the content of enniatins and beauvericin in wheat and rye bread. Eur Food Res Technol 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00217-013-2133-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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36
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Influence of pro- and prebiotics on gastric, duodenal and colonic bioaccessibility of the mycotoxin beauvericin. J Food Compost Anal 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfca.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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37
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Evaluation of beauvericin and enniatins in Italian cereal products and multicereal food by liquid chromatography coupled to triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. Food Chem 2013; 140:755-62. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.08.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2012] [Revised: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 08/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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38
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Comparative assessment of three extraction procedures for determination of emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in pasta by LC–MS/MS. Food Control 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.11.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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39
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Shimshoni JA, Cuneah O, Sulyok M, Krska R, Galon N, Sharir B, Shlosberg A. Mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2013; 30:1614-25. [PMID: 23789893 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2013.802840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Silage is an important feed source for intensive dairy herds worldwide. Fungal growth and mycotoxin production before and during silage storage is a well-known phenomenon, resulting in reduced nutritional value and a possible risk factor for animal health. With this in mind, a survey was conducted to determine for the first time the occurrence of mycotoxins in corn and wheat silage in Israel. A total of 30 corn and wheat silage samples were collected from many sources and analysed using a multi-mycotoxin method based on LC-MS/MS. Most mycotoxins recorded in the present study have not been reported before in Israel. Overall, 23 mycotoxins were found in corn silage; while wheat silage showed a similar pattern of mycotoxin occurrence comprising 20 mycotoxins. The most common post-harvest mycotoxins produced by the Penicillium roqueforti complex were not found in any tested samples, indicative of high-quality preparation and use of silage. Moreover, none of the European Union-regulated mycotoxins--aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin, T-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol and deoxynivalenol--were found above their limits of detection (LODs). The Alternaria mycotoxins--macrosporin, tentoxin and alternariol methyl ether--were highly prevalent in both corn and wheat silage (>80%), but at low concentrations. The most prominent (>80%) Fusarium mycotoxins in corn silage were fusaric acid, fumonisins, beauvericin, monilifomin, equisetin, zearalenone and enniatins, whereas in wheat silage only beauvericin, zearalenone and enniatins occurred in more than 80% of the samples. The high prevalence and concentration of fusaric acid (mean = 765 µg kg⁻¹) in Israeli corn silage indicates that this may be the toxin of highest potential concern to dairy cow performance. However, more data from different harvest years and seasons are needed in order to establish a more precise evaluation of the mycotoxin burden in Israeli silage.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Shimshoni
- a Department of Toxicology , Kimron Veterinary Institute , Bet Dagan 50250 , Israel
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40
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Meca G, Zhou T, Li XZ, Ritieni A, Mañes J. Ciclohexadespipeptide beauvericin degradation by different strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 59:334-8. [PMID: 23791659 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2013.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2013] [Revised: 05/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/09/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The interaction between the mycotoxin beauvericin (BEA) and 9 yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae named LO9, YE-2, YE5, YE-6, YE-4, A34, A17, A42 and A08 was studied. The biological degradations were carried out under aerobic conditions in the liquid medium of Potato Dextrose Broth (PDB) at 25°C for 48 h and in a food/feed system composed of corn flour at 37°C for 3 days, respectively. BEA present in fermented medium and corn flour was determined using liquid chromatography coupled to the mass spectrometry detector in tandem (LC-MS/MS) and the BEA degradation products produced during the fermentations were determined using the technique of the liquid chromatography coupled to a linear ion trap (LIT). Results showed that the S. cerevisiae strains reduced meanly the concentration of the BEA present in PDB by 86.2% and in a food system by 71.1%. All the S. cerevisiae strains used in this study showed a significant BEA reduction during the fermentation process employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Meca
- Laboratory of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Valencia, Burjassot, Spain.
