1
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Jin C, Tang X, Sun Q, Mu C, Krasheninnikov AV, Kou L. Robust Magnetoelectric Coupling in FeTiO 3/Ga 2O 3 Non-van der Waals Heterostructures. J Phys Chem Lett 2024:2650-2657. [PMID: 38422484 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.4c00029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Magnetoelectric coupling represents a significant breakthrough for next-generation electronics, offering the ability to achieve nonvolatile magnetic control via electrical means. In this comprehensive investigation, leveraging first-principles calculations, we unveil a robust magnetoelectric coupling within multiferroic heterostructures (HSs) by ingeniously integrating a non-van der Waals (non-vdW) magnetic FeTiO3 monolayer with the ferroelectric (FE) Ga2O3. Diverging from conventional van der Waals (vdW) multiferroic HSs, the magnetic states of the FeTiO3 monolayer can be efficiently toggled between ferromagnetic (FM) and antiferromagnetic (AFM) configurations by reversing the polarization of the Ga2O3 monolayer. This intriguing phenomenon arises from polarization-dependent substantial interlayer electron transfers and the interplay between superexchange and direct-exchange magnetic couplings of the iron atoms. The carrier-mediated interfacial interactions induce crucial shifts in Fermi level positions, decisively imparting distinct electronic characteristics near the Fermi level of composite systems. These novel findings offer exciting prospects for the future of magnetoelectric technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cui Jin
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Xiao Tang
- College of Science, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Qilong Sun
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Chenxi Mu
- School of Science, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Arkady V Krasheninnikov
- Institute of Ion Beam Physics and Materials Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, 01328 Dresden, Germany
- Department of Applied Physics, Aalto University, P.O. Box 11100, 00076 Aalto, Finland
| | - Liangzhi Kou
- School of Mechanical, Medical and Process Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland 4001, Australia
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2
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Wang G, Pang T, Sun K, Luan S, Zhang Y, Yuan L, Jia R. High-performance layer-structured Si/Ga 2O 3/CH 3NH 3PbI 3 heterojunction photodetector based on a Ga 2O 3 buffer interlayer. APPLIED OPTICS 2023; 62:A76-A82. [PMID: 36821301 DOI: 10.1364/ao.472922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Organic-inorganic metal halide perovskite-based photodetectors (PDs) have attracted great attention because they exhibit extraordinary optoelectronic performances due to advantages such as a low trap-state density and large absorption coefficient. As a buffer layer, G a 2 O 3 can block electron hole recombination, passivate an Si surface, reduce trap density, and improve the ability of electron tunneling. Here, we demonstrate a trilayer hybrid structure (S i/G a 2 O 3/C H 3 N H 3 P b I 3) composed of an n-type silicon wafer, G a 2 O 3 interlayer, and C H 3 N H 3 P b I 3 thin film. The effect of different G a 2 O 3 layer thicknesses on the characteristics of a PD was studied, which shows that the responsivity first increases and then decreases with an increase in the G a 2 O 3 film thickness; the optimized G a 2 O 3 thickness is 300 nm. Additionally, the optimal responsivity, detectivity, and the rise and decay times are 7.2m A W -1, 7.448×1010 Jones, and 39 and 1.7 ms, respectively. This device has a better performance because G a 2 O 3 and perovskite have a matched energy level. We believe our work could provide a new way to fabricate high-performance optoelectronic devices.
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3
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Influence of ZIF-8 modification on performance of ZnO-based dye-sensitized solar cells. J Solid State Electrochem 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-022-05297-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/10/2022]
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4
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A Selective Etching Route for Large-Scale Fabrication of β-Ga 2O 3 Micro-/Nanotube Arrays. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11123327. [PMID: 34947676 PMCID: PMC8707424 DOI: 10.3390/nano11123327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, based on the different etching characteristics between GaN and Ga2O3, large-scale and vertically aligned β-Ga2O3 nanotube (NT) and microtube (MT) arrays were fabricated on the GaN template by a facile and feasible selective etching method. GaN micro-/nanowire arrays were prepared first by inductively coupled plasma (ICP) etching using self-organized or patterning nickel masks as the etching masks, and then the Ga2O3 shell layer converted from GaN was formed by thermal oxidation, resulting in GaN@Ga2O3 micro-/nanowire arrays. After the GaN core of GaN@Ga2O3 micro-/nanowire arrays was removed by ICP etching, hollow Ga2O3 tubes were obtained successfully. The micro-/nanotubes have uniform morphology and controllable size, and the wall thickness can also be controlled with the thermal oxidation conditions. These vertical β-Ga2O3 micro-/nanotube arrays could be used as new materials for novel optoelectronic devices.
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5
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Schmidt C, Rahaman M, Zahn DRT. Conversion of 2-dimensional GaSe to 2-dimensional β-Ga 2O 3by thermal oxidation. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 33:045702. [PMID: 34644690 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac2f5d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 10/13/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate the conversion to quasi two-dimensional (2D)β-Ga2O3by thermally oxidizing layered GaSe of different thicknesses (from bilayer to 100 nm). GaSe flakes were prepared by mechanical exfoliation onto Si with a 300 nm SiO2layer, highly oriented pyrolytic graphite, and mica substrates. The flakes were then annealed in ambient atmosphere at different temperatures ranging from 600 °C to 1000 °C for 30 min. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the formation ofβ-Ga2O3in the annealed samples by comparison with the Raman spectrum of aβ-Ga2O3reference crystal. Atomic force microscopy was employed to study the morphology and the thickness of theβ-Ga2O3flakes. In addition, we used energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy together with scanning electron microscopy to investigate the evolution of the composition, especially Se residuals, and the sample topography with annealing temperature.β-Ga2O3appears at temperatures above 600 °C and Se is completely evaporated at temperatures higher than 700 °C. The thicknesses of the resultingβ-Ga2O3flakes are half of that of the initial GaSe flake. Here we therefore present a straightforward way to prepare 2Dβ-Ga2O3by annealing 2D GaSe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constance Schmidt
- Semiconductor Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, D-09107 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Mahfujur Rahaman
- Semiconductor Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, D-09107 Chemnitz, Germany
| | - Dietrich R T Zahn
- Semiconductor Physics, Chemnitz University of Technology, D-09107 Chemnitz, Germany
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6
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Naim W, Novelli V, Nikolinakos I, Barbero N, Dzeba I, Grifoni F, Ren Y, Alnasser T, Velardo A, Borrelli R, Haacke S, Zakeeruddin SM, Graetzel M, Barolo C, Sauvage F. Transparent and Colorless Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Exceeding 75% Average Visible Transmittance. JACS AU 2021; 1:409-426. [PMID: 34467304 PMCID: PMC8395686 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.1c00045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Most photovoltaic (PV) technologies are opaque to maximize visible light absorption. However, see-through solar cells open additional perspectives for PV integration. Looking beyond maximizing visible light harvesting, this work considers the human eye photopic response to optimize a selective near-infrared sensitizer based on a polymethine cyanine structure (VG20-C x ) to render dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) fully transparent and colorless. This peculiarity was achieved by conferring to the dye the ability to strongly and sharply absorb beyond 800 nm (S0-S1 transition) while rejecting the upper S0-S n contributions far in the blue where the human retina is poorly sensitive. When associated with an aggregation-free anatase TiO2 photoanode, the selective NIR-DSSC can display 3.1% power conversion efficiency, up to 76% average visible transmittance (AVT), a value approaching the 78% AVT value of a standard double glazing window while reaching a color rendering index (CRI) of 92.1%. The ultrafast and fast charge transfer processes are herein discussed, clarifying the different relaxation channels from the dye monomer excited states and highlighting the limiting steps to provide future directions to enhance the performances of this nonintrusive NIR-DSSC technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Waad Naim
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Vittoria Novelli
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | | | - Nadia Barbero
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
- Department
of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Iva Dzeba
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Fionnuala Grifoni
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Yameng Ren
- Laboratory
of Photonics and Interfaces, Ecole Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Alnasser
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
| | - Amalia Velardo
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco 10095, Italy
| | - Raffaele Borrelli
- Dipartimento
di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco 10095, Italy
| | - Stefan Haacke
- IPCMS,
UMR 7504, 23 rue du Loess, 67034 Strasbourg, France
| | - Shaik M. Zakeeruddin
- Laboratory
of Photonics and Interfaces, Ecole Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael Graetzel
- Laboratory
of Photonics and Interfaces, Ecole Polytechnique
Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Station 6, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Claudia Barolo
- Department
of Chemistry, NIS Interdepartmental and INSTM Reference Centre, University of Torino, Via Pietro Giuria 7, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - Frédéric Sauvage
- Laboratoire
de Réactivité et Chimie des Solides, Université de Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), CNRS UMR 7314, 33 rue Saint Leu, 80039 Amiens, France
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7
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Semiconductors as Effective Electrodes for Dye Sensitized Solar Cell Applications. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2021; 379:20. [PMID: 33834314 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-021-00334-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
As proficient photovoltaic devices, dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) have received considerable consideration in recent years. In order to accomplish advanced solar-to-electricity efficiency and increase long-term functioning stability, improvements in the configuration structure of DSSCs are essential, as is an understanding of their elementary principles. This work discusses the application of different semiconductor constituents designed for effective DSSCs. The main parameters crucial to fabrication of DSSC electrodes in nano-porous semiconductor structures are high surface area and large pore size. Different inorganic semiconductor materials are used to load sensitizer dyes, which absorb a lot of light and induce high photocurrent for efficient DSSCs. The first section of the review covers energy sources, photovoltaics, and the benefits of solar cells in daily life, while the second part includes the various types of semiconductors applied in DSSC applications. The final section provides a brief review of future perspectives for DSSCs and a survey of semiconductor materials proposed for solar cell applications.
