1
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Stevens MJ, Rempe SLB. Binding of Li + to Negatively Charged and Neutral Ligands in Polymer Electrolytes. J Phys Chem Lett 2023; 14:10200-10207. [PMID: 37930189 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c02565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2023]
Abstract
Conceptually, single-ion polymer electrolytes (SIPE) with the anion bound to the polymer could solve major issues in Li-ion batteries, but their conductivity is too low. Experimentally, weakly interacting anionic groups have the best conductivity. To provide a theoretical basis for this result, density functional theory calculations of the optimized geometries and energies are performed for charged ligands used in SIPE. Comparison is made to neutral ligands found in dual-ion conductors, which demonstrate higher conductivity. The free energy differences between adding and subtracting a ligand are small enough for the neutral ligands to have the conductivity seen experimentally. However, charged ligands have large barriers, implying that lithium transport will coincide with the slow polymer diffusion, as observed in experiments. Overall, SIPE will require additional solvent to achieve a sufficiently high conductivity. Additionally, the binding of mono- and bidentate geometries varies, providing a simple and clear reason that polarizable force fields are required for detailed interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Susan L B Rempe
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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2
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Stevens MJ, Rempe SLB. Binding of carboxylate and water to monovalent cations. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:29881-29893. [PMID: 37889481 DOI: 10.1039/d3cp04200f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
The interactions of carboxylate anions with water and cations are important for a wide variety of systems, both biological and synthetic. To gain insight on properties of the local complexes, we apply density functional theory, to treat the complex electrostatic interactions, and investigate mixtures with varied numbers of carboxylate anions (acetate) and waters binding to monovalent cations, Li+, Na+ and K+. The optimal structure with overall lowest free energy contains two acetates and two waters such that the cation is four-fold coordinated, similar to structures found earlier for pure water or pure carboxylate ligands. More generally, the complexes with two acetates have the lowest free energy. In transitioning from the overall optimal state, exchanging an acetate for water has a lower free energy barrier than exchanging water for an acetate. In most cases, the carboxylates are monodentate and in the first solvation shell. As water is added to the system, hydrogen bonding between waters and carboxylate O atoms further stabilizes monodentate structures. These structures, which have strong electrostatic interactions that involve hydrogen bonds of varying strength, are significantly polarized, with ChelpG partial charges that vary substantially as the bonding geometry varies. Overall, these results emphasize the increasing importance of water as a component of binding sites as the number of ligands increases, thus affecting the preferential solvation of specific metal ions and clarifying Hofmeister effects. Finally, structural analysis correlated with free energy analysis supports the idea that binding to more than the preferred number of carboxylates under architectural constraints are a key to ion transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA.
| | - Susan L B Rempe
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA.
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3
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Vigil DL, Stevens MJ, Frischknecht AL. Accurate Calculation of Solvation Properties of Lithium Ions in Nonaqueous Solutions. J Phys Chem B 2023; 127:8002-8008. [PMID: 37676921 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.3c05591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
We perform all-atom molecular dynamics simulations of lithium triflate in 1,2-dimethoxyethane using six different literature force fields. This system is representative of many experimental studies of lithium salts in solvents and polymers. We show that multiple historically common force fields for lithium ions give qualitatively incorrect results when compared with those from experiments and quantum chemistry calculations. We illustrate the importance of correctly selecting force field parameters and give recommendations on the force field choice for lithium electrolyte applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Vigil
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Amalie L Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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4
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Fang C, Chakraborty S, Li Y, Lee J, Balsara NP, Wang R. Ion Solvation Cage Structure in Polymer Electrolytes Determined by Combining X-ray Scattering and Simulations. ACS Macro Lett 2023; 12:1244-1250. [PMID: 37639325 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.3c00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Solvation structure plays a crucial role in determining ion transport in electrolytes. We combine wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation to identify the solvation cage structure in two polymer electrolytes, poly(pentyl malonate) (PPM) and poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) mixed with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (LiTFSI) salt. As the salt concentration increases, the amorphous halo in the pure polymers is augmented by an additional peak at low scattering angles. The location of this peak and its height are, however, different in the two electrolytes. By decoupling the total intensity into species contributions and mapping scattering peaks to position-space molecular correlations, we elucidate distinct origins of the additional peak. In PPM, it arises from long-range charge-ordering between solvation cages and anions, while in PEO it is dominated by correlations between anions surrounding the same cage. TFSI- ions are present in the PPM solvation cage, but expelled from the PEO solvation cage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Saheli Chakraborty
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Yunhao Li
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Jaeyong Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Nitash P Balsara
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States of America
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5
