Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of 5-pyrrolidinylquinoxalines as a novel class of peripherally restricted κ-opioid receptor agonists

Discovery of N'-benzyl-3-chloro-N-((1S,3R,4R)-3-((dimethylamino)methyl)-4-hydroxy-4-(3-methoxyphenyl)cyclohexyl)benzenesulfonamide as a novel selective KOR ligand

The effective management of moderate to severe pain often relies on the use of analgesic agents. However, the widespread utility of these medications is hindered by the occurrence of several undesirable side effects. In light of this challenge, there is growing interest in the development of κ opioid receptor (KOR) agonists, which have shown promise in mitigating these adverse effects. In this study, leveraging the structural scaffold of compound D (our previous study), we embarked on the design, synthesis, and evaluation of a series of N'-benzyl-3-chloro-N- ((1S,3R,4R)-3-((dimethylamino)methyl)-4-hydroxy-4-(3-methoxyphenyl)cyclohexyl)benzenesulfonamide derivatives. These compounds were subjected to comprehensive in vitro and in vivo test. Through systematic structure-activity relationship (SAR) exploration, we successfully identified compound 23p (Ki(KOR):1.9 nM) as a highly selective KOR ligand of new chemotype. 23p showed high clearance in vitro PK test, and abdominal contraction test showed potent antinociceptive effect. 23p and its O-demethyl metabolite 25 were both found in the plasma of mouse, 25 also showed potent affinity toward KOR (Ki(KOR): 3.1 nM), both they contribute to the analgesic effect. Moreover, 23p exhibited potent antinociceptive activity in abdominal constriction test, which was effectively abolished by pre-treatment of nor-BNI, a selective KOR antagonist.

A systematic review on the kappa opioid receptor and its ligands: New directions for the treatment of pain, anxiety, depression, and drug abuse

Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) is a member of the opioid receptor system, the G protein-coupled receptors that are expressed throughout the peripheral and central nervous systems and play crucial roles in the modulation of antinociception and a variety of behavioral states like anxiety, depression, and drug abuse. KOR agonists are known to produce potent analgesic effects and have been used clinically for the treatment of pain, while KOR antagonists have shown efficacy in the treatment of anxiety and depression. This review summarizes the history, design strategy, discovery, and development of KOR ligands. KOR agonists are classified as non-biased, G protein-biased, and β-arrestin recruitment-biased, according to their degrees of bias. The mechanisms and associated effects of the G protein signaling pathway and β-arrestin recruitment signaling pathway are also discussed. Meanwhile, KOR antagonists are classified as long-acting and short-acting, based on their half-lives. In addition, we have special sections for mixed KOR agonists and selective peripheral KOR agonists. The mechanisms of action and pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic, and behavioral studies for each of these categories are also discussed in this review.

Characterization of Pyrrolidinyl-hexahydro-pyranopiperazines as a Novel Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist Scaffold

The kappa agonist structure-activity relationship around the novel, pyrrolidinyl substituted pyranopiperazine scaffold was developed. More specifically, the dichloroPhenylAcetamide-Pyrrolidinyl-PyranoPiperazine (PAPPP) core A was the focus of our work. The modulation of kappa receptor potency/G-protein activation and arrestin recruitment with respect to changes of the piperazine R group in A was demonstrated. Reduced β₂-arrestin recruitment and differential G-protein bias were observed for select analogues. To better understand the subtlety in receptor signaling, analogues were profiled as the resolved enantiomers. To determine in vivo target engagement, a subset of compounds was tested in mice for stimulation of serum prolactin, a neuroendocrine biomarker of KOR-agonist effects. Additional in vivo characterization included measurement of potential unwanted effects of kappa receptor activation such as sedation. These studies demonstrate a novel kappa receptor agonist scaffold with potential for G-protein signaling bias to probe in vivo pharmacology.

Synthesis of 8-aminomorphans with high KOR affinity

2-Azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonanes (morphans) with a (3,4-dichlorophenyl)acetyl group at 2-position and a pyrrolidino moiety at 8-position were designed as conformationally restricted analogs of piperidine-based KOR agonists. The synthesis started with 4-oxopiperidine-2-carboxylic acid comprising 13 reaction steps. At first the ketone 10 was transformed into diester 7 bearing a propionate side chain. Dieckmann condensation of diester 7 to afford bicyclic enolester 14 and subsequent Krapcho deethoxycarbonylation represent the key steps of the synthesis. The enantiomeric pyrrolidines (1S,5R,8R)-5a and (1R,5S,8S)-5a were separated by chiral HPLC. The eutomer (1S,5R,8R)-5a showed high KOR affinity (K_i = 18 nM) and selectivity over MOR, DOR and σ₂ receptors. It was concluded that the dihedral angle of the KOR pharmacophore N(pyrrolididine)-C-C-N(acyl) of (1S,5R,8R)-5a (68°) is close to the bioactive conformation of the flexible KOR agonist 3.