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8
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Song H, Lin Y, Zhang Z, Rao H, Wang W, Fang Y, Pan Z, Zhong X. Improving the Efficiency of Quantum Dot Sensitized Solar Cells beyond 15% via Secondary Deposition. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:4790-4800. [PMID: 33734670 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c01214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Low loading is one of the bottlenecks limiting the performance of quantum dot sensitized solar cells (QDSCs). Although previous QD secondary deposition relying on electrostatic interaction can improve QD loading, due to the introduction of new recombination centers, it is not capable of enhancing the photovoltage and fill factor. Herein, without the introduction of new recombination centers, a convenient QD secondary deposition approach is developed by creating new adsorption sites via the formation of a metal oxyhydroxide layer around QD presensitized photoanodes. MgCl2 solution treated Zn-Cu-In-S-Se (ZCISSe) QD sensitized TiO2 film electrodes have been chosen as a model device to investigate this secondary deposition approach. The experimental results demonstrate that additional 38% of the QDs are immobilized on the photoanode as a single layer. Due to the increased QD loading and concomitant enhanced light-harvesting capacity and reduced charge recombination, not only photocurrent but also photovoltage and fill factor have been remarkably enhanced. The average PCE of resulted ZCISSe QDSCs is boosted to 15.31% (Jsc = 26.52 mA cm-2, Voc = 0.802 V, FF = 0.720), from the original 13.54% (Jsc = 24.23 mA cm-2, Voc = 0.789 V, FF = 0.708). Furthermore, a new certified PCE record of 15.20% has been obtained for liquid-junction QDSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Song
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu Lin
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhengyan Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Huashang Rao
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenran Wang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Yueping Fang
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhenxiao Pan
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Xinhua Zhong
- Key Laboratory for Biobased Materials and Energy of Ministry of Education, College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China.,Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, People's Republic of China
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9
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Zhao Y, Zhang L, Liu J, Adair K, Zhao F, Sun Y, Wu T, Bi X, Amine K, Lu J, Sun X. Atomic/molecular layer deposition for energy storage and conversion. Chem Soc Rev 2021; 50:3889-3956. [PMID: 33523063 DOI: 10.1039/d0cs00156b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Energy storage and conversion systems, including batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, solar cells, and photoelectrochemical water splitting, have played vital roles in the reduction of fossil fuel usage, addressing environmental issues and the development of electric vehicles. The fabrication and surface/interface engineering of electrode materials with refined structures are indispensable for achieving optimal performances for the different energy-related devices. Atomic layer deposition (ALD) and molecular layer deposition (MLD) techniques, the gas-phase thin film deposition processes with self-limiting and saturated surface reactions, have emerged as powerful techniques for surface and interface engineering in energy-related devices due to their exceptional capability of precise thickness control, excellent uniformity and conformity, tunable composition and relatively low deposition temperature. In the past few decades, ALD and MLD have been intensively studied for energy storage and conversion applications with remarkable progress. In this review, we give a comprehensive summary of the development and achievements of ALD and MLD and their applications for energy storage and conversion, including batteries, supercapacitors, fuel cells, solar cells, and photoelectrochemical water splitting. Moreover, the fundamental understanding of the mechanisms involved in different devices will be deeply reviewed. Furthermore, the large-scale potential of ALD and MLD techniques is discussed and predicted. Finally, we will provide insightful perspectives on future directions for new material design by ALD and MLD and untapped opportunities in energy storage and conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- Department of Mechanical & Materials Engineering, University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B9, Canada.
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10
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Alias N, Ali Umar A, Malek NAA, Liu K, Li X, Abdullah NA, Rosli MM, Abd Rahman MY, Shi Z, Zhang X, Zhang H, Liu F, Wang J, Zhan Y. Photoelectrical Dynamics Uplift in Perovskite Solar Cells by Atoms Thick 2D TiS 2 Layer Passivation of TiO 2 Nanograss Electron Transport Layer. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:3051-3061. [PMID: 33410652 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c20137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A deficiency in the photoelectrical dynamics at the interface due to the surface traps of the TiO2 electron transport layer (ETL) has been the critical factor for the inferiority of the power conversion efficiency (PCE) in the perovskite solar cells. Despite its excellent energy level alignment with most perovskite materials, its large density of surface defect as a result of sub lattice vacancies has been the critical hurdle for an efficient photovoltaic process in the device. Here, we report that atoms thick 2D TiS2 layer grown on the surface of a (001) faceted and single-crystalline TiO2 nanograss (NG) ETL have effectively passivated the defects, boosting the charge extractability, carrier mobility, external quantum efficiency, and the device stability. These properties allow the perovskite solar cells (PSCs) to produce a PCE as high as 18.73% with short-circuit current density (Jsc), open-circuit voltage (Voc), and fill-factor (FF) values as high as 22.04 mA/cm2, 1.13 V, and 0.752, respectively, a 3.3% improvement from the pristine TiO2-NG-based PSCs. The present approach should find an extensive application for controlling the photoelectrical dynamic deficiency in perovskite solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nabilah Alias
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
- Faculty of Industrial Sciences & Technology, Universiti Malaysia Pahang, 26300 Gambang, Pahang, Malaysia
| | - Akrajas Ali Umar
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Ain Abd Malek
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Kai Liu
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Xiaoguo Li
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Nur Adliha Abdullah
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Mustaqim Rosli
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Yusri Abd Rahman
- Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Zejiao Shi
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Academy for Engineering & Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Haijuan Zhang
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Fengcai Liu
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Jiao Wang
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Yiqiang Zhan
- Center for Micro Nano Systems, School of Information Science and Technology (SIST), Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
- Academy for Engineering & Technology, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China
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11
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Rafie Borujeny E, Sendetskyi O, Fleischauer MD, Cadien KC. Low Thermal Budget Heteroepitaxial Gallium Oxide Thin Films Enabled by Atomic Layer Deposition. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:44225-44237. [PMID: 32865966 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.0c08477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
This work explores the applicability of atomic layer deposition (ALD) in producing highly oriented crystalline gallium oxide films on foreign substrates at low thermal budgets. The effects of substrate, deposition temperature, and annealing process on formation of crystalline gallium oxide are discussed. The Ga2O3 films exhibited a strong preferred orientation on the c-plane sapphire substrate. The onset of formation of crystalline gallium oxide is determined, at which only two sets of planes, i.e., α-Ga2O3 (006) and β-Ga2O3 (4̅02), are present parallel to the surface. More specifically, this work reports, for the first time, that epitaxial gallium oxide films on sapphire start to form at deposition temperatures ≥ 190 °C by using an optimized plasma-enhanced ALD process such that α-Ga2O3 (006)∥α-Al2O3 (006) and β-Ga2O3 (2̅01)∥α-Al2O3 (006). Both α-Ga2O3 (006) and β-Ga2O3 (2̅01) planes are polar planes (i.e., consisting of only one type of atom, either Ga or O) and, therefore, favorable to form by ALD at such low deposition temperatures. Ellipsometry and van der Pauw measurements confirmed that the crystalline films have optical and electrical properties close to bulk gallium oxide. The film grown at 277 °C was determined to have superior properties among as-deposited films. Using TEM to locate α-Ga2O3 and β-Ga2O3 domains in the as-deposited crystalline films, we proposed a short annealing scheme to limit the development of α-Ga2O3 domains in the film and produce pure β-Ga2O3 films via an energy-efficient process. A pure β-Ga2O3 phase on sapphire with β-Ga2O3 (2̅01)∥α-Al2O3 (006) was successfully achieved by using the proposed process at the low annealing temperature of 550 °C preceded by the low deposition temperature of 190 °C. The results of this work enable epitaxial growth of gallium oxide thin films, with superior material properties offered by ALD, not only with potential applications as a high-performance material in reducing global energy consumption but also with an energy-efficient fabrication process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Rafie Borujeny
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, 12th Floor - Donadeo Innovation Centre for Engineering (ICE), 9211-116 Street NW, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 1H9
| | - Oles Sendetskyi
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Research Centre, 11421 Saskatchewan Dr., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2M9