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Jones S, Bamford J, Fredrickson GH, Segalman RA. Decoupling Ion Transport and Matrix Dynamics to Make High Performance Solid Polymer Electrolytes. ACS POLYMERS AU 2022; 2:430-448. [PMID: 36561285 PMCID: PMC9761859 DOI: 10.1021/acspolymersau.2c00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Transport of ions through solid polymeric electrolytes (SPEs) involves a complicated interplay of ion solvation, ion-ion interactions, ion-polymer interactions, and free volume. Nonetheless, prevailing viewpoints on the subject promote a significantly simplified picture, likening ion transport in a polymer to that in an unstructured fluid at low solute concentrations. Although this idealized liquid transport model has been successful in guiding the design of homogeneous electrolytes, structured electrolytes provide a promising alternate route to achieve high ionic conductivity and selectivity. In this perspective, we begin by describing the physical origins of the idealized liquid transport mechanism and then proceed to examine known cases of decoupling between the matrix dynamics and ionic transport in SPEs. Specifically we discuss conditions for "decoupled" mobility that include a highly polar electrolyte environment, a percolated path of free volume elements (either through structured or unstructured channels), high ion concentrations, and labile ion-electrolyte interactions. Finally, we proceed to reflect on the potential of these mechanisms to promote multivalent ion conductivity and the need for research into the interfacial properties of solid polymer electrolytes as well as their performance at elevated potentials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seamus
D. Jones
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Mitsubishi
Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - James Bamford
- Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Mitsubishi
Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Department, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Glenn H. Fredrickson
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Mitsubishi
Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Department, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Rachel A. Segalman
- Department
of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Research Laboratory, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States,Mitsubishi
Chemical Center for Advanced Materials, University of California, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,Materials
Department, University of California Santa
Barbara, Santa
Barbara, California 93106, United States,
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6
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Balzer C, Frischknecht AL. Explicit Polarization in Coarse-Grained Simulations of Ionomer Melts. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Balzer
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, 1200 E California Blvd, Pasadena, California91125, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, P.O. Box 5800
MS 1303, Albuquerque, New Mexico87185-1303, United States
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7
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Stevens MJ, Rempe SLB. Carboxylate binding prefers two cations to one. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:22198-22205. [PMID: 36093927 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp03561h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Almost all studies of specific ion binding by carboxylates (-COO-) have considered only a single cation, but clustering of ions and ligands is a common phenomenon. We apply density functional theory to investigate how variations in the number of acetate ligands in binding to two monovalent cations affects ion binding preferences. We study a series of monovalent (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+) ions relevant to experimental work on many topics, including ion channels, battery storage, water purification and solar cells. We find that the preferred optimal structure has 3 acetates except for Cs+, which has 2 acetates. The optimal coordination of the cation by the carboxylate O atoms is 4 for both Na+ and K+, and 3 for Li+ and Cs+. There is a 4-fold coordination minimum just a few kcal mol-1 higher than the optimal 3-fold structure for Li+. For two cations, multiple minima occur in the vicinity of the lowest free energy state. We find that, for Li, Na and K, the preferred optimal structure with two cations is favored over a mixture of single cation complexes, providing a basis for understanding ionic cluster formation that is relevant for engineering proteins and other materials for rapid, selective ion transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA.
| | - Susan L B Rempe
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM 87185, USA. .,CBRN Defense and Energy Technologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, 87185, USA.
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8
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Fan M, Shen KH, Hall LM. Effect of Tethering Anions in Block Copolymer Electrolytes via Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mengdi Fan
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Kuan-Hsuan Shen
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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9
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Liu J, Yang L, Pickett PD, Park B, Schaefer JL. Li + Transport in Single-Ion Conducting Side-Chain Polymer Electrolytes with Nanoscale Self-Assembly of Ordered Ionic Domains. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Liu
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Lingyu Yang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Phillip D. Pickett
- Materials Science and Engineering Division, Material Measurement Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Bumjun Park
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Schaefer
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Indiana 46556, United States
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10
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Structure and Diffusion of Ionic PDMS Melts. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14153070. [PMID: 35956584 PMCID: PMC9370667 DOI: 10.3390/polym14153070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 07/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Ionic polymers exhibit mechanical properties that can be widely tuned upon selectively charging them. However, the correlated structural and dynamical properties underlying the microscopic mechanism remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigate, for the first time, the structure and diffusion of randomly and end-functionalized ionic poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) melts with negatively charged bromide counterions, by means of atomistic molecular dynamics using a united atom model. In particular, we find that the density of the ionic PDMS melts exceeds the one of their neutral counterpart and increases as the charge density increases. The counterions are condensed to the cationic part of end-functionalized cationic PDMS chains, especially for the higher molecular weights, leading to a slow diffusion inside the melt; the counterions are also correlated more strongly to each other for the end-functionalized PDMS. Temperature has a weak effect on the counterion structure and leads to an Arrhenius type of behavior for the counterion diffusion coefficient. In addition, the charge density of PDMS chains enhances the diffusion of counterions especially at higher temperatures, but hinders PDMS chain dynamics. Neutral PDMS chains are shown to exhibit faster dynamics (diffusion) than ionic PDMS chains. These findings contribute to the theoretical description of the correlations between structure and dynamical properties of ion-containing polymers.
