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Freger V. Dielectric exclusion, an éminence grise. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 319:102972. [PMID: 37556866 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2023.102972] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Dielectric exclusion has long been well-established as the key mechanism in membrane desalination, critical for delivering the required levels of salt rejection, also playing important role in electro-membrane processes, nanofluidics, and biomimetics. Unfortunately, its elusive nature and many features, such as dependence on the pore size, membrane hydration, and ion size and charge, make it deceivingly similar to the other ion exclusions mechanisms, steric and Donnan, which has led to much controversy and misconceptions. Starting from the Born model and the concept of self-energy, the present paper reviews and highlights the physical basis of dielectric exclusion, its main features and the ways it may be looked at. It discusses what makes the dielectric exclusion both similar and distinctly different from the other mechanism and its synergy and intimate connection with other phenomena, such as Donnan exclusion, permeability-selectivity upper-bound, and selectivity of charged membranes towards uncharged solutes. The paper also addresses subjects that still cause much controversy at present, such as appropriate measures of ionic radii and the subtle distinction between the dielectric exclusion and primary ion hydration. It also points to gaps that need to be bridged towards more complete theory. The points addressed here are important for understanding, modeling and development of various next-generation separation technologies including water purification, resource recovery and reuse, and green energy generation and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viatcheslav Freger
- Wolfson Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion - IIT, Haifa 32000, Israel; Russel Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion - IIT, Haifa 32000, Israel; Grand Technion Energy Program, Technion - IIT, Haifa 32000, Israel.
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Vokoun D, Samal S, Stachiv I. Impact of Initial Cyclic Loading on Mechanical Properties and Performance of Nafion. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:1488. [PMID: 36772526 PMCID: PMC9920180 DOI: 10.3390/s23031488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 01/05/2023] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Nafion possesses many interesting properties such as a high ion-conductivity, hydrophilicity, and thermal and chemical stability that make this material highly suitable for many applications including fuel cells and various (bio-)chemical and physical sensors. However, the mechanical properties of a Nafion membrane that are known to be affected by the viscoplastic characteristics of the material itself have a strong impact on the performance of Nafion-based sensors. In this study, the mechanical properties of Nafion under the cyclic loading have been investigated in detail. After cyclic tensile loading (i.e., maximum elongation about 25% at a room temperature and relative humidity about 40%) a time-dependent recovery comes into play. This recovery process is also shown being strain-rate dependent. Our results reveal that the recovery behavior weakens after performing several stress-strain cycles. Present findings can be of a great importance in future design of various chemical and biological microsensors and nanosensors such as hydrogen or glucose ones.
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Zelner M, Stolov M, Tendler T, Jahn P, Ulbricht M, Freger V. Elucidating ion transport mechanism in polyelectrolyte-complex membranes. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2022.120757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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4
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Bender J, Mayerhöfer B, Trinke P, Bensmann B, Hanke-Rauschenbach R, Krajinovic K, Thiele S, Kerres J. H +-Conducting Aromatic Multiblock Copolymer and Blend Membranes and Their Application in PEM Electrolysis. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13203467. [PMID: 34685226 PMCID: PMC8541206 DOI: 10.3390/polym13203467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
As an alternative to common perfluorosulfonic acid-based polyelectrolytes, we present the synthesis and characterization of proton exchange membranes based on two different concepts: (i) Covalently bound multiblock-co-ionomers with a nanophase-separated structure exhibit tunable properties depending on hydrophilic and hydrophobic components’ ratios. Here, the blocks were synthesized individually via step-growth polycondensation from either partially fluorinated or sulfonated aromatic monomers. (ii) Ionically crosslinked blend membranes of partially fluorinated polybenzimidazole and pyridine side-chain-modified polysulfones combine the hydrophilic component’s high proton conductivities with high mechanical stability established by the hydrophobic components. In addition to the polymer synthesis, membrane preparation, and thorough characterization of the obtained materials, hydrogen permeability is determined using linear sweep voltammetry. Furthermore, initial in situ tests in a PEM electrolysis cell show promising cell performance, which can be increased by optimizing electrodes with regard to binders for the respective membrane material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Bender
- Institut für Chemische Verfahrenstechnik (ICVT), Universität Stuttgart, Boeblinger Str. 78, 70199 Stuttgart, Germany; (J.B.); (K.K.)