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E1
| | - Michael D Fleischauer
- National Research Council-Nanotechnology Research Centre, 11421 Saskatchewan Dr., Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2M9
- Department of Physics, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E1
| | - Kenneth C Cadien
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, 12th Floor - Donadeo Innovation Centre for Engineering (ICE), 9211-116 Street NW, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 1H9
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12
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Aqueous-processed insulating polymer/nanocrystal solar cells with effective suppression of the leakage current and carrier recombination. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2019.08.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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13
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Tan S, Deng H, Urbanek KE, Miao Y, Zhao Z, Harris JS, Byer RL. Low-loss GaO x-core/SiO 2-cladding planar waveguides on Si substrate. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:12475-12486. [PMID: 32403744 DOI: 10.1364/oe.391036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The unique properties of gallium oxide (GaOx) have drawn increasing interest as a material suitable for high-power electronic and optical applications. Herein, we report the demonstration of low-loss GaOx-core/SiO2-cladding waveguides on Si substrate. We present the fabrication process and annealing treatments of the waveguide devices, and we characterize the corresponding effects on optical transmission for 3 common wavelengths: 633 nm, 1064 nm, and 1550 nm. The best propagation loss achieved for these wavelengths is measured to be -0.4±0.1dB/cm, -0.3±0.2dB/cm, and -2.4±0.5dB/cm, respectively. We discuss the major waveguide loss mechanisms, followed by results of pump and probe experiments using visible/IR wavelengths for waveguides treated under various post-fabrication annealing conditions. We also show nonlinear measurements for a 250 fs laser beam to offer additional insights into the loss mechanisms, which are consistent with the linear optical transmission performances. High waveguide laser-induced damage threshold (LIDT) of >2.5J/cm2 is measured at this pulse width, making GaOx a potential candidate for high-power integrated photonic devices.
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Tang H, He N, Zhang H, Liu B, Zhu Z, Xu M, Chen L, Liu J, Ouyang X, Xu J. Inhibition of volatilization and polycrystalline cracking, and the optical properties of β-Ga2O3 grown by the EFG method. CrystEngComm 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9ce01294j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Large-size β-Ga2O3 single crystals without sub-grain boundaries and cracks were grown by the optimized EFG technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huili Tang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro-Structured Materials
- School of Physics Science and Engineering
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
| | - Nuotian He
- MOE Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro-Structured Materials
- School of Physics Science and Engineering
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
| | - Hao Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro-Structured Materials
- School of Physics Science and Engineering
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
| | - Bo Liu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro-Structured Materials
- School of Physics Science and Engineering
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
| | - Zhichao Zhu
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
- P. R. China
| | - Mengxuan Xu
- School of Nuclear Science and Technology
- Xi'an Jiaotong University
- Xi'an
- P. R. China
| | - Liang Chen
- Radiation Detection Research Center
- Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology
- Xi'an 710024
- P. R. China
| | - Jinliang Liu
- Radiation Detection Research Center
- Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology
- Xi'an 710024
- P. R. China
| | - Xiaoping Ouyang
- Radiation Detection Research Center
- Northwest Institute of Nuclear Technology
- Xi'an 710024
- P. R. China
| | - Jun Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Advanced Micro-Structured Materials
- School of Physics Science and Engineering
- Institute for Advanced Study
- Tongji University
- Shanghai
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15
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Xu H, Han F, Xia C, Wang S, Ramachandran RM, Detavernier C, Wei M, Lin L, Zhuiykov S. Wafer-Scale Fabrication of Sub-10 nm TiO 2-Ga 2O 3 n-p Heterojunctions with Efficient Photocatalytic Activity by Atomic Layer Deposition. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2019; 14:163. [PMID: 31089900 PMCID: PMC6517468 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-019-2991-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Wafer-scale, conformal, two-dimensional (2D) TiO2-Ga2O3 n-p heterostructures with a thickness of less than 10 nm were fabricated on the Si/SiO2 substrates by the atomic layer deposition (ALD) technique for the first time with subsequent post-deposition annealing at a temperature of 250 °C. The best deposition parameters were established. The structure and morphology of 2D TiO2-Ga2O3 n-p heterostructures were characterized by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), etc. 2D TiO2-Ga2O3 n-p heterostructures demonstrated efficient photocatalytic activity towards methyl orange (MO) degradation at the UV light (λ = 254 nm) irradiation. The improvement of TiO2-Ga2O3 n-p heterostructure capabilities is due to the development of the defects on Ga2O3-TiO2 interface, which were able to trap electrons faster.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongyan Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051 People’s Republic of China
| | - Feng Han
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chengkai Xia
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051 People’s Republic of China
| | - Siyan Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051 People’s Republic of China
| | - Ranish M. Ramachandran
- Department of Solid State Science, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281/S1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Christophe Detavernier
- Department of Solid State Science, Ghent University, Krijgslaan 281/S1, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Minsong Wei
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Liwei Lin
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720 USA
| | - Serge Zhuiykov
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, North University of China, Taiyuan, 030051 People’s Republic of China
- Ghent University Global Campus, 119 Songdomunhwa-ro, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21985 South Korea
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16
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Cole JM, Pepe G, Al Bahri OK, Cooper CB. Cosensitization in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells. Chem Rev 2019; 119:7279-7327. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.8b00632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline M. Cole
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
- ISIS Neutron and Muon Facility, STFC Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Science and Innovation Campus, Didcot OX11 0QX, United Kingdom
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, West Cambridge Site, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
- Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Giulio Pepe
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
| | - Othman K. Al Bahri
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
| | - Christopher B. Cooper
- Cavendish Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, J. J. Thomson Avenue, Cambridge CB3 0HE, United Kingdom
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Cambridge, West Cambridge Site, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge CB3 0AS, United Kingdom
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17
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Ghobadi A, Ghobadi TGU, Karadas F, Ozbay E. Angstrom Thick ZnO Passivation Layer to Improve the Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting Performance of a TiO 2 Nanowire Photoanode: The Role of Deposition Temperature. Sci Rep 2018; 8:16322. [PMID: 30397219 PMCID: PMC6218493 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-34248-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, we demonstrate that angstrom thick single atomic layer deposited (ALD) ZnO passivation can significantly improve the photoelectrochemical (PEC) activity of hydrothermally grown TiO2 NWs. It is found that this ultrathin ZnO coating can passivate the TiO2 surface defect states without hampering the carrier's transfer dynamics. Moreover, a substantial improvement can be acquired by changing the deposition temperature of the ZnO layer (80 °C, and 250 °C) and named as 80 °C TiO2-ZnO, and 250 °C TiO2-ZnO. It was found that the deposition of this single layer in lower temperatures can lead to higher PEC activity compared to that deposited in higher ones. As a result of our PEC characterizations, it is proved that photoconversion efficiency of bare TiO2 NWs can be improved by a factor of 1.5 upon coating it with a single ZnO layer at 80 °C. Moreover, considering the fact that this layer is a passivating coating rather than a continuous layer, it also keeps the PEC stability of the design while this feature cannot be obtained in a thick shell layer case. This paper proposes a bottom up approach to control the electron transfer dynamics in a heterojunction design and it can be applied to other metal oxide combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Ghobadi
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.,NANOTAM - Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.,Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey
| | - Turkan Gamze Ulusoy Ghobadi
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.,Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.,Department of Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Ankara University, Ankara, 06830, Turkey
| | - Ferdi Karadas
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey. .,Department of Chemistry, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.