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11
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Tao Q, Wang J, Song Z, Zhang H, Yu Y, Hu C, Cen H, Zheng X, Hu T, Wu C. Effects of Ion Content on the Ion Aggregation Morphology and Glass Transition of Poly(styrene-ran-cinnamic acid) (SCA) Zn-Salt Ionomer. J MACROMOL SCI B 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/00222348.2022.2081782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Tao
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Jie Wang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Zhiyuan Song
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Yang Yu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Chuanqun Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Hongyu Cen
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Xuan Zheng
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Tao Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
| | - Chonggang Wu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, P.R. China
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12
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Song Z, Wang J, Tao Q, Yu Y, Zhang H, Hu C, Cen H, Zheng X, Hu T, Wu C. Zn‐salt poly(styrene–
ran
–cinnamic acid) ionomer as a polystyrene with improved impact toughness, heat resistance, and minimally compromised processability. J Appl Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/app.52041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Song
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Jie Wang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Qian Tao
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Yang Yu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Hui Zhang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Chuanqun Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Hongyu Cen
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Xuan Zheng
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Tao Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
| | - Chonggang Wu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light‐Weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering Hubei University of Technology Wuhan China
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13
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Wong LN, Jones SD, Wood K, de Campo L, Darwish T, Moir M, Li H, Segalman RA, Warr GG, Atkin R. Polycation radius of gyration in a polymeric ionic liquid (PIL): the PIL melt is not a theta solvent. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:4526-4532. [PMID: 35119064 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp05354j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The conformation of the polycation in the prototypical polymeric ionic liquid (PIL) poly(3-methyl-1-aminopropylimidazolylacrylamide) bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide (poly(3MAPIm)TFSI) was probed using small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) and ultra-small-angle neutron scattering (USANS) at 25 °C and 80 °C. Poly(3MAPIm)TFSI contains microvoids which lead to intense low q scattering that can be mitigated using mixtures of hydrogen- and deuterium-rich materials, allowing determination of the polycation conformation and radius of gyration (Rg). In the pure PIL, the polycation adopts a random coil conformation with Rg = 52 ± 0.5 Å. In contrast to conventional polymer melts, the pure PIL is not a theta solvent for the polycation. The TFSI- anions, which comprise 48% v/v of the PIL, are strongly attracted to the polycation and act like small solvent molecules which leads to chain swelling analogous to an entangled, semi-dilute, or concentrated polymer solution in a good solvent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas N Wong
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth 6009, Australia.
| | - Seamus D Jones
- Chemical Engineering Department and Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
| | - Kathleen Wood
- Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, New Illawarra Road, Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
| | - Liliana de Campo
- Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation, New Illawarra Road, Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
| | - Tamim Darwish
- National Deuteration Facility (NDF), ANSTO, Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
| | - Michael Moir
- National Deuteration Facility (NDF), ANSTO, Lucas Heights, NSW 2234, Australia
| | - Hua Li
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth 6009, Australia.
| | - Rachel A Segalman
- Chemical Engineering Department and Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
| | - Gregory G Warr
- School of Chemistry and University of Sydney Nano Institute, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Rob Atkin
- School of Molecular Sciences, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth 6009, Australia.