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41
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Sørensen JL, Akk E, Thrane U, Giese H, Sondergaard TE. Production of fusarielins by Fusarium. Int J Food Microbiol 2013; 160:206-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2012.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2012] [Revised: 10/12/2012] [Accepted: 10/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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42
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Serrano A, Font G, Mañes J, Ferrer E. Emerging Fusarium mycotoxins in organic and conventional pasta collected in Spain. Food Chem Toxicol 2013; 51:259-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.09.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Revised: 09/12/2012] [Accepted: 09/27/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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43
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Serrano A, Meca G, Font G, Ferrer E. Risk assessment associated to the intake of the emerging Fusarium mycotoxins BEA, ENs and FUS present in infant formula of Spanish origin. Food Control 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.04.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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44
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Hu DX, Bielitza M, Koos P, Ley SV. A total synthesis of the ammonium ionophore, (−)-enniatin B. Tetrahedron Lett 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2012.05.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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45
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Hu L, Rychlik M. Biosynthesis of 15N3-labeled enniatins and beauvericin and their application to stable isotope dilution assays. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:7129-7136. [PMID: 22734473 DOI: 10.1021/jf3015602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The first stable isotope dilution assay for the determination of enniatins A, A1, B, and B1 and beauvericin was developed. The (15)N(3)-labeled enniatins and beauvericin were biosynthesized by feeding two Fusarium strains Na(15)NO(3) and subsequently isolated from the fungal culture. The chemical structures of the biosynthesized products were characterized by LC-MS/MS and (1)H NMR. Standard solutions of (15)N(3)-labeled beauvericin, enniatin A, and enniatin A1 were accurately quantitated by quantitative NMR. On the basis of the use of the labeled products as internal standards, stable isotope dilution assays were developed and applied to various food samples using LC-MS/MS. The sample extracts were directly injected without any tedious cleanup procedures. The limits of detection were 3.9, 2.6, 3.7, 1.9, and 4.4 μg/kg for enniatins A, A1, B, and B1 and beauvericin, respectively. Limits of quantitation were 11.5 (enniatin A), 7.6 (enniatin A1), 10.9 (enniatin B), 5.8 (enniatin B1), and 13.1 μg/kg (beauvericin). Recoveries were within the range between 90 and 120%, and good intraday and interday precisions with coefficients of variation between 1.35 and 8.61% were obtained. Thus, the stable isotope dilution assay presented here is similarly sensitive and precise but more accurate than assays reported before. Analyses of cereals and cereal products revealed frequent contaminations of barley, wheat, rye, and oats with enniatins B and B1, whereas beauvericin was not quantifiable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Hu
- Chair of Analytical Food Chemistry, ZIEL Research Center for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Technische Universität München, Alte Akademie 10, D-85354 Freising, Germany
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46
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Capriotti AL, Caruso G, Cavaliere C, Foglia P, Samperi R, Laganà A. Multiclass mycotoxin analysis in food, environmental and biological matrices with chromatography/mass spectrometry. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2012; 31:466-503. [PMID: 22065561 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 10/11/2011] [Accepted: 10/11/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Mold metabolites that can elicit deleterious effects on other organisms are classified as mycotoxins. Human exposure to mycotoxins occurs mostly through the intake of contaminated agricultural products or residues due to carry over or metabolite products in foods of animal origin such as milk and eggs, but can also occur by dermal contact and inhalation. Mycotoxins contained in moldy foods, but also in damp interiors, can cause diseases in humans and animals. Nephropathy, various types of cancer, alimentary toxic aleukia, hepatic diseases, various hemorrhagic syndromes, and immune and neurological disorders are the most common diseases that can be related to mycotoxicosis. The absence or presence of mold infestation and its propagation are seldom correlated with mycotoxin presence. Mycotoxins must be determined directly, and suitable analytical methods are necessary. Hundreds of mycotoxins have been recognized, but only for a few of them, and in a restricted number of utilities, a maximum acceptable level has been regulated by law. However, mycotoxins seldom develop alone; more often various types and/or classes form in the same substrate. The co-occurrence might render the individual mycotoxin tolerance dose irrelevant, and therefore the mere presence of multiple mycotoxins should be considered a risk factor. The advantage of chromatography/mass spectrometry (MS) is that many compounds can be determined and confirmed in one analysis. This review illustrates the state-of-the-art of mycotoxin MS-based analytical methods for multiclass, multianalyte determination in all the matrices in which they appear. A chapter is devoted to the history of the long-standing coexistence and interaction among humans, domestic animals and mycotoxicosis, and the history of the discovery of mycotoxins. Quality assurance, although this topic relates to analytical chemistry in general, has been also examined for mycotoxin analysis as a preliminary to the systematic literature excursus. Sample handling is a crucial step to devise a multiclass analytical method; so when possible, it has been treated separately for a better comparison before tackling the instrumental part of the whole analytical method. This structure has resulted sometimes in unavoidable redundancies, because it was also important to underline the interconnection. Most reviews do not deal with all the possible mycotoxin sources, including the environmental ones. The focus of this review is the analytical methods based on MS for multimycotoxin class determination. Because the final purpose to devise multimycotoxin analysis should be the assessment of the danger to health of exposition to multitoxicants of natural origin (and possibly also the interaction with anthropogenic contaminants), therefore also the analytical methods for environmental relevant mycotoxins have been thoroughly reviewed. Finally, because the best way to shed light on actual risk assessment could be the individuation of exposure biomarkers, the review covers also the scarce literature on biological fluids.