| | - Ekmel Ozbay
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey. .,NANOTAM - Nanotechnology Research Center, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey. .,Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey. .,Department of Physics, Bilkent University, Ankara, 06800, Turkey.
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18
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Mahmood K, Mehran MT, Rehman F, Zafar MS, Ahmad SW, Song RH. Electrosprayed Polymer-Hybridized Multidoped ZnO Mesoscopic Nanocrystals Yield Highly Efficient and Stable Perovskite Solar Cells. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:9648-9657. [PMID: 31459095 PMCID: PMC6644504 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Solid-state perovskite solar cells have been expeditiously developed since the past few years. However, there are a number of open questions and issues related to the perovskite devices, such as their long-term ambient stability and hysteresis in current density-voltage curves. We developed highly efficient and hysteresis-less perovskite devices by changing the frequently used TiO2 mesoscopic layer with polymer-hybridized multidoped ZnO nanocrystals in a common n-i-p structure for the first time. The gradual adjustment of ZnO conduction band position using single- and multidopant atoms will likely enhance the power conversion efficiency (PCE) from 8.26 to 13.54%, with PCEmax = 15.09%. The highest PCEavg of 13.54% was demonstrated by 2 atom % boron and 6 atom % fluorine co-doped (B, F:ZnO) nanolayers (using optimized film thickness of 160 nm) owing to their highest conductivity, carrier concentration, optical transmittance, and band-gap energy compared to other doped films. We also successfully apply a fine polyethylenimine thin layer on the doped ZnO nanolayers, causing the reduction in work function and overall demonstrating the enhancement in PCE from ∼10.86% up to 16.20%. A polymer-mixed electron-transporting layer demonstrates the remarkable PCEmax of 20.74% by decreasing the trap sites in the oxide layer that probably reduces the chances of carrier interfacial recombination originated from traps and thus improves the device performance. Particularly, we produce these electron-rich multidoped ZnO nanolayers via electrospray technique, which is highly suitable for the future development of perovskite solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khalid Mahmood
- Department
of Chemical & Polymer Engineering, University
of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Faisalabad Campus, 31/2 Km. Khurrianwala, Makkuana By-Pass, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Taqi Mehran
- University
of Science and Technology (UST), 217-Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Faisal Rehman
- Department
of Chemical & Polymer Engineering, University
of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Faisalabad Campus, 31/2 Km. Khurrianwala, Makkuana By-Pass, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahzad Zafar
- SKKU
Advanced Institute of Nano-Technology (SAINT), Sungkyunkwan University (SKKU), Seobu-ro, Jangan-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16419, Republic of Korea
| | - Syed Waqas Ahmad
- Department
of Chemical & Polymer Engineering, University
of Engineering & Technology Lahore, Faisalabad Campus, 31/2 Km. Khurrianwala, Makkuana By-Pass, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
| | - Rak-Hyun Song
- New
and Renewable Energy Research Division, Korea Institute of Energy Research (KIER), 152-Gajeong ro,
Yuseong gu, Daejeon 34129, South Korea
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19
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Ghobadi TGU, Ghobadi A, Ozbay E, Karadas F. Strategies for Plasmonic Hot-Electron-Driven Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting. CHEMPHOTOCHEM 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cptc.201700165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Turkan Gamze Ulusoy Ghobadi
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Department of Energy Engineering; Faculty of Engineering; Ankara University; Ankara 06830 Turkey
| | - Amir Ghobadi
- NANOTAM- Nanotechnology Research Center; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
| | - Ekmel Ozbay
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- NANOTAM- Nanotechnology Research Center; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Department of Physics; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
| | - Ferdi Karadas
- UNAM-National Nanotechnology Research Center; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
- Department of Chemistry; Bilkent University; Ankara 06800 Turkey
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20
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Xu Y, Chen W, Ding X, Pan X, Hu L, Yang S, Zhu J, Dai S. An ultrathin SiO2 blocking layer to suppress interfacial recombination for efficient Sb2S3-sensitized solar cells. Inorg Chem Front 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8qi00076j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
An SiO2 thin layer efficiently suppresses the recombination at the TiO2/Sb2S3 interface and enhances the photovoltaic performance of Sb2S3 sensitized solar cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Xu
- Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic and Energy Conservation Materials
- Institute of Applied Technology
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei 230031
| | - Wenyong Chen
- Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic and Energy Conservation Materials
- Institute of Applied Technology
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei 230031
| | - Xihong Ding
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Novel Thin Film Solar Cells
- North China Electric Power University
- Beijing 102206
- China
| | - Xu Pan
- Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic and Energy Conservation Materials
- Institute of Applied Technology
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei 230031
| | - Linhua Hu
- Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic and Energy Conservation Materials
- Institute of Applied Technology
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei 230031
| | - Shangfeng Yang
- Hefei National Laboratory for Physical Sciences at Microscale
- Key Laboratory of Materials for Energy Conversion
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering
- Synergetic Innovation Center of Quantum Information & Quantum Physics
| | - Jun Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Photovoltaic and Energy Conservation Materials
- Institute of Applied Technology
- Hefei Institutes of Physical Science
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Hefei 230031
| | - Songyuan Dai
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Novel Thin Film Solar Cells
- North China Electric Power University
- Beijing 102206
- China
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21
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Large-Diameter TiO2Nanotubes Enable Wall Engineering with Conformal Hierarchical Decoration and Blocking Layers for Enhanced Efficiency in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSC). Chemistry 2017; 23:12995-12999. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201702434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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22
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Kang Y, Krishnaswamy K, Peelaers H, Van de Walle CG. Fundamental limits on the electron mobility of β-Ga 2O 3. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2017; 29:234001. [PMID: 28443602 DOI: 10.1088/1361-648x/aa6f66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
We perform first-principles calculations to investigate the electronic and vibrational spectra and the electron mobility of β-Ga2O3. We calculate the electron-phonon scattering rate of the polar optical phonon modes using the Vogl model in conjunction with Fermi's golden rule; this enables us to fully take the anisotropic phonon spectra of the monoclinic lattice of β-Ga2O3 into account. We also examine the scattering rate due to ionized impurities or defects using a Yukawa-potential-based model. We consider scattering due to donor impurities, as well as the possibility of compensation by acceptors such as Ga vacancies. We then calculate the room-temperature mobility of β-Ga2O3 using the Boltzmann transport equation within the relaxation time approximation, for carrier densities in the range from 1017 to 1020 cm-3. We find that the electron-phonon interaction dominates the mobility for carrier densities of up to 1019 cm-3. We also find that the intrinsic anisotropy in the mobility is small; experimental findings of large anisotropy must therefore be attributed to other factors. We attribute the experimentally observed reduction of the mobility with increasing carrier density to increasing levels of compensation, which significantly affect the mobility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youngho Kang
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106-5050, United States of America
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23
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Chen S, Liu X, Qiao X, Wan X, Shehzad K, Zhang X, Xu Y, Fan X. Facile Synthesis of γ-In 2 Se 3 Nanoflowers toward High Performance Self-Powered Broadband γ-In 2 Se 3 /Si Heterojunction Photodiode. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2017; 13:1604033. [PMID: 28266785 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201604033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