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14
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Yang Z, Xu X, Xu WS. Influence of Ionic Interaction Strength on Glass Formation of an Ion-Containing Polymer Melt. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c01719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhenyue Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
| | - Xiaolei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
| | - Wen-Sheng Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Polymer Physics and Chemistry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, P. R. China
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15
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Abstract
We present a general theory of ionic conductivity in polymeric materials consisting of percolated ionic pathways. Identifying two key length scales corresponding to inter-path permeation distance ξ and one-dimensional hopping conduction path length mλ, we have derived closed-form formulas in terms of the energy U required to unbind a conductive ion from its bound state and the partition ratio ξ/mλ between the three-dimensional permeation and one-dimensional hopping pathways. The results provide design strategies to significantly enhance ionic conductivity in single-ion conductors. For large barriers to dissociate an ion, corrections to the Arrhenius law are presented. The predicted dependence of ionic conductivity on the unbinding time is in agreement with results in the literature based on simulations and experiments. This theory is generally applicable to conductive systems where the two mechanisms of permeation and hopping occur concurrently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murugappan Muthukumar
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA
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16
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Loo WS, Fang C, Balsara NP, Wang R. Uncovering Local Correlations in Polymer Electrolytes by X-ray Scattering and Molecular Dynamics Simulations. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.1c00995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Whitney S. Loo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Chao Fang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Nitash P. Balsara
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Rui Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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17
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Peterson A, Mehandzhiyski AY, Svenningsson L, Ziolkowska A, Kádár R, Lund A, Sandblad L, Evenäs L, Lo Re G, Zozoulenko I, Müller C. A Combined Theoretical and Experimental Study of the Polymer Matrix-Mediated Stress Transfer in a Cellulose Nanocomposite. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Peterson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | | | - Leo Svenningsson
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Agnieszka Ziolkowska
- Umeå Center for Electron Microscopy (UCEM), Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Roland Kádár
- Department of Industrial and Materials Science, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Anja Lund
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Linda Sandblad
- Umeå Center for Electron Microscopy (UCEM), Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, 901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Lars Evenäs
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Giada Lo Re
- Department of Industrial and Materials Science, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Igor Zozoulenko
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, ITN, Linköping University, 601 74 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Christian Müller
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden
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18
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Shen KH, Fan M, Hall LM. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Ion-Containing Polymers Using Generic Coarse-Grained Models. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Hsuan Shen
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Mengdi Fan
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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19
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Abstract
A scaling model for the structure of coacervates is presented for mixtures of oppositely-charged polyelectrolytes of both symmetric and asymmetric charge-densities for different degrees of electrostatic strength and levels of added salt. At low electrostatic strengths, weak coacervates, with the energy of electrostatic interactions between charges less than the thermal energy, k B T, are liquid. At higher electrostatic strengths, strong coacervates are gels with crosslinks formed by ion pairs of opposite charges bound to each other with energy higher than k B T. Charge-symmetric coacervates are formed for mixtures of oppositely-charged polyelectrolytes with equal and opposite charge-densities. While charge-symmetric weak coacervates form a semidilute polymer solution with a correlation length equal to the electrostatic blob size, charge-symmetric strong coacervates form reversible gels with a correlation length on the order of the distance between bound ion pairs. Charge-asymmetric coacervates are formed from mixtures of oppositely-charged polyelectrolytes with different charge-densities. While charge-asymmetric weak coacervates form double solutions with two correlation lengths and qualitatively different chain conformations of polycations and polyanions, charge-asymmetric strong coacervates form bottlebrush and star-like gels. Unlike liquid coacervates, for which an increase in the concentration of added salt screens electrostatic interactions, causing structural rearrangement and eventually leads to their dissolution, the salt does not affect the structure of strong coacervates until ion pairs dissociate and the gel disperses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott P O Danielsen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
| | - Sergey Panyukov
- P. N. Lebedev Physics Institute, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow 117924, Russia
| | - Michael Rubinstein
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
- Departments of Biomedical Engineering, Physics, and Chemistry, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708, United States
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20
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Paren BA, Thurston BA, Neary WJ, Kendrick A, Kennemur JG, Stevens MJ, Frischknecht AL, Winey KI. Percolated Ionic Aggregate Morphologies and Decoupled Ion Transport in Precise Sulfonated Polymers Synthesized by Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A. Paren
- Dept. Of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6272, United States
| | - Bryce A. Thurston
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185-1411, United States
| | - William J. Neary
- Dept. Of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Aaron Kendrick
- Dept. Of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Justin G. Kennemur
- Dept. Of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida 32306-4390, United States
| | - Mark J. Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185-1411, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Labs, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185-1411, United States
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Dept. Of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6272, United States
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21
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Yan L, Hoang L, Winey KI. Ionomers from Step-Growth Polymerization: Highly Ordered Ionic Aggregates and Ion Conduction. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b02220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Yan
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6315, United States
| | - Lauren Hoang
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6315, United States
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6315, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6315, United States
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22
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Tarokh A, Karan K, Ponnurangam S. Atomistic MD Study of Nafion Dispersions: Role of Solvent and Counterion in the Aggregate Structure, Ionic Clustering, and Acid Dissociation. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Atefeh Tarokh
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Kunal Karan
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Sathish Ponnurangam
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
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23
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Frischknecht AL, Paren BA, Middleton LR, Koski JP, Tarver JD, Tyagi M, Soles CL, Winey KI. Chain and Ion Dynamics in Precise Polyethylene Ionomers. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b01712] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Benjamin A. Paren