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Beauvericin, a bioactive compound produced by fungi: a short review. Molecules 2012; 17:2367-77. [PMID: 22367030 PMCID: PMC6269041 DOI: 10.3390/molecules17032367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Revised: 02/15/2012] [Accepted: 02/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Beauvericin is a cyclic hexadepsipeptide mycotoxin, which has insecticidal, antimicrobial, antiviral and cytotoxic activities. It is a potential agent for pesticides and medicines. This paper reviews the bioactivity, fermentation and biosynthesis of the fungal product beauvericin.
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Santini A, Meca G, Uhlig S, Ritieni A. Fusaproliferin, beauvericin and enniatins: occurrence in food – a review. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2012. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2011.1331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The present review summarises data on the prevalence and concentration of fusaproliferin, beauvericin and enniatins in small grains, maize and processed grain-based foods. These fungal secondary metabolites possess interesting biological activities and are presently often referred to as 'emerging mycotoxins'. They have been considered as less important since they are likely not of acute toxicity. However, their high prevalence in foodstuffs, occasionally in higher mg/kg concentrations, warrants an assessment of their true importance for food (and feed) safety. Thorough surveys that determine the contamination of raw and processed foods with fusaproliferin, beauvericin and enniatins are still scarce and are generally limited to Northern Europe and the Mediterranean. The reported data suggest a connection between the observed concentrations and climate. The data further suggest that humans might be exposed continuously to low levels of enniatins as these compounds were of particularly high prevalence in the surveys. The highest concentrations of enniatins were reported from Spain and Northern Africa (maximum concentration of enniatin A1 814 mg/kg in rice from the Spanish market), while concentrations were significantly lower in Northern Europe (maximum concentration of enniatin B 18.3 mg/kg in wheat from Finland). Beauvericin appears to be of low significance in grains from cooler climates while it has been reported to occur at concentrations of tens of mg/ kg in Southern Europe and Morocco (maximum concentration 59 mg/kg in maize from Morocco). Fusaproliferin has been least investigated. Several reports from the Mediterranean show its occasional occurrence up to 19.6 mg/ kg in rice from Morocco, while its natural occurrence in cooler climates seems to be more rare.
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Affiliation(s)
- A. Santini
- Department of Food Science, University of Napoli 'Federico II', via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy
| | - G. Meca
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of València, Av. Vicent Andrés Estellés s/n, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - S. Uhlig
- Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Section for Chemistry and Toxicology, Ullevålsveien 68, 0454 Oslo, Norway
| | - A. Ritieni
- Department of Food Science, University of Napoli 'Federico II', via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Napoli, Italy
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Ficheux A, Sibiril Y, Le Garrec R, Parent-Massin D. In vitro myelotoxicity assessment of the emerging mycotoxins Beauvericin, Enniatin b and Moniliformin on human hematopoietic progenitors. Toxicon 2012; 59:182-91. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2011] [Revised: 11/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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Meca G, Mañes J, Font G, Ruiz M. Study of the potential toxicity of enniatins A, A1, B, B1 by evaluation of duodenal and colonic bioavailability applying an in vitro method by Caco-2 cells. Toxicon 2012; 59:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2010] [Revised: 09/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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