An effective colloidal process involving the hot-injection method is developed to synthesize uniform nanoflowers consisting of 2D γ-In2 Se3 nanosheets. By exploiting the narrow direct bandgap and high absorption coefficient in the visible light range of In2 Se3 , a high-quality γ-In2 Se3 /Si heterojunction photodiode is fabricated. This photodiode shows a high photoresponse under light illumination, short response/recovery times, and long-term durability. In addition, the γ-In2 Se3 /Si heterojunction photodiode is self-powered and displays a broadband spectral response ranging from UV to IR with a high responsivity and detectivity. These excellent performances make the γ-In2 Se3 /Si heterojunction very interesting as highly efficient photodetectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Chen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xuemei Liu
- School of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xvsheng Qiao
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xia Wan
- School of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Khurram Shehzad
- School of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xianghua Zhang
- Laboratory of Glasses and Ceramics, Institute of Chemistry, CNRS-Université de Rennes I, Campus de Beaulieu, 35042, Rennes Cedex, France
| | - Yang Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
- School of Information Science and Electronic Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Xianping Fan
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
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24
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Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of dye-sensitized solar cells with post-treated TiO2 photoelectrodes using hafnium(IV) chloride and titanium(IV) chloride. J Photochem Photobiol A Chem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jphotochem.2016.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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25
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Wang W, Du J, Ren Z, Peng W, Pan Z, Zhong X. Improving Loading Amount and Performance of Quantum Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells through Metal Salt Solutions Treatment on Photoanode. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:31006-31015. [PMID: 27797169 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b11122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Increasing QD loading amount on photoanode and suppressing charge recombination are prerequisite for high-efficiency quantum dot-sensitized solar cells (QDSCs). Herein, a facile technique for enhancing the loading amount of QDs on photoanode and therefore improving the photovoltaic performance of the resultant cell devices is developed by pipetting metal salt aqueous solutions on TiO2 film electrode and then evaporating at elevated temperature. The effect of different metal salt solutions was investigated, and experimental results indicated that the isoelectric point (IEP) of metal ions influenced the loading amount of QDs and consequently the photovoltaic performance of the resultant cell devices. The influence of anions was also investigated, and the results indicated that anions of strong acid made no difference, while acetate anion hampered the performance of solar cells. Infrared spectroscopy confirmed the formation of oxyhydroxides, whose behavior was responsible for QD loading amount and thus solar cell performance. Suppressed charge recombination based on Mg2+ treatment under optimal conditions was confirmed by impedance spectroscopy as well as transient photovoltage decay measurement. Combined with high-QD loading amount and retarded charge recombination, the champion cell based on Mg2+ treatment exhibited an efficiency of 9.73% (Jsc = 27.28 mA/cm2, Voc = 0.609 V, FF = 0.585) under AM 1.5 G full 1 sun irradiation. The obtained efficiency was one of the best performances for liquid-junction QDSCs, which exhibited a 10% improvement over the untreated cells with the highest efficiency of 8.85%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenran Wang
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Jun Du
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Zhenwei Ren
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Wenxiang Peng
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Zhenxiao Pan
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xinhua Zhong
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology , Shanghai 200237, China
- College of Materials and Energy, South China Agricultural University , 483 Wushan Road, Guangzhou 510642, China
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26
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Wang Q, Dong Q, Li T, Gruverman A, Huang J. Thin Insulating Tunneling Contacts for Efficient and Water-Resistant Perovskite Solar Cells. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2016; 28:6734-9. [PMID: 27184864 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201600969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Tunneling contacts made of any insulating polymers, a champion technology in silicon solar cells, are shown to increase the stabilized efficiency of perovskite solar cells (PSCs) to 20.3%. The tunneling layers spatially separate photo-generated electrons and holes at the perovskite-cathode interface and reduce charge recombination. The tunneling layers made of hydrophobic polymers also significantly enhance the resistance of PSCs to water-caused damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Wang
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Qingfeng Dong
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Alexei Gruverman
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
| | - Jinsong Huang
- Department of Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, 68588, USA
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27
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Zhu SC, Guan SH, Liu ZP. Mechanism and microstructures in Ga2O3 pseudomartensitic solid phase transition. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:18563-74. [PMID: 27344965 DOI: 10.1039/c6cp03673b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Solid-to-solid phase transition, although widely exploited in making new materials, challenges persistently our current theory for predicting its complex kinetics and rich microstructures in transition. The Ga2O3α-β phase transformation represents such a common but complex reaction with marked change in cation coordination and crystal density, which was known to yield either amorphous or crystalline products under different synthetic conditions. Here we, via recently developed stochastic surface walking (SSW) method, resolve for the first time the atomistic mechanism of Ga2O3α-β phase transformation, the pathway of which turns out to be the first reaction pathway ever determined for a new type of diffusionless solid phase transition, namely, pseudomartensitic phase transition. We demonstrate that the sensitivity of product crystallinity is caused by its multi-step, multi-type reaction pathway, which bypasses seven intermediate phases and involves all types of elementary solid phase transition steps, i.e. the shearing of O layers (martensitic type), the local diffusion of Ga atoms (reconstructive type) and the significant lattice dilation (dilation type). While the migration of Ga atoms across the close-packed O layers is the rate-determining step and yields "amorphous-like" high energy intermediates, the shearing of O layers contributes to the formation of coherent biphase junctions and the presence of a crystallographic orientation relation, (001)α//(201[combining macron])β + [120]α//[13[combining macron]2]β. Our experiment using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy further confirms the theoretical predictions on the atomic structure of biphase junction and the formation of (201[combining macron])β twin, and also discovers the late occurrence of lattice expansion in the nascent β phase that grows out from the parent α phase. By distinguishing pseudomartensitic transition from other types of mechanisms, we propose general rules to predict the product crystallinity of solid phase transition. The new knowledge on the kinetics of pseudomartensitic transition complements the theory of diffusionless solid phase transition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Cai Zhu
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Material, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Molecular Catalysis and Innovative Materials, Key Laboratory of Computational Physical Science (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China.
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Zhang Y, Sun Z, Cheng S, Yan F. Plasmon-Induced Broadband Light-Harvesting for Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Using a Mixture of Gold Nanocrystals. CHEMSUSCHEM 2016; 9:813-819. [PMID: 27110902 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201600110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The efficiency of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) is generally limited by the mismatch between the absorption spectrum of the photosensitizer and the solar irradiation spectrum. This work describes the use of a mixture that containing proper proportions of SiO2 coated Au nanospheres (AuNSs@SiO2 ) and Au nanorods (AuNRs@SiO2 ) (the mixture was denoted as AuNCs@SiO2 ) to enhance the sunlight utility in DSSCs. The incorporation of AuNCs@SiO2 into the TiO2 photoanode induced broadband light-harvesting at both low- and long- wavelengths and thus enhanced the photocurrent compared to that of plasmonic solar cells based on either AuNSs@SiO2 or AuNRs@SiO2 . Upon the doping of AuNCs@SiO2 , the overall power conversion efficiency (PCE) increased from 7.39 to 9.12 % for DSSCs based on organic liquid electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Zhang
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Zhe Sun
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China
| | - Si Cheng
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
| | - Feng Yan
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, P.R. China.