| | - Britta Mayerhöfer
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable Energy (IEK-11), Cauerstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (B.M.); (S.T.)
| | - Patrick Trinke
- Institut für Elektrische Energiesysteme (IfES), Universität Hannover, 30167 Hannover, Germany; (P.T.); (B.B.); (R.H.-R.)
| | - Boris Bensmann
- Institut für Elektrische Energiesysteme (IfES), Universität Hannover, 30167 Hannover, Germany; (P.T.); (B.B.); (R.H.-R.)
| | - Richard Hanke-Rauschenbach
- Institut für Elektrische Energiesysteme (IfES), Universität Hannover, 30167 Hannover, Germany; (P.T.); (B.B.); (R.H.-R.)
| | - Katica Krajinovic
- Institut für Chemische Verfahrenstechnik (ICVT), Universität Stuttgart, Boeblinger Str. 78, 70199 Stuttgart, Germany; (J.B.); (K.K.)
| | - Simon Thiele
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable Energy (IEK-11), Cauerstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (B.M.); (S.T.)
- Department Chemie- und Bioingenieurwesen, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Immerwahrstr. 2a, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Jochen Kerres
- Institut für Chemische Verfahrenstechnik (ICVT), Universität Stuttgart, Boeblinger Str. 78, 70199 Stuttgart, Germany; (J.B.); (K.K.)
- Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Helmholtz Institute Erlangen-Nürnberg for Renewable Energy (IEK-11), Cauerstr. 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany; (B.M.); (S.T.)
- Chemical Resource Beneficiation Faculty of Natural Sciences, North-West University, Potchefstroom 2520, South Africa
- Correspondence:
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A mixed-charge polyelectrolyte complex nanofiltration membrane: Preparation, performance and stability. J Memb Sci 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.119579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Odess A, Cohen M, Li J, Dantus M, Zussman E, Freger V. Electrospun Ion-Conducting Composite Membrane with Buckling-Induced Anisotropic Through-Plane Conductivity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:35700-35708. [PMID: 34292704 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c08087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Fuel cell (FC) is an attractive green alternative for today's fuel combustion systems. In common FCs, a polymer electrolyte membrane selectively conducts protons but blocks the passage of electrons and fuel. Nafion, the current benchmark membrane material, has a superior conductivity owing to unique morphology comprising randomly oriented elongated ionic nanochannels within its Teflon-like matrix. Channel orientation enhances Nafion conductivity, yet there has been no facile method to induce a stable alignment in the desired through-plane (TP) direction. Here, we report an approach based on dual electrospun Nafion-PVDF nanofiber composites that yields a stable TP alignment. It utilizes extreme thinness and strong inherent orientation within electrospun nanofibers, which is readily converted to TP alignment by plunging an electrospun nanofiber mat into a thin slit, resulting in nanofiber buckling and subsequent consolidation. Using TEM and SAXS, we demonstrate a pronounced and sustained TP ion channel orientation in prepared membranes, yielding a highly anisotropic swelling and conductivity exceeding that of bulk Nafion when normalized to Nafion content. The analysis also highlights the importance of PVDF as a stabilizing component, preserving orientation upon annealing, while a similarly prepared pure Nafion membrane loses anisotropy. The approach holds potential to advance the FC technology by overcoming current limitations of ionomeric membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ariel Odess
- Wolfson Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Matan Cohen
- Grand Technion Energy Program, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Jian Li
- Wolfson Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Mauricio Dantus
- Russel Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Eyal Zussman
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
| | - Viatcheslav Freger
- Wolfson Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
- Grand Technion Energy Program, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
- Russel Berrie Nanotechnology Institute, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 3200003, Israel
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Dickinson EJF, Smith G. Modelling the Proton-Conductive Membrane in Practical Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) Simulation: A Review. MEMBRANES 2020; 10:E310. [PMID: 33126688 PMCID: PMC7692588 DOI: 10.3390/membranes10110310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Theoretical models used to describe the proton-conductive membrane in polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are reviewed, within the specific context of practical, physicochemical simulations of PEMFC device-scale performance and macroscopically observable behaviour. Reported models and their parameterisation (especially for Nafion 1100 materials) are compiled into a single source with consistent notation. Detailed attention is given to the Springer-Zawodzinski-Gottesfeld, Weber-Newman, and "binary friction model" methods of coupling proton transport with water uptake and diffusive water transport; alongside, data are compiled for the corresponding parameterisation of proton conductivity, water sorption isotherm, water diffusion coefficient, and electroosmotic drag coefficient. Subsequent sections address the formulation and parameterisation of models incorporating interfacial transport resistances, hydraulic transport of water, swelling and mechanical properties, transient and non-isothermal phenomena, and transport of dilute gases and other contaminants. Lastly, a section is dedicated to the formulation of models predicting the rate of membrane degradation and its influence on PEMFC behaviour.