Antinociceptive and Antipruritic Effects of HSK21542, a Peripherally-Restricted Kappa Opioid Receptor Agonist, in Animal Models of Pain and Itch

Kappa opioid receptor (KOR) agonists have been promising therapeutic candidates, owing to their potential for relieving pain and treating intractable pruritus. Although lacking morphine-like central nervous system (CNS) effects, KOR agonists do elicit sedation, dysphoria and diuresis which seriously impede their development. Peripherally-restricted KOR agonists have a poor ability to penetrate into the CNS system, so that CNS-related adverse effects can be ameliorated or even abolished. However, the only approved peripherally-restricted KOR agonist CR845 remains some frequent CNS adverse events. In the present study, we aim to address pharmacological profiles of HSK21542, with an expectation to provide a safe and effective alternative for patients who are suffering from pain and pruritus. The in vitro experimental results showed that HSK21542 was a selective and potent KOR agonist with higher potency than CR845, and had a brain/plasma concentration ratio of 0.001, indicating its peripheral selectivity. In animal models of pain, HSK21542 significantly inhibited acetic acid-, hindpaw incision- or chronic constriction injury-induced pain-related behaviors, and the efficacy was comparable to CR845 at 15 min post-dosing. HSK21542 had a long-lasting analgesic potency with a median effective dose of 1.48 mg/kg at 24 h post-drug in writhing test. Meanwhile, the antinociceptive activity of HSK21542 was effectively reversed by a KOR antagonist nor-binaltorphimine. In addition, HSK21542 had powerful antipruritic activities in compound 48/80-induced itch model. On the other hand, HSK21542 had a weak ability to produce central antinociceptive effects in a hot-plate test and fewer effects on the locomotor activity of mice. HSK21542 didn't affect the respiratory rate of mice. Therefore, HSK21542 might be a safe and effective KOR agonist and promising candidate for treating pain and pruritus.

Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of enantiomerically pure endo-configured KOR agonists with 2-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane scaffold

Conformationally restricted bicyclic KOR agonists 10 with an endo-configured amino moiety were synthesized to analyze the bioactive conformation of conformationally flexible KOR agonists such as 2-5. A seven-step synthesis starting with (S)-configured 4-oxopiperidine-2-carboxylate 13 was developed. cis- and trans-configured diesters 12 were obtained in a 3 : 1 ratio via hydrogenation of the α,β-unsaturated ester 14. After establishment of the bicyclic scaffold, a diastereoselective reductive amination of ketone 11 provided exclusively the endo-configured bicyclic amines 10a,b. The 3 : 1 mixtures of enantiomers were separated by chiral HPLC, respectively, leading to enantiomerically pure KOR agonists (1S,5S,7R)-10a,b and (1R,5R,7S)-10a,b (ent-10a,b). The KOR affinity was determined in receptor binding studies with the radioligand [3H]U-69 593. The high KOR affinity of endo-configured amines 10a (Ki = 7 nM) and 10b (Ki = 13 nM) indicates that the dihedral angle of the KOR pharmacophoric element N(pyrrolidine)-C-C-N(phenylacetyl) of 42° is close to the bioactive conformation of more flexible KOR agonists. It should be noted that changing the configuration of potent and selective KOR agonists 10a and 10b led to potent and selective σ1 ligands (e.g. ent-10aKi(σ1) = 10 nM).

Diastereoselective synthesis of conformationally restricted KOR agonists

In order to analyze the bioactive conformation of flexible KOR agonists the ethylenediamine KOR pharmacophore was conformationally constrained by incorporation into a bicyclic system. For this purpose, 2-azabicyclo[3.2.1.]octan-7-amines were designed, synthesized and pharmacologically evaluated. The primary amine 14 as first key intermediate was prepared in a six-step synthesis starting with methyl cyclopent-3-enecarboxylate 9. Whereas phenylacetamides failed to provide bicyclic compounds, the intramolecular nucleophilic substitution of the sulfonamide 25 was initiated by deprotonation with NaH affording the bicyclic compound 26 in 72% yield. The three-step introduction of the pharmacophoric pyrrolidine ring started with nucleophilic substitution of exo-configured tosylate 26 with NaN3, which unexpectedly occurred under retention of configuration leading to exo-configured azide 31. The final KOR agonists 35 and 36 with exo-configured amino moieties were obtained by removal of the N-tosyl moiety of 33 and introduction of the second pharmacophoric element by acylation with dihalophenylacetyl chlorides. The KOR affinity of the pyrrolidine 35a is in the high nanomolar range (Ki = 862 nM). The low KOR affinity is explained by a non-appropriate dihedral angle of 137°/141° of the N(pyrrolidine)-C-C-N(acyl) system. As observed for stereoisomers of potent KOR agonists, phenylacetamide 35a and more importantly sulfonamides 33a and 33b show moderate affinity at σ1 receptors (Ki = 109-208 nM).