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - L. Robert Middleton
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Jason P. Koski
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Jacob D. Tarver
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-1070, United States
| | - Madhusudan Tyagi
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-1070, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Christopher L. Soles
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-1070, United States
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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24
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Abbott LJ, Lawson JW. Effects of Side Chain Length on Ionic Aggregation and Dynamics in Polymer Single-Ion Conductors. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.9b00415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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25
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Yu Z, Wang J, Hu Z, Hu C, Ding D, Yang B, Hu T, Gong X, Wu C, Hara M. Inside the Ionic Aggregates Constrained by Covalently Attached Polymer Chain Segments: Order or Disorder? ACS Macro Lett 2019; 8:841-845. [PMID: 35619506 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.9b00296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
When a small-molecule ionic crystal is group-substituted with polymer chain-segments to form an ionomer, do its constrained ionic aggregates maintain ordered internal structures? This work presents, for a Na-salt sulfonated-polystyrene ionomer, reconciled TEM electron-diffraction schlieren textures and WAXS Bragg-type reflections from the ionic-aggregate nanodomains, which solidly prove the aggregates' internal (mono)crystalline order. The observed DSC endotherm of the ionomer, identified by WAXS as an order-disorder transition interior to its aggregates, gradually becomes enhanced over a 3-month, room-temperature physical aging process, indicating that the aggregates' ordering is a slow relaxation process in which the degree of order increases with time. This work corroborates an uncommon form of order, i.e., polymer-bound small-molecule ionic (quasi)crystal, which is supplementary to the order phenomena in small molecules, polymers, and liquid crystals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zixin Yu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Jie Wang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Zhen Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Chuanqun Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Dachuan Ding
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Bin Yang
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Tao Hu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Xinghou Gong
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Chonggang Wu
- Hubei Provincial Key Laboratory of Green Materials for Light Industry, Collaborative Innovation Center of Green Light-weight Materials and Processing, and School of Materials and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei 430068, China
| | - Masanori Hara
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
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26
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Frischknecht AL, Winey KI. The evolution of acidic and ionic aggregates in ionomers during microsecond simulations. J Chem Phys 2019; 150:064901. [PMID: 30769997 DOI: 10.1063/1.5085069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
We performed microsecond-long, atomistic molecular dynamics simulations on a series of precise poly(ethylene-co-acrylic acid) ionomers neutralized with lithium, with three different spacer lengths between acid groups on the ionomers and at two temperatures. Ionic aggregates form in these systems with a variety of shapes ranging from isolated aggregates to percolated aggregates. At the lower temperature of 423 K, the ionic aggregate morphologies do not reach a steady-state distribution over the course of the simulations. At the higher temperature of 600 K, the aggregates are sufficiently mobile that they rearrange and reach steady state after hundreds of nanoseconds. For systems that are 100% neutralized with lithium, the ions form percolated aggregates that span the simulation box in three directions, for all three spacer lengths (9, 15, and 21). In the partially neutralized systems, the morphology includes lithium ion aggregates that may also include some unneutralized acid groups, along with a coexisting population of acid group aggregates that form through hydrogen bonding. In the lithium ion aggregates, unneutralized acid groups tend to be found on the ends or sides of the aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amalie L Frischknecht
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA
| | - Karen I Winey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering and Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, USA
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27
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Sampath J, Hall LM. Impact of ion content and electric field on mechanical properties of coarse-grained ionomers. J Chem Phys 2018; 149:163313. [DOI: 10.1063/1.5029260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Janani Sampath
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA
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28
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Trigg EB, Gaines TW, Maréchal M, Moed DE, Rannou P, Wagener KB, Stevens MJ, Winey KI. Self-assembled highly ordered acid layers in precisely sulfonated polyethylene produce efficient proton transport. NATURE MATERIALS 2018; 17:725-731. [PMID: 29807986 DOI: 10.1038/s41563-018-0097-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 04/30/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in polymer synthesis have allowed remarkable control over chain microstructure and conformation. Capitalizing on such developments, here we create well-controlled chain folding in sulfonated polyethylene, leading to highly uniform hydrated acid layers of subnanometre thickness with high proton conductivity. The linear polyethylene contains sulfonic acid groups pendant to precisely every twenty-first carbon atom that induce tight chain folds to form the hydrated layers, while the methylene segments crystallize. The proton conductivity is on par with Nafion 117, the benchmark for fuel cell membranes. We demonstrate that well-controlled hairpin chain folding can be utilized for proton conductivity within a crystalline polymer structure, and we project that this structure could be adapted for ion transport. This layered polyethylene-based structure is an innovative and versatile design paradigm for functional polymer membranes, opening doors to efficient and selective transport of other ions and small molecules on appropriate selection of functional groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward B Trigg
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Taylor W Gaines
- The George and Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Manuel Maréchal
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INAC-SyMMES, Grenoble, France
| | - Demi E Moed
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Patrice Rannou
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, INAC-SyMMES, Grenoble, France
| | - Kenneth B Wagener
- The George and Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
| | - Karen I Winey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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29
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Sampath J, Hall LM. Influence of a nanoparticle on the structure and dynamics of model ionomer melts. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:4621-4632. [PMID: 29786724 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00665b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We simulate a single spherical nanoparticle (NP) surrounded by partially neutralized ionomers. The coarse-grained ionomers consist of a linear backbone of neutral monomer beads with charged pendant beads and counterions, along with pendant 'sticker' beads that represent unneutralized acid groups. Two different NP interactions are considered; one in which the NP interacts uniformly with all beads in the system (neutral NP) and another in which the NP has higher cohesive interactions with ions and stickers (sticky NP). Ions are depleted around the neutral NP relative to the bulk, but are denser around the surface of the sticky NP. The bond vector autocorrelation function was computed as a function of distance from the NP. For the neutral NP, due to the absence of ions, there is an increase in bond rotational dynamics near the surface relative to the bulk, while the reverse trend is observed in the case of the sticky NP. These analyses were done systematically for differing mole content of pendants, levels of neutralization, and NP sizes; lower pendant content causes a significantly larger difference in the bond dynamics near and far from the NP surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janani Sampath
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, OH 43210, USA.