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Catalano J, Di Tullio V, Wagner M, Zumbulyadis N, Centeno SA, Dybowski C. Review of the use of NMR spectroscopy to investigate structure, reactivity, and dynamics of lead soap formation in paintings. MAGNETIC RESONANCE IN CHEMISTRY : MRC 2020; 58:798-811. [PMID: 32247290 DOI: 10.1002/mrc.5025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Heavy metal carboxylate or soap formation is a widespread deterioration problem affecting oil paintings and other works of art bearing oil-based media. Lead soaps are prevalent in traditional oil paintings because lead white was the white pigment most frequently chosen by old masters for the paints and in some cases for the ground preparations, until the development of other white pigments from approximately the middle of the 18th century on, and because of the wide use of lead-tin yellow. In the latter part of the 19th century, lead white began to be replaced by zinc white. The factors that influence soap formation have been the focus of intense study starting in the late 1990s. Since 2014, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) studies have contributed a unique perspective on the issue by providing chemical, structural, and dynamic information about the species involved in the process, as well as the effects of environmental conditions such as relative humidity and temperature on the kinetics of the reaction(s). In this review, we explore recent insights into soap formation gained through solid-state NMR and single-sided NMR techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaclyn Catalano
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ, USA
| | - Valeria Di Tullio
- Magnetic Resonance Laboratory "Annalaura Segre", ISB-CNR, Rome, Italy
| | - Molly Wagner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Nicholas Zumbulyadis
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
| | - Silvia A Centeno
- Department of Scientific Research, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY, USA
| | - Cecil Dybowski
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Delaware, Newark, DE, USA
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Structure-transport relationships of poly(aryl piperidinium) anion-exchange membranes: Eeffect of anions and hydration. J Memb Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Di Tullio V, Zumbulyadis N, Centeno SA, Catalano J, Wagner M, Dybowski C. Water Diffusion and Transport in Oil Paints as Studied by Unilateral NMR and
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H High‐Resolution MAS‐NMR Spectroscopy. Chemphyschem 2019; 21:113-119. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201900858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Di Tullio
- Department of Scientific Research The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, NY USA
- Magnetic Resonance Laboratory “Annalaura Segre” ISB-CNR Rome Italy
| | - Nicholas Zumbulyadis
- Independent Researcher, Rochester NY USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Delaware Newark, DE USA
| | - Silvia A. Centeno
- Department of Scientific Research The Metropolitan Museum of Art New York, NY USA
| | - Jaclyn Catalano
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry Montclair State University Montclair, NJ USA
| | - Molly Wagner
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Delaware Newark, DE USA
| | - Cecil Dybowski
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry University of Delaware Newark, DE USA
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12
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Characterization and evaluation of Nafion HP JP as proton exchange membrane: transport properties, nanostructure, morphology, and cell performance. J Solid State Electrochem 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-019-04366-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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13
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Divekar AG, Kuo M, Park AM, Motz AR, Page‐Belknap ZS, Owczarczyk Z, Long H, Seifert S, Maupin CM, Yandrasits MA, Yang Y, Pivovar BS, Herring AM. The impact of alkyl tri‐methyl ammonium side chains on perfluorinated ionic membranes for electrochemical applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mei‐Chen Kuo
- Colorado School of Mines 1500 Illinois St., Golden Colorado 80401
| | - Andrew M. Park
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden Colorado 80401
| | - Andrew R. Motz
- Colorado School of Mines 1500 Illinois St., Golden Colorado 80401
| | | | | | - Hai Long
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory Golden Colorado 80401
| | - Soenke Seifert
- Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory 9700 Cass Ave, Lemont Illinois, 60439
| | - Christopher Mark Maupin
- Colorado School of Mines 1500 Illinois St., Golden Colorado 80401
- Proctor & Gamble Cincinnati Ohio 45202
| | | | - Yuan Yang
- Colorado School of Mines 1500 Illinois St., Golden Colorado 80401