The effect of carbonyl on the isomerization of a galanthan ring system and total synthesis of (±)-β-lycorane

Lycorine-type alkaloids are privileged structures in drug development due to their attractive biological activities. In this paper, the carbonyl on the C ring was proved to have played a critical role in stereoselectivity during the synthesis process, and the galanthan skeleton with a cis-B/C ring is more thermodynamically stable in its presence. Furthermore, the total synthesis of (±)-β-lycorane was successfully completed by employing the Michael addition reaction to construct the galanthan skeleton with a trans-B/C ring. This system might be applied to other structural types with similar stereochemistry setting.

Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation of Fluorinated Quinoxaline-Based κ-Opioid Receptor (KOR) Agonists Designed for PET Studies

κ-Opioid receptors (KORs) play a predominant role in pain alleviation, itching skin diseases, depression and neurodegenerative disorders such as multiple sclerosis. Therefore, imaging of KOR by a fluorinated PET tracer was envisaged. Two strategies were followed to introduce a F atom into the very potent class of cis,trans-configured perhydroquinoxalines. Whereas the synthesis of fluoroethyltriazole 2 has already been reported, fluoropyrrolidines 14 (1-[2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)acetyl]-8-[(R)-3-fluoropyrrolidin-1-yl]-perhydroquinoxalines) were prepared by SN2 substitution of a cyclic sulfuric acid derivative with hydroxypyrrolidine and subsequent transformation of the OH moiety into a F substituent. Fluoropyrrolidines 14 showed similar low-nanomolar KOR affinity and selectivity to the corresponding pyrrolidines, but the corresponding alcohols were slightly less active. In the cAMP and β-arrestin assay, 14b (proton at the 4-position) exhibited similar KOR agonistic activity as U-50,488. The fluoro derivatives 14b and 14c (CO2CH3 at the 4-position) revealed KOR-mediated anti-inflammatory activity as CD11c and the IFN-γ production were reduced significantly in mouse and human dendritic cells. Compounds 14b and 14-c also displayed anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activity in mouse and human T cells. The PET tracer [18F]-2 was prepared by 1,3-dipolar cycloaddition. In vivo, [18F]-2 did not label KOR due to very fast elimination kinetics. Nucleophilic substitution of a mesylate precursor provided [18F]-14c. Unfortunately, defluorination of [18F]-14c occurred in vivo, which was analyzed in detail by in vitro studies.

Enantiomerically Pure Quinoline-Based κ-Opioid Receptor Agonists: Chemoenzymatic Synthesis and Pharmacological Evaluation

Racemic K -opioid receptor (KOR) agonist 2-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1-[(4aRS,8SR,8aSR)-8-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)-3,4,4a,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydroquinolin-1(2H)-yl]ethan-1-one ((±)-4) was prepared in a diastereoselective synthesis. The first key step of the synthesis was the diastereoselective hydrogenation of the silyl ether of 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinoin-8-ol ((±)-9) to afford cis,cis-configured perhydroquinoline derivative (±)-10. Removal of the TBDMS protecting group led to a β-aminoalcohol that reacted with SO2 Cl2 to form an oxathiazolidine. Nucleophilic substitution with pyrrolidine resulted in the desired cis,trans-configured perhydroquinoline upon inversion of the configuration. In order to obtain enantiomerically pure KOR agonists 4 (99.8 % ee) and ent-4 (99.0 % ee), 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-8-ols (R)-8 (99.1 % ee) and (S)-8 (98.4 % ee) were resolved by an enantioselective acetylation catalyzed by Amano lipase PS-IM. The absolute configuration was determined by CD spectroscopy. The 4aR,8S,8aS-configured enantiomer 4 showed sub-nanomolar KOR affinity (Ki =0.81 nM), which is more than 200 times higher than the KOR affinity of its enantiomer ent-4. In the cAMP assay and the Tango β-arrestin-2 recruitment assay, 4 behaved as a KOR agonist. Upon incubation of human macrophages, human dendritic cells, and mouse myeloid immune cells with 4, the number of cells expressing co-stimulatory receptor CD86 and proinflammatory cytokines interleukin 6 and tumor necrosis factor α was significantly reduced; this indicates the strong anti-inflammatory activity of 4. The anti-inflammatory effects correlated well with the KOR affinity: (4aR,8S,8aS)-4 was slightly more potent than the racemic mixture (±)-4, and the distomer ent-4 was almost inactive.