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29
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Barr MK, Assaud L, Wu Y, Laffon C, Parent P, Bachmann J, Santinacci L. Engineering a three-dimensional, photoelectrochemically active p-NiO / i-Sb 2 S 3 junction by atomic layer deposition. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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30
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Palmstrom AF, Santra PK, Bent SF. Atomic layer deposition in nanostructured photovoltaics: tuning optical, electronic and surface properties. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:12266-12283. [PMID: 26147328 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr02080h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructured materials offer key advantages for third-generation photovoltaics, such as the ability to achieve high optical absorption together with enhanced charge carrier collection using low cost components. However, the extensive interfacial areas in nanostructured photovoltaic devices can cause high recombination rates and a high density of surface electronic states. In this feature article, we provide a brief review of some nanostructured photovoltaic technologies including dye-sensitized, quantum dot sensitized and colloidal quantum dot solar cells. We then introduce the technique of atomic layer deposition (ALD), which is a vapor phase deposition method using a sequence of self-limiting surface reaction steps to grow thin, uniform and conformal films. We discuss how ALD has established itself as a promising tool for addressing different aspects of nanostructured photovoltaics. Examples include the use of ALD to synthesize absorber materials for both quantum dot and plasmonic solar cells, to grow barrier layers for dye and quantum dot sensitized solar cells, and to infiltrate coatings into colloidal quantum dot solar cell to improve charge carrier mobilities as well as stability. We also provide an example of monolayer surface modification in which adsorbed ligand molecules on quantum dots are used to tune the band structure of colloidal quantum dot solar cells for improved charge collection. Finally, we comment on the present challenges and future outlook of the use of ALD for nanostructured photovoltaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel F Palmstrom
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA.
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31
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Dabirian A, Taghavinia N. Theoretical Study of Light Trapping in Nanostructured Thin Film Solar Cells Using Wavelength-Scale Silver Particles. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:14926-14932. [PMID: 26135021 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.5b03719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We propose and theoretically evaluate a plasmonic light trapping solution for thin film photovoltaic devices that comprises a monolayer or a submonolayer of wavelength-scale silver particles. We systematically study the effect of silver particle size using full-wave electromagnetic simulations. We find that light trapping is significantly enhanced when wavelength-scale silver particles rather than the ones with subwavelength dimensions are used. We demonstrate that a densely packed monolayer of spherical 700 nm silver particles enhances integrated optical absorption under standard air mass 1.5 global (AM1.5G) in a 7 μm-thick N719-sensitized solar cell by 40% whereas enhancement is smaller than 2% when 100 nm ones are used. Superior performance of wavelength-scale silver particles is attributed to high-order whispering gallery modes that they support. These modes scatter the light over a wider angular range, hence increasing the density of both waveguide and resonance modes within the dye-sensitized layer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Dabirian
- †Photovoltaics and Thin Film Electronics Laboratory, Ecole Polytechique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Rue de la Maladière 71, Neuchatel 2000, Switzerland
- ‡Department of Physics, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588, Iran
| | - Nima Taghavinia
- ‡Department of Physics, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran 14588, Iran
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32
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Katz MJ, DeVries Vermeer MJ, Farha OK, Pellin MJ, Hupp JT. Dynamics of Back Electron Transfer in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells Featuring 4-tert-Butyl-Pyridine and Atomic-Layer-Deposited Alumina as Surface Modifiers. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:7162-9. [PMID: 25127076 DOI: 10.1021/jp506083a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
A series of dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) was constructed with TiO2 nanoparticles and N719 dye. The standard I3(-)/I(-) redox shuttle and the Co(1,10-phenanthroline)3(3+/2+) shuttle were employed. DSCs were modified with atomic-layered-deposited (ALD) coatings of Al2O3 and/or with the surface-adsorbing additive 4-tert-butyl-pyridine. Current-voltage data were collected to ascertain the influence of each modification upon the back electron transfer (ET) dynamics of the DSCs. The primary effect of the additives alone or in tandem is to increase the open-circuit voltage. A second is to alter the short-circuit current density, JSC. With dependence on the specifics of the system examined, any of a myriad of dynamics-related effects were observed to come into play, in both favorable (efficiency boosting) and unfavorable (efficiency damaging) ways. These effects include modulation of (a) charge-injection yields, (b) rates of interception of injected electrons by redox shuttles, and (c) rates of recombination of injected electrons with holes on surface-bound dyes. In turn, these influence charge-collection lengths, charge-collection yields, and onset potentials for undesired dark current. The microscopic origins of the effects appear to be related mainly to changes in driving force and/or electronic coupling for underlying component redox reactions. Perhaps surprisingly, only a minor role for modifier-induced shifts in conduction-band-edge energy was found. The combination of DSC-efficiency-relevant effects engendered by the modifiers was found to vary substantially as a function of the chemical identity of the redox shuttle employed. While types of modifiers are effective, a challenge going forward will be to construct systems in ways in which the benefits of organic and inorganic modifiers can be exploited in fully additive, or even synergistic, fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J. Katz
- Department
of Chemistry and Argonne-Northwestern Solar Energy Research (ANSER)
Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Michael J. DeVries Vermeer
- Department
of Chemistry and Argonne-Northwestern Solar Energy Research (ANSER)
Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Materials Science
Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Omar K. Farha
- Department
of Chemistry and Argonne-Northwestern Solar Energy Research (ANSER)
Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Michael J. Pellin
- Department
of Chemistry and Argonne-Northwestern Solar Energy Research (ANSER)
Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Materials Science
Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Joseph T. Hupp
- Department
of Chemistry and Argonne-Northwestern Solar Energy Research (ANSER)
Center, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
- Materials Science
Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
- Chemical Sciences
and Engineering Division, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Argonne, Illinois 60439, United States
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Sun Z, Liang M, Chen J. Kinetics of Iodine-Free Redox Shuttles in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells: Interfacial Recombination and Dye Regeneration. Acc Chem Res 2015; 48:1541-50. [PMID: 26001106 DOI: 10.1021/ar500337g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs) have gained widespread attentions owing to their low production cost, tunable optical response, and high light-to-electricity conversion. In DSCs, the performance of redox mediators with iodide/triiodide or iodine-free redox couples is vital to internal quantum efficiency. For a long time, iodide/triiodide based electrolytes are the most widely used mediators because of their desirable kinetics. Recently, exciting progress has been made with respect to iodine-free metallorganic and pure organic redox shuttles. Their tunable redox potential and diverse electron transfer behaviors enable the rational screening of electrolyte composition for enhancing the light-to-electricity conversion efficiency of DSCs toward the Shockley-Queisser limit. In this Account, we emphasize on current knowledge of two distinct but interrelated interfacial processes (electron recombination and dye regeneration), particularly for DSCs with iodine-free redox couples. We show that a deeper understanding of electron transfer kinetics of the alternative redox couples is fundamental to develop rational strategies for cell optimization. Compared with iodine electrolyte, iodine-free metallorganic redox couples such as iron, cobalt, and nickel complexes display much faster electron transfer kinetics in dye regeneration and interfacial recombination. Evidently, rapid regeneration enables the employment of more positive metal complex for attaining a higher photovoltage. However, severe recombination reactions have to be well controlled by using several effective surface treatments such as