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Zadok I, Srebnik S. Coarse-Grained Simulation of Protein-Imprinted Hydrogels. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:7091-7101. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b03774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Israel Zadok
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
| | - Simcha Srebnik
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Technion—Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa 32000, Israel
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Bunkin NF, Kozlov VA, Shkirin AV, Ninham BW, Balashov AA, Gudkov SV. Dynamics of Nafion membrane swelling in H 2O/D 2O mixtures as studied using FTIR technique. J Chem Phys 2018; 148:124901. [PMID: 29604815 DOI: 10.1063/1.5022264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Experiments with Fourier transform spectrometry of Nafion, a water-swollen polymeric membrane, are described. The transmittance spectra of liquid samples and Nafion, soaked in these samples, were studied, depending on the deuterium content in water in the spectral range 1.8-2.15 μm. The experiments were carried out using two protocols: in the first protocol we studied the dynamics of Nafion swelling in H2O + D2O mixtures for the deuterium concentrations 3 < C < 104 ppm, and in the second protocol we studied the dynamics of swelling in pure heavy water (C = 106 ppm). For liquid mixtures in the concentration range 3 < C < 104 ppm, the transmittance spectra are the same, but for Nafion soaked in these fluids, the corresponding spectra are different. It is shown that, in the range of deuterium contents C = 90-500 ppm, the behavior of transmittance of the polymer membrane is non-monotonic. In experiments using the second protocol, the dynamics of diffusion replacement of residual water, which is always present in the bulk of the polymer membrane inside closed cavities (i.e., without access to atmospheric air), were studied. The experimentally estimated diffusion coefficient for this process is ≈6·10-11 cm2/s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolai F Bunkin
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Second Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Valeriy A Kozlov
- Bauman Moscow State Technical University, Second Baumanskaya Str. 5, Moscow 105005, Russia
| | - Alexey V Shkirin
- A. M. Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, Moscow 119991, Russia
| | - Barry W Ninham
- The Australian National University, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Anatoliy A Balashov
- Scientific and Technological Center of Unique Instrumentation, Russian Academy of Sciences, Butlerova Str., Moscow 15117342, Russia
| | - Sergey V Gudkov
- A. M. Prokhorov General Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilova Str. 38, Moscow 119991, Russia
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Kononenko N, Nikonenko V, Grande D, Larchet C, Dammak L, Fomenko M, Volfkovich Y. Porous structure of ion exchange membranes investigated by various techniques. Adv Colloid Interface Sci 2017; 246:196-216. [PMID: 28511788 DOI: 10.1016/j.cis.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
A comparative review of various techniques is provided: mercury intrusion porosimetry, nitrogen sorption porosimetry, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)-based thermoporosimetry, and standard contact porosimetry (SCP), which allows determining pore volume distribution versus pore radius/water binding energy in ion-exchange membranes (IEMs). IEMs in the swollen state have a labile structure involving micro-, meso- and macropores, whose size is a function of the external water vapor pressure. For such materials, the most appropriate methods for quantifying their porosity are DSC and SCP. Especially significant information is given by the SCP method allowing measuring porosimetric curves in a very large pore size range from 1 to 105nm. Experimental results of water distribution in homogeneous and heterogeneous commercial and modified IEMs are presented. The effect of various factors on water distribution is reviewed, i.e. nature of polymeric matrix and functional groups, method for membrane preparation, membrane ageing. A special attention is given to the effect of membrane modification by embedding nanoparticles in their structure. The porosimetric curves are considered along with the results of electrochemical characterization involving the measurements of membrane conductivity, as well as diffusion and electroosmotic permeability. It is shown that addition of nanoparticles may lead to either increase or decrease of water content in IEMs, different ranges of pore size being affected. Hybrid membranes modified with hydrated zirconium dioxide exhibit much higher permselectivity in comparison with the pristine membranes. The diversity of the responses of membrane properties to their modification allows for formation of membranes suitable for fuel cells, electrodialysis or other applications.