Modulation of cocaine-related behaviors by low doses of the potent KOR agonist nalfurafine in male C57BL6 mice

RATIONALE

Agonists of the kappa opioid receptor (KOR) have been shown to block the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse, but with negative side effects. The antipruritic drug nalfurafine, approved in Japan in 2009, is a potent, selective KOR agonist that does not cause significant side effects in humans. Nalfurafine has not been extensively tested for its effect on drug reward and reinforcement in preclinical models.

OBJECTIVES

The goal of this study was to compare the effects of nalfurafine and a reference KOR agonist for a variety of KOR-mediated endpoints in male C57BL6 mice. Specifically, we aimed to evaluate the "therapeutic window"-doses of agonists lower than those eliciting negative side effects, while still effective for desired therapeutic effects.

METHODS

In this study, several low doses of nalfurafine and U50,488 were tested for serum prolactin release, rotarod-mediated sedation, and place-conditioning in male C57BL6 mice. These agonists were also tested for effects on intravenous cocaine self-administration, both on an FR1 schedule and on a progressive ratio schedule for 0.5 mg/kg/infusion cocaine.

RESULTS

Serum prolactin levels increased following doses of both nalfurafine (3 μg/kg and 10 μg/kg) and U50,488 (3 mg/kg). These doses did not cause sedation in the rotarod assay or aversion in a place-conditioning assay, but blocked conditioned place preference for cocaine. Immediate pretreatment of mice with 10 μg/kg nalfurafine and 3 mg/kg U50,488, however, potentiated cocaine self-administration. Further 10 μg/kg nalfurafine was also observed to potentiate cocaine-seeking behavior as demonstrated by increased progressive ratio break point.

CONCLUSIONS

Both nalfurafine and U50,488 showed a separation of negative side effects and the modulation of cocaine reward, suggesting this effect of KOR agonists at low doses may be characteristic of the KOR system in general. At higher doses, nalfurafine had similar effects to traditional KOR agonists like U50,488, indicating that its relative potency, rather than differences in KOR signaling, may be responsible for its unique effects in humans.

Design and synthesis of N‑(benzylpiperidinyl)‑4‑fluorobenzamide: A haloperidol analog that reduces neuropathic nociception via σ1 receptor antagonism

AIMS

Haloperidol is a neuroleptic drug with high affinity towards the σ1 receptor (σ1R), acting as antagonist that decreases neuropathic pain, but has CNS side effects. This work describes the design and synthesis of a novel analog N‑(1‑benzylpiperidin‑4-yl)‑4‑fluorobenzamide (LMH-2), which produced antihyperalgesic and antiallodynic effects in rats with neuropathy induced by chronic constriction injury of the sciatic nerve (CCI), being more active than gabapentin (The most widely used drug for the treatment of neuropathic pain).

MAIN METHODS

LMH-2 was designed as haloperidol analog. Its structure was characterized by spectroscopic (1H and 13C NMR) and spectrometric mass (electronic impact) techniques. Additionally, in silico predictions of pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamic and toxicological properties were obtained, with promising results. A competitive binding assay using radioligands was employed to evaluate the in vitro affinity for σ1R, whereas in vivo antihyperalgesic and antiallodynic activities were investigated using Wistar rats with CCI.

KEY FINDINGS

LMH-2 showed high affinity for σ1R in an in vitro binding assay, with a Ki = 6.0 nM and a high σ1R/σ2R selectivity ratio. Molecular docking studies were carried out to determine the binding energy and to analyze LMH-2-protein interactions. Through an in silico pharmacological consensus analysis, LMH-2 was considered safe for in vivo evaluation. Thus, LMH-2 had dose-dependent antiallodynic and antihyperalgesic activities; its efficacy was comparable to that of gabapentin, but its potency was 2-times higher than this drug.

SIGNIFICANCE

LMH-2 administration produced antihyperalgesic and antiallodynic effects by the antagonism of σ1R, suggesting its potential use as an analgesic drug for neuropathic pain.