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30
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Middleton LR, Trigg EB, Yan L, Winey KI. Deformation-induced morphology evolution of precise polyethylene ionomers. POLYMER 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2018.04.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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31
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Sampath J, Hall LM. Effect of Neutralization on the Structure and Dynamics of Model Ionomer Melts. Macromolecules 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b02073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Janani Sampath
- William G. Lowrie Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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32
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Sampath J, Hall LM. Impact of ionic aggregate structure on ionomer mechanical properties from coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. J Chem Phys 2017; 147:134901. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4985904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Janani Sampath
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210,
USA
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, 151 W. Woodruff Ave., Columbus, Ohio 43210,
USA
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33
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Trigg EB, Tiegs BJ, Coates GW, Winey KI. High Morphological Order in a Nearly Precise Acid-Containing Polymer and Ionomer. ACS Macro Lett 2017; 6:947-951. [PMID: 35650896 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.7b00450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Linear polyethylenes with functional groups at precise intervals along the backbone possess a number of remarkable properties, but the current synthetic methods that produce these precise polymers are difficult to scale up beyond the laboratory setting. When evaluating alternative synthetic routes, a critical question is how precise must the polymer microstructure be to achieve the properties of interest? As a first step in answering this question, we present morphological characterization of a nearly precise polymer-that is, an acid-containing polymer wherein the acid groups are separated by either n or n + 1 methylene groups. We find that the size scale and uniformity of the amorphous morphologies of the nearly precise acid-containing polymer and its sodium-neutralized ionomer are essentially indistinguishable from the precise polymers based on X-ray scattering. Meanwhile, the nearly precise polymer is strikingly distinct from a pseudorandom copolymer with similar average composition. This result suggests that the properties of nearly precise polymers could likewise be quite similar to truly precise polymers and beckons future work to explore their properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward B. Trigg
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Brandon J. Tiegs
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Coates
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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34
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Keith JR, Mogurampelly S, Wheatle BK, Ganesan V. Influence of side chain linker length on ion‐transport properties of polymeric ionic liquids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.24440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jordan R. Keith
- Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin Texas78712
| | - Santosh Mogurampelly
- Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin Texas78712
| | - Bill K. Wheatle
- Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin Texas78712
| | - Venkat Ganesan
- Department of Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin Texas78712
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35
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Abstract
In this review we summarize recent efforts in understanding nano-aggregation in acid- and ion-containing polymer systems. The acid and ionic groups have specific interactions that drive aggregation and alter polymer behavior at the nano-, micro-, and bulk length scales. Advancements in synthetic methods, characterization techniques, and computer simulations have enabled researchers to better understand the morphologies and dynamics, particularly at the nanoscale. This overview of recent advancements in nano-aggregated polymer systems highlights the current understanding of the field and presents promising directions for future investigations and new applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Robert Middleton
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6272
| | - Karen I. Winey
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104-6272
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36
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Lu K, Maranas JK, Milner ST. Depletion attraction of sheet-like ion aggregates in low-dielectric ionomer melts. J Chem Phys 2017; 146:064901. [PMID: 28201882 DOI: 10.1063/1.4973931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ionomers are polymers in which an ionic group is covalently bonded to the polymer backbone. Ion aggregates in ionomers have morphologies that allow for the packing of the attached polymer backbone. Using ion-only coarse-grained molecular dynamics, we observe that string-like ion aggregates become flat and sheet-like at lower dielectric constants. A consequence of the changing morphology is that the sheet-like aggregates self-assemble to form ordered, lamellar structures. We use a simple thermodynamic model to demonstrate that depletion attraction mediated by small aggregates can explain the observed order. Our results suggest that depletion attraction can drive ions to form structures that have the size scale suggested by direct visualization, produce the commonly observed experimental correlation peak from X-ray and neutron scattering, and satisfy chain-packing constraints that have been demonstrated to be important in simulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keran Lu
- The Pennsylvania State University, 120 Fenske Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Janna K Maranas
- The Pennsylvania State University, 120 Fenske Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
| | - Scott T Milner
- The Pennsylvania State University, 120 Fenske Laboratory, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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37
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Abbott LJ, Frischknecht AL. Nanoscale Structure and Morphology of Sulfonated Polyphenylenes via Atomistic Simulations. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b02232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren J. Abbott
- Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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38
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Abstract
Specific ion binding by carboxylates (-COO-) is a broadly important topic because -COO- is one of the most common functional groups coordinated to metal ions in metalloproteins and synthetic polymers. We apply quantum chemical methods and the quasi-chemical free-energy theory to investigate how variations in the number of -COO- ligands in a binding site determine ion-binding preferences. We study a series of monovalent (Li+, Na+, K+, Cs+) and divalent (Zn2+, Ca2+) ions relevant to experimental work on ion channels and ionomers. Of two competing hypotheses, our results support the ligand field strength hypothesis and follow the reverse Hofmeister series for ion solvation and ion transfer from aqueous solution to binding sites with the preferred number of ligands. New insight arises from the finding that ion-binding sequences can be manipulated and even reversed just by constraining the number of carboxylate ligands in the binding sites. Our results help clarify the discrepancy in ion association between molecular ligands in aqueous solutions and ionomers, and their chemical analogues in ion-channel binding sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Stevens
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies and ‡Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories , Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Susan L B Rempe
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies and ‡Biological and Engineering Sciences, Sandia National Laboratories , Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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39
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Shi S, Weber AZ, Kusoglu A. STRUCTURE-TRANSPORT RELATIONSHIP OF PERFLUOROSULFONIC-ACID MEMBRANES IN DIFFERENT CATIONIC FORMS. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.10.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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40
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Middleton LR, Tarver JD, Cordaro J, Tyagi M, Soles CL, Frischknecht AL, Winey KI. Heterogeneous Chain Dynamics and Aggregate Lifetimes in Precise Acid-Containing Polyethylenes: Experiments and Simulations. Macromolecules 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.6b01918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob D. Tarver
- Materials
Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Joseph Cordaro
- Sandia National
Laboratories, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Madhusudan Tyagi
- NIST Center for Neutron
Research, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-1070, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Christopher L. Soles
- Materials
Science and Engineering Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
- NIST Center for Neutron
Research, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899-1070, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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41
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Evans CM, Bridges CR, Sanoja GE, Bartels J, Segalman RA. Role of Tethered Ion Placement on Polymerized Ionic Liquid Structure and Conductivity: Pendant versus Backbone Charge Placement. ACS Macro Lett 2016; 5:925-930. [PMID: 35607206 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.6b00534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The role of ion placement was systematically investigated in imidazolium bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide (ImTFSI) polymerized ionic liquids (PILs) containing pendant charges and charges in the backbone (sometimes called ionenes). The backbone PILs were synthesized via a facile step growth route, and pendant PILs were synthesized via RAFT. Both PILs were designed to have nearly identical charge density, and the conductivity was found to be substantially enhanced in the backbone PIL systems even after accounting for differences in the glass transition temperature (Tg). Wide-angle X-ray scattering (WAXS) revealed an invariance in the location of the amorphous halo between the two systems, while the anion-anion correlation peak was shifted to lower scattering wavevector (q) in the backbone PILs. This indicates an increase in the correlation length of ions and is consistent with charge transport along a more correlated pathway following the polymer backbone. Due to the linear nature of the backbone PILs, crystallization was observed and correlated with changes in conductivity. Upon crystallization, the conductivity dropped, and eventually, two populations of mobile ions were observed and attributed to ions in the amorphous and near-crystallite regions. The present work demonstrates the important role of ion placement on local structure and conductivity as well as the ability of backbone PILs to be used as controllable optical or dielectric materials based on crystallization or processing history.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Gabriel E. Sanoja
- Department
of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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42
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Agrawal A, Perahia D, Grest GS. Cluster Morphology-Polymer Dynamics Correlations in Sulfonated Polystyrene Melts: Computational Study. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2016; 116:158001. [PMID: 27127986 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.116.158001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Reaching exceptionally long times up to 500 ns in equilibrium and nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations studies, we have attained a fundamental molecular understanding of the correlation of ionomer clusters structure and multiscale dynamics, providing new insight into one critical, long-standing challenge in ionic polymer physics. The cluster structure in melts of sulfonated polystyrene with Na^{+} and Mg^{2+} counterions are resolved and correlated with the dynamics on multiple length and time scales extracted from measurements of the dynamic structure factor and shear rheology. We find that as the morphology of the ionic clusters changes from ladderlike for Na^{+} to disordered structures for Mg^{2+}, the dynamic structure factor is affected on the length scale corresponding to the ionic clusters. Rheology studies show that the viscosity for Mg^{2+} melts is higher than for Na^{+} ones for all shear rates, which is well correlated with the larger ionic clusters' size for the Mg^{2+} melts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anupriya Agrawal