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Roldughin VI, Karpenko-Jereb LV. On the Schroeder paradox for nonionogenic polymers. COLLOID JOURNAL 2017. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061933x17040123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Abstract
In this comprehensive review, recent progress and developments on perfluorinated sulfonic-acid (PFSA) membranes have been summarized on many key topics. Although quite well investigated for decades, PFSA ionomers' complex behavior, along with their key role in many emerging technologies, have presented significant scientific challenges but also helped create a unique cross-disciplinary research field to overcome such challenges. Research and progress on PFSAs, especially when considered with their applications, are at the forefront of bridging electrochemistry and polymer (physics), which have also opened up development of state-of-the-art in situ characterization techniques as well as multiphysics computation models. Topics reviewed stem from correlating the various physical (e.g., mechanical) and transport properties with morphology and structure across time and length scales. In addition, topics of recent interest such as structure/transport correlations and modeling, composite PFSA membranes, degradation phenomena, and PFSA thin films are presented. Throughout, the impact of PFSA chemistry and side-chain is also discussed to present a broader perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Kusoglu
- Energy Conversion Group, Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road, MS70-108B, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Adam Z Weber
- Energy Conversion Group, Energy Technologies Area, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , 1 Cyclotron Road, MS70-108B, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Roldughin VI, Karpenko-Jereb LV. On the Schroeder paradox for ion-exchange polymers. COLLOID JOURNAL 2016. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061933x16060132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Chlistunoff J, Sansiñena JM. On the use of Nafion® in electrochemical studies of carbon supported oxygen reduction catalysts in aqueous media. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2016.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Fumagalli M, Lyonnard S, Prajapati G, Berrod Q, Porcar L, Guillermo A, Gebel G. Fast Water Diffusion and Long-Term Polymer Reorganization during Nafion Membrane Hydration Evidenced by Time-Resolved Small-Angle Neutron Scattering. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:7068-76. [PMID: 25971732 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
We report a small-angle neutron scattering study of liquid water sorption in Nafion membranes. The swelling of hydrophilic domains was measured on the nanoscale by combining in situ time-resolved and long-term static experiments, yielding kinetic curves recorded over an unprecedented time scale, from hundreds of milliseconds to several years. At low water content, typically below 5 water molecules per ionic group, a limited subdiffusive regime was observed and ascribed to nanoconfinement and local interactions between charged species and water molecules. Further ultrafast and thermally activated swelling due to massive liquid water sorption was observed and analyzed by using Fick's equation. The extracted mutual water diffusion coefficients are in good agreement with pulsed field gradient NMR self-diffusion coefficient values, evidencing a water diffusion-driven process due to concentration gradients within the Nafion membrane. Finally, after completion of the ultrafast regime, the kinetic swelling curves exhibit a remarkable long-term behavior scaling as the logarithm of time, showing that the polymer membrane can continuously accommodate additional water molecules upon hydration stress. The present nanoscale kinetics results provide insights into the vapor-versus-liquid sorption mechanisms, the nanostructure of Nafion, and the role of polymer reorganization modes, highlighting that the membrane can never reach a steady state.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Fumagalli
- †Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/CEA-INAC-SPrAM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - S Lyonnard
- †Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/CEA-INAC-SPrAM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - G Prajapati
- †Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/CEA-INAC-SPrAM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Q Berrod
- †Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/CEA-INAC-SPrAM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - L Porcar
- ‡Institut Laue Langevin, BP 156, 6 rue Jules Horowitz, 38042 Grenoble Cedex 9, France
| | - A Guillermo
- †Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS/CEA-INAC-SPrAM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - G Gebel
- §Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA Liten DTNM, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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Narducci R, Di Vona M, Knauth P. Cation-conducting ionomers made by ion exchange of sulfonated poly-ether-ether-ketone: Hydration, mechanical and thermal properties and ionic conductivity. J Memb Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2014.03.073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Daly KB, Benziger JB, Panagiotopoulos AZ, Debenedetti PG. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Water Permeation across Nafion Membrane Interfaces. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:8798-807. [DOI: 10.1021/jp5024718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin B. Daly
- Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Jay B. Benziger
- Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | | | - Pablo G. Debenedetti
- Department of Chemical and
Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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28
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Li Y, Nguyen QT, Lixon Buquet C, Marais S. Effect of molecular structure of sulphonated polyimide membranes on water sorption. IET Nanobiotechnol 2014; 8:51-8. [DOI: 10.1049/iet-nbt.2013.0036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Yongli Li
- PBS Laboratory, UMR 6270 CNRS, FR 3038Université de RouenDe Broglie Bld76821Mont Saint Aignan CedexFrance
| | - Quang Trong Nguyen
- PBS Laboratory, UMR 6270 CNRS, FR 3038Université de RouenDe Broglie Bld76821Mont Saint Aignan CedexFrance
| | - Camille Lixon Buquet
- PBS Laboratory, UMR 6270 CNRS, FR 3038Université de RouenDe Broglie Bld76821Mont Saint Aignan CedexFrance
| | - Stephane Marais
- PBS Laboratory, UMR 6270 CNRS, FR 3038Université de RouenDe Broglie Bld76821Mont Saint Aignan CedexFrance
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29
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He C, Guiver MD, Mighri F, Kaliaguine S. Surface orientation of hydrophilic groups in sulfonated poly(ether ether ketone) membranes. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 409:193-203. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.06.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2013] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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30
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Collette FM, Thominette F, Mendil-Jakani H, Gebel G. Structure and transport properties of solution-cast Nafion® membranes subjected to hygrothermal aging. J Memb Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2013.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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31
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Hwang GS, Parkinson DY, Kusoglu A, MacDowell AA, Weber AZ. Understanding Water Uptake and Transport in Nafion Using X-ray Microtomography. ACS Macro Lett 2013; 2:288-291. [PMID: 35581752 DOI: 10.1021/mz300651a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To develop new ionomers and optimize existing ones, there is a need to understand their structure/function relationships experimentally. In this letter, synchrotron X-ray microtomography is used to examine water distributions within Nafion, the most commonly used ionomer. Simultaneous high spatial (∼1 μm) and temporal (∼10 min) resolutions, previously unattained by other techniques, clearly show the nonlinear water profile across the membrane thickness, with a continuous transition from dynamic to steady-state transport coefficients with the requisite water-content dependence. The data also demonstrate the importance of the interfacial condition in controlling the water profile and help to answer some long-standing debates in the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gi Suk Hwang
- Environmental
Energy Technologies Division and ‡Advanced Light Source, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California,
94720, United States
| | - Dilworth Y. Parkinson
- Environmental
Energy Technologies Division and ‡Advanced Light Source, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California,
94720, United States
| | - Ahmet Kusoglu
- Environmental
Energy Technologies Division and ‡Advanced Light Source, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California,
94720, United States
| | - Alastair A. MacDowell
- Environmental
Energy Technologies Division and ‡Advanced Light Source, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California,
94720, United States
| | - Adam Z. Weber
- Environmental
Energy Technologies Division and ‡Advanced Light Source, Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, California,
94720, United States
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32
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Modestino MA, Paul DK, Dishari S, Petrina SA, Allen FI, Hickner MA, Karan K, Segalman RA, Weber AZ. Self-Assembly and Transport Limitations in Confined Nafion Films. Macromolecules 2013. [DOI: 10.1021/ma301999a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Modestino
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley, California 94720, United States, and Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
94720, United States
| | - Devproshad K. Paul
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6,
Canada
| | - Shudipto Dishari
- Department of Materials
Science
and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Stephanie A. Petrina
- Department of Materials
Science
and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Frances I. Allen
- National Center for Electron
Microscopy, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Michael A. Hickner
- Department of Materials
Science
and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Kunal Karan
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario K7L 3N6,
Canada
| | - Rachel A. Segalman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of California,
Berkeley, California 94720, United States, and Materials Science Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
94720, United States
| | - Adam Z. Weber
- Environmental Energy Technologies