Intracolonic Mustard Oil Induces Visceral Pain in Mice by TRPA1-Dependent and -Independent Mechanisms: Role of Tissue Injury and P2X Receptors

Both TRPA1 and purinergic P2X receptors have been proposed as potential targets for the treatment of visceral pain. We found that the intracolonic administration of a low dose mustard oil (0.5%), a well-known TRPA1 agonist, produced nociceptive responses and abdominal wall referred mechanical hyperalgesia, without inducing apparent tissue damage. Both nociceptive responses and referred hyperalgesia were abolished by the ablation of TRPV1-expressing neurons (and the consequent ablation of TRPA1+ nociceptors) by resiniferatoxin (RTX) treatment, and by the TRPA1 antagonist AP18. However, a higher dose of mustard oil (2.5%) damaged the colonic epithelium and induced pERK activation in the spinal cord, and these processes were clearly independent of TRPV1-expressing neurons ablated by RTX. This higher dose of mustard oil induced nociceptive responses and referred mechanical hyperalgesia which were insensitive or only slightly sensitive to resiniferatoxin or AP18, but were markedly reduced by the P2X antagonist TNP-ATP, which is known to inhibit nociceptive actions induced by ATP released from injured tissues. In conclusion, whereas a low dose of intracolonic mustard oil induces visceral pain in a manner fully dependent on TRPA1 actions, when a high dose of this chemical irritant is used, visceral pain becomes mostly independent of TRPA1 activation but clearly enhanced by ATP purportedly released by the damaged colonic epithelium. Therefore, TRPA1 inhibition is not sufficient to substantially decrease visceral pain during tissue injury, whereas purinergic antagonism appears to be a more effective strategy.

Signaling Properties of Structurally Diverse Kappa Opioid Receptor Ligands: Toward in Vitro Models of in Vivo Responses

Biased ligands preferentially activate certain signaling pathways downstream of their target receptor, leading to differential physiological or behavioral responses downstream. The kappa opioid receptor (KOR) is a drug target for diseases involving mood and reward, such as depression and addiction. Biased KOR ligands offer the potential to overcome negative side effects that have previously hampered the therapeutic development of KOR agonists by preferentially activating certain signaling pathways. Understanding relationships between ligand bias and behavior is difficult, however, because differences in cellular context and bias quantification methods lead to variation between studies. Here, a set of 21 structurally diverse KOR ligands were tested in parallel, to systematically quantify ligand bias at the KOR. Compounds included the endogenous peptide ligand Dynorphin A(1-17), two novel compounds synthesized for our research, and 18 additional compounds of different structural classes, including morphinans and the natural product Salvinorin A. Compounds were tested for their activity in early KOR signaling pathways (G-protein and β-arrestin recruitment) in KOR-expressing U2OS cells, and ligand bias was calculated. A subset of compounds was tested for sedative properties in the rotarod assay in mice. We found that rotarod sedation significantly correlated with β-arrestin signaling in this system, indicating that this in vitro system can be used to accurately describe this in vivo behavior caused by KOR agonists. Additionally, downstream signaling pathways ERK1/2 and mTOR were evaluated, and we determined that signaling via both of these pathways could diverge from KOR-mediated G-protein and arrestin signaling in this system.

Synthesis, Biological, and Structural Explorations of New Zwitterionic Derivatives of 14- O-Methyloxymorphone, as Potent μ/δ Opioid Agonists and Peripherally Selective Antinociceptives

Herein, the synthesis and pharmacological characterization of an extended library of differently substituted N-methyl-14-O-methylmorphinans with natural and unnatural amino acids and three dipeptides at position 6 that emerged as potent μ/δ opioid receptor (MOR/DOR) agonists with peripheral antinociceptive efficacy is reported. The current study adds significant value to our initial structure–activity relationships on a series of zwitterionic analogues of 1 (14-O-methyloxymorphone) by targeting additional amino acid residues. The new derivatives showed high binding and potent agonism at MOR and DOR in vitro. In vivo, the new 6-amino acid- and 6-dipeptide-substituted derivatives of 1 were highly effective in inducing antinociception in the writhing test in mice after subcutaneous administration, which was antagonized by naloxone methiodide demonstrating activation of peripheral opioid receptors. Such peripheral opioid analgesics may represent alternatives to presently available drugs for a safer pain therapy.

Methylation Products of 6β- N-Heterocyclic Substituted Naltrexamine Derivatives as Potential Peripheral Opioid Receptor Modulators

Two 6β- N-heterocyclic naltrexamine derivatives, NAP and NMP, have been identified as peripherally selective mu opioid receptor (MOR) antagonists. To further enhance the peripheral selectivity of both compounds, the 17-amino group and the nitrogen atom of the pyridine ring in both NAP and NMP were methylated to obtain dMNAP and dMNMP, respectively. Compared with NAP and NMP, the binding affinities of dMNAP and dMNMP shifted to MOR and KOR (kappa opioid receptor) dual selective and they acted as moderate efficacy partial agonists. The results from radioligand binding studies were further confirmed by molecular docking studies. In vivo studies demonstrated that dMNAP and dMNMP did not produce antinociception nor did they antagonize morphine's antinociceptive activity, indicating that these compounds did not act on the central nervous system. Meanwhile, both dMNAP and dMNMP significantly slowed down fecal excretion, which indicated that they were peripherally acting opioid receptor agonists. All together, these results suggested that dMNAP and dMNMP acted as peripheral mu/kappa opioid receptor modulators and may be applicable in the treatment of diarrhea in patients with bowel dysfunction.