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, USA
| | - Dvora Perahia
- Department of Chemistry, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina 29634, USA
| | - Gary S Grest
- Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, USA
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43
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Zhang L, Qiu B, Song Y, Zheng Q. Molecular relaxation and dynamic rheology of “cluster phase”-free ionomers based on lanthanum(iii)-neutralized low-carboxylated poly(methyl methacrylate). RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra10135f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
La(iii)-neutralized low-carboxylated poly(methyl methacrylate)-based ionomers free of cluster phase exhibit a fluid-to-solid transition assigned to an interconnected multiplets network.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Zhang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Biwei Qiu
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
| | - Yihu Song
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization
| | - Qiang Zheng
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou 310027
- China
- MOE Key Laboratory of Macromolecular Synthesis and Functionalization
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44
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Hermans JJ, Keune K, van Loon A, Corkery RW, Iedema PD. Ionomer-like structure in mature oil paint binding media. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra18267d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We use ATR-FTIR and SAXS to demonstrate that oil paint binding media go through an ionomer-like state during ageing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joen J. Hermans
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences
- University of Amsterdam
- 1090GD Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | - Katrien Keune
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences
- University of Amsterdam
- 1090GD Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
- Rijksmuseum Amsterdam
| | - Annelies van Loon
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences
- University of Amsterdam
- 1090GD Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
| | | | - Piet D. Iedema
- Van't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences
- University of Amsterdam
- 1090GD Amsterdam
- The Netherlands
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45
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Evans CM, Sanoja GE, Popere BC, Segalman RA. Anhydrous Proton Transport in Polymerized Ionic Liquid Block Copolymers: Roles of Block Length, Ionic Content, and Confinement. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b02202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Gabriel E. Sanoja
- Department
of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94705, United States
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46
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Ruan D, Simmons DS. Roles of chain stiffness and segmental rattling in ionomer glass formation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/polb.23788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dihui Ruan
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Polymer Engineering Academic Center; The University of Akron; 250 South Forge Street Akron Ohio 44325-0301
| | - David S. Simmons
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Polymer Engineering Academic Center; The University of Akron; 250 South Forge Street Akron Ohio 44325-0301
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47
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Middleton LR, Szewczyk S, Azoulay J, Murtagh D, Rojas G, Wagener KB, Cordaro J, Winey KI. Hierarchical Acrylic Acid Aggregate Morphologies Produce Strain-Hardening in Precise Polyethylene-Based Copolymers. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.5b00797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jason Azoulay
- Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Dustin Murtagh
- Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94550, United States
| | - Giovanni Rojas
- George and
Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Kenneth B. Wagener
- George and
Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Joseph Cordaro
- Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California 94550, United States
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48
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Buitrago CF, Bolintineanu DS, Seitz ME, Opper KL, Wagener KB, Stevens MJ, Frischknecht AL, Winey KI. Direct Comparisons of X-ray Scattering and Atomistic Molecular Dynamics Simulations for Precise Acid Copolymers and Ionomers. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/ma5022117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Dan S. Bolintineanu
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | | | - Kathleen L. Opper
- George
and Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Kenneth B. Wagener
- George
and Josephine Butler Polymer Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Mark J. Stevens
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Center
for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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49
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Ting CL, Stevens MJ, Frischknecht AL. Structure and Dynamics of Coarse-Grained Ionomer Melts in an External Electric Field. Macromolecules 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/ma501916z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christina L. Ting
- Sandia
National Laboratories, and ‡Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Mark J. Stevens
- Sandia
National Laboratories, and ‡Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - Amalie L. Frischknecht
- Sandia
National Laboratories, and ‡Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
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50
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Sing CE, Zwanikken JW, de la Cruz MO. Theory of melt polyelectrolyte blends and block copolymers: Phase behavior, surface tension, and microphase periodicity. J Chem Phys 2015; 142:034902. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4905830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Charles E. Sing
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Jos W. Zwanikken
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
| | - Monica Olvera de la Cruz
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, USA
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