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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33
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Tang J, Yuan W, Zhang J, Li H, Zhang Y. Evidence for a crystallite-rich skin on perfluorosulfonate ionomer membranes. RSC Adv 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3ra40430g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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34
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Modestino MA, Kusoglu A, Hexemer A, Weber AZ, Segalman RA. Controlling Nafion Structure and Properties via Wetting Interactions. Macromolecules 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/ma300212f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A. Modestino
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States, and Materials Science
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ahmet Kusoglu
- Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
94720, United States
| | - Alexander Hexemer
- Advanced
Light Source, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Adam Z. Weber
- Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California
94720, United States
| | - Rachel A. Segalman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular
Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States, and Materials Science
Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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35
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Hussey DS, Spernjak D, Weber AZ, Mukundan R, Fairweather J, Brosha EL, Davey J, Spendelow JS, Jacobson DL, Borup RL. Accurate measurement of the through-plane water content of proton-exchange membranes using neutron radiography. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYSICS 2012; 112:10.1063/1.4767118. [PMID: 35528323 PMCID: PMC9074753 DOI: 10.1063/1.4767118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The water sorption of proton-exchange membranes (PEMs) was measured in situ using high-resolution neutron imaging in small-scale fuel cell test sections. A detailed characterization of the measurement uncertainties and corrections associated with the technique is presented. An image-processing procedure resolved a previously reported discrepancy between the measured and predicted membrane water content. With high-resolution neutron-imaging detectors, the water distributions across N1140 and N117 Nafion membranes are resolved in vapor-sorption experiments and during fuel cell and hydrogen-pump operation. The measured in situ water content of a restricted membrane at 80 °C is shown to agree with ex situ gravimetric measurements of free-swelling membranes over a water activity range of 0.5 to 1.0 including at liquid equilibration. Schroeder's paradox was verified by in situ water-content measurements which go from a high value at supersaturated or liquid conditions to a lower one with fully saturated vapor. At open circuit and during fuel cell operation, the measured water content indicates that the membrane is operating between the vapor- and liquid-equilibrated states.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Hussey
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - D Spernjak
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - A Z Weber
- Environmental Energy Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, USA
| | - R Mukundan
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - J Fairweather
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - E L Brosha
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - J Davey
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - J S Spendelow
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
| | - D L Jacobson
- Physical Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, USA
| | - R L Borup
- Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, USA
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36
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Kusoglu A, Weber AZ. Water Transport and Sorption in Nafion Membrane. POLYMERS FOR ENERGY STORAGE AND DELIVERY: POLYELECTROLYTES FOR BATTERIES AND FUEL CELLS 2012. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2012-1096.ch011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmet Kusoglu
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Adam Z. Weber
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 1 Cyclotron Road, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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37
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Davankov VA, Pastukhov AV. Paradoxes of Thermodynamics of Swelling Equilibria of Polymers in Liquids and Vapors. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:15188-95. [DOI: 10.1021/jp208209c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vadim A. Davankov
- Nesmeyanov-Institute of Organo-Element Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilov st. 28, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander V. Pastukhov
- Nesmeyanov-Institute of Organo-Element Compounds, Russian Academy of Sciences, Vavilov st. 28, 119991 Moscow, Russia
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38
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39
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Kim YG, Bae YC. Predicting the proton conductivity of perfluorosulfonic acid membrane via combining statistical thermodynamics and molecular dynamics simulation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.22328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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40