Stereoselective synthesis of conformationally restricted KOR agonists based on the 2,5-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane scaffold

It has been postulated that the KOR affinity depends on the dihedral angle of the ethylenediamine pharmacophore. Herein, 2,5-diazabicyclooctanes bearing a pyrrolidino moiety in the 7-position were envisaged to study KOR agonists with a conformationally rigid ethylenediamine pharmacophore and thus a defined N(pyrrolidine)-C7-C1-N2 dihedral angle. The first approach with an intramolecular addition at the chiral sulfinylimines 9 failed to give bicyclic products. The key step in the second approach was a Dieckmann analogous cyclization providing mixed methyl silyl ketals 11a-e as key intermediates. The highest KOR affinity was found for the 2,5-dibenzyl substituted derivatives (S,R,S)-16a (K_i = 31 nM) and (R,S,R)-16a (K_i = 74 nM) with the pyrrolidine ring oriented towards N-5. The high KOR affinity of (S,R,S)-16a is unexpected, since the KOR pharmacophoric ethylenediamine system adopts a dihedral angle of about 160°, which is quite different from the angle of the energetically most favored conformer of the flexible and potent KOR agonist 2. (S,R,S)-16a represents a KOR agonist with moderate selectivity over MOR (8-fold) and DOR (5-fold), but high selectivity over both σ receptor subtypes. In the [³⁵S]GTPγS assay (S,R,S)-16a reacted as a full KOR agonist with an EC₅₀ value of 240 nM.

Design, Synthesis and Cytotoxic Evaluation of Novel Chalcone Derivatives Bearing Triazolo[4,3-a]-quinoxaline Moieties as Potent Anticancer Agents with Dual EGFR Kinase and Tubulin Polymerization Inhibitory Effects

A series of hybrid of triazoloquinoxaline-chalcone derivatives 7a–k were designed, synthesized, fully characterized, and evaluated for their cytotoxic activity against three target cell lines: human breast adenocarcinoma (MCF-7), human colon carcinoma (HCT-116), and human hepatocellular carcinoma (HEPG-2). The preliminary results showed that some of these chalcones like 7b–c, and 7e–g exhibited significant antiproliferative effects against most of the cell lines, with selective or non-selective behavior, indicated by IC₅₀ values in the 1.65 to 34.28 µM range. In order to investigate the mechanistic aspects of these active compounds, EGFR TK and tubulin inhibitory activities were measured as further biological assays. The EGFR TK assay results revealed that the derivatives 7a–c, 7e, and 7g could inhibit the EGFR TK in the submicromolar range (0.093 to 0.661 µM). Moreover, an antitubulin polymerization effect was noted for the active derivatives compared to the reference drug colchicine, with compounds 7e and 7g displaying 14.7 and 8.4 micromolar activity, respectively. Furthermore, a molecular docking study was carried out to explain the observed effects and the binding modes of these chalcones with the EGFR TK and tubulin targets.

Do GluN2B subunit containing NMDA receptors tolerate a fluorine atom in the phenylalkyl side chain?

The influence of an F-atom in the side chain of benzo[7]annulen-7-amines on the affinity towards GluN2B subunit containing NMDA receptors and the selectivity over related receptors was investigated. The synthesis of 5a and 5b was performed by reductive amination of the ketone 6 with primary alkanamines 14a and 14b bearing an F-atom in β-position. The GluN2B affinities of non-fluorinated and fluorinated ligands 4 and 5 are almost identical. The low impact of the F-atom on GluN2B affinity was unexpected, as it influences several chemical and physicochemical properties of the ligands. However, introduction of the F-atom led to reduced selectivity over σ receptors. Whereas 5a and 5b display still a 2-3-fold preference for GluN2B over σ1 receptors, they show almost the same affinity to GluN2B and σ2 receptors.