the addition of Brönsted bases and atomic layer deposition. Although these methods offer different pathways in surface passivation, a trade-off between charge injection efficiency and electron diffusion length is always observed. It follows that an appropriate LUMO level of sensitizer is essential to ensure efficient electron injection at the passivated TiO2 surface. Apart from fast recombination behavior, bulky metal complexes suffer from inefficient charge transport. Thus, the combination of thinner TiO2 film and sensitizers with high mole extinction coefficient has been employed for both enhancing diffusion-limited current and maintaining light-harvesting efficiency. Unlike metal complexes, most of organic sulfur redox couples in DSCs exhibit slow recombination kinetics. This allows the use of thicker TiO2 film to achieve an optimized light harvesting. However, the concomitant sluggish behavior of dye regeneration requires the use of sensitizers with more positive HOMO level, which is beneficial to efficient regeneration. Moreover, lower level of TiO2 band edge in DSCs based on organic sulfur mediators hinders the achievement of desirable photovoltage, spurring future explorations on this class of redox mediator. Based on the comparison of electron transfer behavior between iodine-free metallorganic complexes and pure organic redox couples, we aim to provide a comprehensive Account of the intriguing interfacial processes in iodine-free DSCs as the key scientific point is linked with the kinetics of interfacial reactions. This demonstrates the advantages as well as disadvantages of each class of iodine-free electrolyte and should shed light on to judicious selection of the energy levels for redox mediators, sensitizers, and the conduction band of TiO2 for DSCs. The knowledge of the reaction kinetics in DSCs should be also beneficial to the interface engineering on recent developed perovskite cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Sun
- Key
Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (KLAEMC) (Ministry
of Education) and State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry,
Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, People’s Republic of China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Organic Solar Cells and Photochemical Conversion, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, People’s Republic of China
| | - Mao Liang
- Key
Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (KLAEMC) (Ministry
of Education) and State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry,
Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, People’s Republic of China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Organic Solar Cells and Photochemical Conversion, School of Chemistry & Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jun Chen
- Key
Laboratory of Advanced Energy Materials Chemistry (KLAEMC) (Ministry
of Education) and State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry,
Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, People’s Republic of China
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34
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Lawrenz F, Lange P, Severin N, Rabe JP, Helm CA, Block S. Morphology, mechanical stability, and protective properties of ultrathin gallium oxide coatings. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:5836-5842. [PMID: 25945521 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Ultrathin gallium oxide layers with a thickness of 2.8 ± 0.2 nm were transferred from the surface of liquid gallium onto solid substrates, including conjugated polymer poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT). The gallium oxide exhibits high mechanical stability, withstanding normal pressures of up to 1 GPa in contact mode scanning force microscopy imaging. Moreover, it lowers the rate of photodegradation of P3HT by 4 orders of magnitude, as compared to uncovered P3HT. This allows us to estimate the upper limits for oxygen and water vapor transmission rates of 0.08 cm(3) m(-2) day(-1) and 0.06 mg m(-2) day(-1), respectively. Hence, similar to other highly functional coatings such as graphene, ultrathin gallium oxide layers can be regarded as promising candidates for protective layers in flexible organic (opto-)electronics and photovoltaics because they offer permeation barrier functionalities in conjunction with high optical transparency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Lawrenz
- †Institut für Physik, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | | | | | | | - Christiane A Helm
- †Institut für Physik, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
| | - Stephan Block
- †Institut für Physik, Ernst-Moritz-Arndt Universität, Felix-Hausdorff-Str. 6, D-17487 Greifswald, Germany
- §Applied Physics, Chalmers University of Technology, Fysikgränd 3, SE-412 96 Gothenburg, Sweden
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35
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Son HJ, Kim CH, Kim DW, Jeong NC, Prasittichai C, Luo L, Wu J, Farha OK, Wasielewski MR, Hupp JT. Post-assembly atomic layer deposition of ultrathin metal-oxide coatings enhances the performance of an organic dye-sensitized solar cell by suppressing dye aggregation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2015; 7:5150-5159. [PMID: 25695408 DOI: 10.1021/am507405b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Dye aggregation and concomitant reduction of dye excited-state lifetimes and electron-injection yields constitute a significant mechanism for diminution of light-to-electrical energy conversion efficiencies in many dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs). For TiO2-based DSCs prepared with an archetypal donor-acceptor organic dye, (E)-2-cyano-3-(5'-(5''-(p-(diphenylamino)phenyl)-thiophen-2''-yl)thiophen-2'-yl)acrylic acid (OrgD), we find, in part via ultrafast spectroscopy measurements, that postdye-adsorption atomic layer deposition (ALD) of ultrathin layers of either TiO2 or Al2O3 effectively reverses residual aggregation. Notably, the ALD treatment is significantly more effective than the widely used aggregation-inhibiting coadsorbent, chenodeoxycholic acid. Primarily because of reversal of OrgD aggregation, and resulting improved injection yields, ALD post-treatment engenders a 30+% increase in overall energy conversion efficiency. A secondary contributor to increased currents and efficiencies is an ALD-induced attenuation of the rate of interception of injected electrons, resulting in slightly more efficient charge collection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Jin Son
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University , Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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36
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Ghobadi A, Yavuz HI, Ulusoy TG, Icli KC, Ozenbas M, Okyay AK. Enhanced Performance of Nanowire-Based All-TiO2 Solar Cells using Subnanometer-Thick Atomic Layer Deposited ZnO Embedded Layer. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.01.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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37
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Niu W, Li X, Karuturi SK, Fam DW, Fan H, Shrestha S, Wong LH, Tok AIY. Applications of atomic layer deposition in solar cells. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 26:064001. [PMID: 25604730 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/6/064001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Atomic layer deposition (ALD) provides a unique tool for the growth of thin films with excellent conformity and thickness control down to atomic levels. The application of ALD in energy research has received increasing attention in recent years. In this review, the versatility of ALD in solar cells will be discussed. This is specifically focused on the fabrication of nanostructured photoelectrodes, surface passivation, surface sensitization, and band-structure engineering of solar cell materials. Challenges and future directions of ALD in the applications of solar cells are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenbin Niu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore
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38
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Sun P, Zhang X, Wang L, Wei Y, Wang C, Liu Y. Efficiency enhanced rutile TiO2 nanowire solar cells based on an Sb2S3 absorber and a CuI hole conductor. NEW J CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5nj00299k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The spray technique is introduced for CuI deposition on Sb2S3-sensitized TiO2 nanowire solar cells, which enhances the photovoltaic performance of the device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panpan Sun
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
- College of Materials and Chemical Engineering
| | - Xintong Zhang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Yongan Wei
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Changhua Wang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Yichun Liu
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
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39
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Pashaei B, Shahroosvand H, Abbasi P. Transition metal complex redox shuttles for dye-sensitized solar cells. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra13088c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
This review provides an in-depth investigation into exciting alternative electrolyte shuttles in DSSCs and the various advantages that they provide, such as high conversion efficiency and non-corrosive properties.