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Sode A, Ingle N, McCormick M, Bizzotto D, Gyenge E, Ye S, Knights S, Wilkinson D. Controlling the deposition of Pt nanoparticles within the surface region of Nafion. J Memb Sci 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2011.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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41
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42
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Bass M, Berman A, Singh A, Konovalov O, Freger V. Surface-Induced Micelle Orientation in Nafion Films. Macromolecules 2011. [DOI: 10.1021/ma102361f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bass
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sde-Boqer Campus, Sde-Boqer 84990, Israel
| | | | - Amarjeet Singh
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Oleg Konovalov
- European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Viatcheslav Freger
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Sde-Boqer Campus, Sde-Boqer 84990, Israel
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43
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Zhao Q, Majsztrik P, Benziger J. Diffusion and interfacial transport of water in Nafion. J Phys Chem B 2011; 115:2717-27. [PMID: 21370837 DOI: 10.1021/jp1112125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 216] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Water absorption, membrane swelling, and self-diffusivity of water in 1100 equivalent weight Nafion were measured as functions of temperature and water activity. Free volume per water at 80 °C, determined from water uptake and volume expansion data, decreases with water content in the membrane from 12 cm(3)/mol at λ = 0.5 H(2)O/SO(3) to 1.5 cm(3)/mol at λ = 4. The change in free volume with water content displays a transition at λ = 4. Limiting water self-diffusivity in Nafion was determined by pulsed gradient spin echo NMR at long delay times. The limiting self-diffusivity increases exponentially with water activity; the rate of increase of diffusivity with water content shows a transition at λ = 4. The tortuosity of the hydrophilic domains in Nafion decreased from 20 at low membrane water activity to 3 at λ = 4. It suggested a change in the connectivity of the hydrophilic domains absorbed water occurs at λ ∼ 4. The diffusivity results were employed to separate the contributions of diffusional and interfacial resistance for water transport across Nafion membranes, which enabled the determination of the interfacial mass transport coefficients. A diffusion model was developed which incorporated activity-dependent diffusivity, volume expansion, and the interfacial resistance, and was used to resolve the water activity profiles in the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiao Zhao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, USA
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44
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Bass M, Berman A, Singh A, Konovalov O, Freger V. Surface Structure of Nafion in Vapor and Liquid. J Phys Chem B 2010; 114:3784-90. [DOI: 10.1021/jp9113128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maria Bass
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Unit of Environmental Engineering, and Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 635, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel, and European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Amir Berman
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Unit of Environmental Engineering, and Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 635, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel, and European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Amarjeet Singh
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Unit of Environmental Engineering, and Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 635, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel, and European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Oleg Konovalov
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Unit of Environmental Engineering, and Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 635, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel, and European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
| | - Viatcheslav Freger
- Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research, Unit of Environmental Engineering, and Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 635, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel, and European Synchrotron Radiation Facility, ID10B, 6 Rue Jules Horowitz, BP-220, 38043 Grenoble CEDEX, France
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45
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Iwamoto R, Sato M. Infrared Spectroscopic Study of the Effect of Electrostatic Interaction on the Molecular Arrangement in the Hydration Shell around Li+ in a Nafion Membrane. J Phys Chem A 2009; 113:13998-4007. [DOI: 10.1021/jp906934u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Reikichi Iwamoto
- NIRS Institute of Water, Yuyamadai 2-7-10, Kawanishi, Hyogo 666-0137, Japan, and KRI, Incorporated, Chudojiminami-machi 134, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto 600-8013, Japan
| | - Masahiro Sato
- NIRS Institute of Water, Yuyamadai 2-7-10, Kawanishi, Hyogo 666-0137, Japan, and KRI, Incorporated, Chudojiminami-machi 134, Shimogyo-ku, Kyoto 600-8013, Japan
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