Design and Synthesis of Enantiomerically Pure Decahydroquinoxalines as Potent and Selective κ-Opioid Receptor Agonists with Anti-Inflammatory Activity in Vivo

In order to develop novel κ agonists restricted to the periphery, a diastereo- and enantioselective synthesis of (4aR,5S,8aS)-configured decahydroquinoxalines 5-8 was developed. Physicochemical and pharmacological properties were fine-tuned by structural modifications in the arylacetamide and amine part of the pharmacophore as well as in the amine part outside the pharmacophore. The decahydroquinoxalines 5-8 show single-digit nanomolar to subnanomolar κ-opioid receptor affinity, full κ agonistic activity in the [³⁵S]GTPγS assay, and high selectivity over μ, δ, σ₁, and σ₂ receptors as well as the PCP binding site of the NMDA receptor. Several analogues were selective for the periphery. The anti-inflammatory activity of 5-8 after topical application was investigated in two mouse models of dermatitis. The methanesulfonamide 8a containing the (S)-configured hydroxypyrrolidine ring was identified as a potent (K_i = 0.63 nM) and highly selective κ agonist (EC₅₀ = 1.8 nM) selective for the periphery with dose-dependent anti-inflammatory activity in acute and chronic skin inflammation.

Synthesis of morphan derivatives with additional substituents in 8-position

The morphan system (2-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonane) as a substructure of morphine is of major interest in medicinal chemistry. Herein, the synthesis of morphan derivatives with additional substituents at the propano bridge is reported. In order to avoid the isolation of the smelly and volatile nitrile 6 and the very polar primary amine 9, an efficient one-pot, three-step sequential transformation of the mesylate 5 into amides 10 was developed. The key step of the synthesis was the stereoselective intramolecular opening of the epoxides 11a–d leading to the exo-configured 8-hydroxymorphans 12a–d. The configuration of the exo-configured hydroxymorphan 12d bearing the κ- and σ-pharmacophoric 3,4-dichlorophenylacetyl moiety was inverted by oxidation and stereoselective reduction. An X-ray crystal structure analysis of the benzamide 12c confirmed the relative configuration of the hydroxymorphans 12a–d and 14d.

6β-N-Heterocyclic Substituted Naltrexamine Derivative BNAP: A Peripherally Selective Mixed MOR/KOR Ligand

The 6β-N-heterocyclic naltrexamine derivative, NAP, has been demonstrated to be a peripherally selective mu opioid receptor modulator. To further improve peripheral selectivity of this highly potent ligand, its pyridal ring was quaterinized with benzyl bromide to produce BNAP. In radioligand binding assay, the Ki of BNAP for MOR was 0.76 ± 0.09 nM and was >900-fold more selective for MOR than DOR. The Ki for KOR was 3.46 ± 0.05 nM. In [(35)S]GTPγS ligand stimulated assay, BNAP showed low agonist efficacy with 14.6% of the maximum response of DAMGO with an EC50 of 4.84 ± 0.6 nM. However, unlike its parent compound NAP, BNAP displayed partial agonist activity at KOR with % maximum response at 45.9 ± 1.7% of U50,488H. BNAP did not reverse morphine-induced antinociception when administered subcutaneously but did antagonize when administered intracerebroventricularly. BNAP antagonized morphine-induced contractions of the circular muscle in mice colon. BNAP inhibition of field-stimulated contractions in longitudinal muscle strips for the guinea-pig ileum were also blocked by nor-BNI, a kappa opioid receptor antagonist. BNAP induced inhibition of acetic acid induced abdominal stretching in chronic morphine treated mice. These findings suggest that BNAP is a dual MOR antagonist/KOR agonist and may have functional use in irritable bowel patients.

Human native kappa opioid receptor functions not predicted by recombinant receptors: Implications for drug design

If activation of recombinant G protein-coupled receptors in host cells (by drugs or other ligands) has predictive value, similar data must be obtained with native receptors naturally expressed in tissues. Using mouse and human recombinant κ opioid receptors transfected into a host cell, two selectively-acting compounds (ICI204448, asimadoline) equi-effectively activated both receptors, assessed by measuring two different cell signalling pathways which were equally affected without evidence of bias. In mouse intestine, naturally expressing κ receptors within its nervous system, both compounds also equi-effectively activated the receptor, inhibiting nerve-mediated muscle contraction. However, whereas ICI204448 acted similarly in human intestine, where κ receptors are again expressed within its nervous system, asimadoline was inhibitory only at very high concentrations; instead, low concentrations of asimadoline reduced the activity of ICI204448. This demonstration of species-dependence in activation of native, not recombinant κ receptors may be explained by different mouse/human receptor structures affecting receptor expression and/or interactions with intracellular signalling pathways in native environments, to reveal differences in intrinsic efficacy between receptor agonists. These results have profound implications in drug design for κ and perhaps other receptors, in terms of recombinant-to-native receptor translation, species-dependency and possibly, a need to use human, therapeutically-relevant, not surrogate tissues.

Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of conformationally restricted κ-opioid receptor agonists

Additional N- and O-atoms in the bicyclic scaffold increase polarity and allow fine tuning of pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of novel κ agonists.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2014

This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants). This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants).