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40
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Sun P, Zhang X, Wang L, Li F, Wei Y, Wang C, Liu Y. Bilayer TiO2photoanode consisting of a nanowire–nanoparticle bottom layer and a spherical voids scattering layer for dye-sensitized solar cells. NEW J CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5nj00216h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A bilayer TiO2photoanode prepared by a one-time spray technique on a TiO2NW array shows significantly enhanced photovoltaic performance in DSSCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Panpan Sun
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
- College of Materials and Chemical Engineering
| | - Xintong Zhang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Lingling Wang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Fangchao Li
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Yongan Wei
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Changhua Wang
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
| | - Yichun Liu
- Center for Advanced Optoelectronic Functional Materials Research, and Key Laboratory for UV-Emitting Materials and Technology of Ministry of Education
- Northeast Normal University
- Changchun 130024
- China
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41
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Urbani M, Grätzel M, Nazeeruddin MK, Torres T. Meso-substituted porphyrins for dye-sensitized solar cells. Chem Rev 2014; 114:12330-96. [PMID: 25495339 DOI: 10.1021/cr5001964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 537] [Impact Index Per Article: 53.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Maxence Urbani
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid , Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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42
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Li Y, Chen C, Sun X, Dou J, Wei M. Metal-organic frameworks at interfaces in dye-sensitized solar cells. CHEMSUSCHEM 2014; 7:2469-72. [PMID: 24989826 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201402143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2014] [Revised: 05/05/2014] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
ZIF-8, a kind of widely studied metal-organic frameworks, was used for the interfacial modification of dye-sensitized solar cells by a facile post-treatment strategy for the first time, which solved the problem of severely decreased short-circuit photocurrent in previous report. After the surface treatment, the performance of cells was obviously improved. The conditions for the deposition of ZIF-8 were optimized. The best photovoltaic property was obtained when the growth time of ZIF-8 was 7 min and the TiO2 photoanode was post-treated for 2 times. Besides the energy barrier effect of ZIF-8 that improved the open-circuit photovoltage and electron lifetime, the dyes adsorbed tightly on TiO2 surface was found to be a key point for the efficient electron injection and improved performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafeng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Photocatalysis on Energy and Environment, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002 (PR China); Institute of Advanced Energy Materials, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002 (PR China); State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry, Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Fuzhou, Fujian 350002 (PR China)
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43
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Lee YS, Chua D, Brandt RE, Siah SC, Li JV, Mailoa JP, Lee SW, Gordon RG, Buonassisi T. Atomic layer deposited gallium oxide buffer layer enables 1.2 V open-circuit voltage in cuprous oxide solar cells. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2014; 26:4704-4710. [PMID: 24862543 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201401054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The power conversion efficiency of solar cells based on copper (I) oxide (Cu2 O) is enhanced by atomic layer deposition of a thin gallium oxide (Ga2 O3 ) layer. By improving band-alignment and passivating interface defects, the device exhibits an open-circuit voltage of 1.20 V and an efficiency of 3.97%, showing potential of over 7% efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Seog Lee
- Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 02139, USA
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44
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Dahl
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Yiding Liu
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Yadong Yin
- Department of Chemistry and ‡Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of California at Riverside, Riverside, California 92521, United States
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45
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Docampo P, Guldin S, Leijtens T, Noel NK, Steiner U, Snaith HJ. Lessons learned: from dye-sensitized solar cells to all-solid-state hybrid devices. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2014; 26:4013-4030. [PMID: 24729301 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201400486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 02/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The field of solution-processed photovoltaic cells is currently in its second spring. The dye-sensitized solar cell is a widely studied and longstanding candidate for future energy generation. Recently, inorganic absorber-based devices have reached new record efficiencies, with the benefits of all-solid-state devices. In this rapidly changing environment, this review sheds light on recent developments in all-solid-state solar cells in terms of electrode architecture, alternative sensitizers, and hole-transporting materials. These concepts are of general applicability to many next-generation device platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Docampo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Munich (LMU), Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377, Munich, Germany
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Erwin WR, Oakes L, Chatterjee S, Zarick HF, Pint CL, Bardhan R. Engineered porous silicon counter electrodes for high efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2014; 6:9904-9910. [PMID: 24884149 DOI: 10.1021/am503257e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we demonstrate for the first time, the use of porous silicon (P-Si) as counter electrodes in dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) with efficiencies (5.38%) comparable to that achieved with platinum counter electrodes (5.80%). To activate the P-Si for triiodide reduction, few layer carbon passivation is utilized to enable electrochemical stability of the silicon surface. Our results suggest porous silicon as a promising sustainable and manufacturable alternative to rare metals for electrochemical solar cells, following appropriate surface modification.
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Affiliation(s)
- William R Erwin
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, ‡Interdisciplinary Materials Science Program, §Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University , Nashville, Tennessee 37235, United States
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Ansari-Rad M, Anta JA, Arzi E. Conditions for diffusion-limited and reaction-limited recombination in nanostructured solar cells. J Chem Phys 2014; 140:134702. [PMID: 24712803 DOI: 10.1063/1.4869748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The performance of Dye-sensitized solar cells (DSC) and related devices made of nanostructured semiconductors relies on a good charge separation, which in turn is achieved by favoring charge transport against recombination. Although both processes occur at very different time scales, hence ensuring good charge separation, in certain cases the kinetics of transport and recombination can be connected, either in a direct or an indirect way. In this work, the connection between electron transport and recombination in nanostructured solar cells is studied both theoretically and by Monte Carlo simulation. Calculations using the Multiple-Trapping model and a realistic trap distribution for nanostructured TiO2 show that for attempt-to-jump frequencies higher than 10(11)-10(13) Hz, the system adopts a reaction limited (RL) regime, with a lifetime which is effectively independent from the speed of the electrons in the transport level. For frequencies lower than those, and depending on the concentration of recombination centers in the material, the system enters a diffusion-limited regime (DL), where the lifetime increases if the speed of free electrons decreases. In general, the conditions for RL or DL recombination depend critically on the time scale difference between recombination kinetics and free-electron transport. Hence, if the former is too rapid with respect to the latter, the system is in the DL regime and total thermalization of carriers is not possible. In the opposite situation, a RL regime arises. Numerical data available in the literature, and the behavior of the lifetime with respect to (1) density of recombination centers and (2) probability of recombination at a given center, suggest that a typical DSC in operation stays in the RL regime with complete thermalization, although a transition to the DL regime may occur for electrolytes or hole conductors where recombination is especially rapid or where there is a larger dispersion of energies of electron acceptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Ansari-Rad
- Department of Physics, University of Tehran, 1439955961 Tehran, Iran
| | - Juan A Anta
- Departamento de Sistemas Físicos, Químicos y Naturales, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, 41013 Sevilla, Spain
| | - Ezatollah Arzi
- Department of Physics, University of Tehran, 1439955961 Tehran, Iran
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Chandiran AK, Abdi-Jalebi M, Nazeeruddin MK, Grätzel M. Analysis of electron transfer properties of ZnO and TiO2 photoanodes for dye-sensitized solar cells. ACS NANO 2014; 8:2261-8. [PMID: 24552648 DOI: 10.1021/nn405535j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Mesoporous TiO2 nanoparticle films are used as photoanodes for high-efficiency dye-sensitized solar cells (DSCs). In spite of excellent photovoltaic power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) displayed by titanium dioxide nanoparticle structures, the transport rate of electrons is known to be low due to low electron mobility. So the alternate oxides, including ZnO, that possesses high electron mobility are being investigated as potential candidates for photoanodes. However, the PCE with ZnO is still lower than with TiO2, and this is typically attributed to the low internal surface area. In this work, we attempt to make a one-to-one comparison of the photovoltaic performance and the electron transfer dynamics involved in DSCs, with ZnO and TiO2 as photoanodes. Previously such comparative investigations were hampered due to the morphological differences (internal surface area, pore diameter, porosity) that exist between zinc oxide and titanium dioxide films. We circumvent this issue by depositing different thicknesses of these oxides, by atomic layer deposition (ALD), on an arbitrary mesoporous insulating template and subsequently using them as photoanodes. Our results reveal that at an optimal thickness ZnO exhibits photovoltaic performances similar to TiO2, but the internal electron transfer properties differ. The higher photogenerated electron transport rate contributed to the performances of ZnO, but in the case of TiO2, it is the low recombination rate, higher dye loading, and fast electron injection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aravind Kumar Chandiran
- Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) , Station 6, Lausanne, CH 1015, Switzerland
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Chandiran AK, Abdi-Jalebi M, Yella A, Dar MI, Yi C, Shivashankar SA, Nazeeruddin MK, Grätzel M. Quantum-confined ZnO nanoshell photoanodes for mesoscopic solar cells. NANO LETTERS 2014; 14:1190-1195. [PMID: 24524200 DOI: 10.1021/nl4039955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
We present a photoanode for dye-sensitized solar cell (DSC) based on ZnO nanoshell deposited by atomic layer deposition at 150 °C on a mesoporous insulating template. An ultrathin layer of ZnO between 3 and 6 nm, which exhibits quantum confinement effect, is found to be sufficient to transport the photogenerated electrons to the external contacts and exhibits near-unity collection efficiency. A 6 nm ZnO nanoshell on a 2.5 μm mesoporous nanoparticle Al2O3 template yields photovoltaic power conversion efficiency (PCE) of 4.2% in liquid DSC. Perovskite absorber (CH3NH3PbI3) based solid state solar cells made with similar ZnO nanostructures lead to a high PCE of 7%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aravind Kumar Chandiran
- Laboratory of Photonics and Interfaces, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL) , Station 6, Lausanne CH 1015, Switzerland
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Bachmann J. Atomic layer deposition, a unique method for the preparation of energy conversion devices. BEILSTEIN JOURNAL OF NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 5:245-248. [PMID: 24778945 PMCID: PMC3999862 DOI: 10.3762/bjnano.5.26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/28/2013] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Julien Bachmann
- Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Friedrich-Alexander University of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Egerlandstrasse 1, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
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