Effects of polar κ receptor agonists designed for the periphery on ATP-induced Ca2+ release from keratinocytes

The very polar pyridylmethyl derivative 5a (log D_7.4 = 1.1) represents a potent and selective full κ-opioid receptor agonist (K_i = 0.13 nM, EC₅₀ = 33 nM), which reduced the release of Ca²⁺-ions into the cytoplasm in human keratinocytes.

Conformationally restricted κ-opioid receptor agonists: Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of diastereoisomeric and enantiomeric decahydroquinoxalines

All diastereoisomeric decahydroquinoxalines representing conformationally restricted analogs of κ agonists U-50,488 and GR-89,696 have been prepared. Cis/trans configured compound 7 is by far the highest binding diastereoisomer with a Ki of 0.35 nM. Racemates 4, 6, and 7 were separated into enantiomers. (+)-(4aR,5S,8aS)-Configured enantiomer 7b was identified as a high affinity (Ki=0.25 nM) κ ligand with high selectivity over μ and δ receptors. It acts as full agonist with an EC50 value of 2.0 nM in the [(35)S]GTPγS assay, while enantiomer 7a showed an EC50 value of 1000 nM.

Asymmetric synthesis of 3-substituted tetrahydro-2-benzazepines

The enantiomerically and diastereomerically pure tricyclic oxazolidine cis-10 was prepared in a five step synthesis starting with 1-bromo-2-iodobenzene. Me3SiCN and allylSiMe3 reacted with cis-10 in the presence of TiCl4 to form the nitrile (3S)-11 and the allyl derivative (3S)-12 with high diastereoselectivity. The hydrogenolytic removal of the chiral auxiliary failed, since the endocyclic benzyl-N-bond was cleaved simultaneously. Therefore the N-(hydroxyethyl)amide of (3S)-12 was transformed into the enamide 27, which was hydrolyzed to afford the secondary amide 28. The enamide strategy to remove the chiral auxiliary from (3S)-11 led to complete racemization due to fast deprotonation in α-position of the cyano moiety. Two pairs of enantiomers 30a-b/ent-30a-b with prototypical σ substituents at the N-atom were prepared. The low σ1 affinity of the tetrahydro-2-benzazepines (ent-30b, Ki = 407 nM) is attributed to the short distance between the two lipophilic aromatic moieties.

Diastereoselective Synthesis of Cyclic Five-Membered trans,trans-Configured Nitrodiols by Double Henry Reaction of 1,4-Dialdehydes

Conformationally constrained perhydroquinoxalines 4 show high κ receptor affinity, selectivity over related receptors and full agonistic activity. Since the κ affinity can be correlated with the dihedral angle of the ethylenediamine pharmacophore (4a: 55°/71°), the dihedral angles of the postulated cyclopentane derivative 5a (73°/84°) and indane derivative 6a (77°/81°) were calculated. The first step of the synthesis represents a double Henry reaction of 1,4-dialdehydes 8 and 10 with nitromethane, leading predominantly to the trans,trans-configured nitrodiols 9 and 11. X-ray crystal structure analyses of 9 and 11 led to dihedral angles O2 N−C−C−OH of 73.4 and 88.3°, respectively, which reflect the calculated dihedral angles of the hypothesized final products 5a and 6a.

Synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of [(3)H]HS665, a novel, highly selective radioligand for the kappa opioid receptor

Herein we report the radiolabeling and pharmacological investigation of a novel radioligand, the N-cyclobutylmethyl substituted diphenethylamine [(3)H]HS665, designed to bind selectively to the kappa opioid peptide (KOP) receptor, a target of therapeutic interest for the treatment of a variety of human disorders (i.e., pain, affective disorders, drug addiction, and psychotic disorders). HS665 was prepared in tritium-labeled form by a dehalotritiated method resulting in a specific activity of 30.65 Ci/mmol. Radioligand binding studies were performed to establish binding properties of [(3)H]HS665 to the recombinant human KOP receptor in membranes from Chinese hamster ovary cells stably expressing human KOP receptors (CHOhKOP) and to the native neuronal KOP receptor in guinea pig brain membranes. Binding of [(3)H]HS665 was specific and saturable in both tissue preparations. A single population of high affinity binding sites was labeled by [(3)H]HS665 in membranes from CHOhKOP cells and guinea pig brain with similar equilibrium dissociation constants, Kd, 0.45 and 0.64 nM, respectively. Average receptor density of [(3)H]HS665 recognition sites were 5564 and 154 fmol/mg protein in CHOhKOP cells and guinea pig brain, respectively. This study shows that the new radioligand distinguishes and labels KOP receptors specifically in neuronal and cellular systems expressing KOP receptors, making this molecule a valuable tool in probing structural and functional mechanisms governing ligand-KOP receptor interactions in both a recombinant and native in vitro setting.