Modulating physical properties of isolated and self-assembled nanocrystals through change in nanocrystallinity

Self-Assembled Supercrystals Enhance the Photothermal Conversion for Solar Evaporation and Water Purification

Photothermal materials can convert renewable solar energy into thermal energy and have great potential for solar water evaporation. Copper sulfide (Cu_{2- x} S) is an easily available and inexpensive plasmonic material with a high photothermal conversion efficiency and can be applied to solar evaporation and water purification. Monodispersed Cu₇ S₄ nanoparticles (NPs) and supercrystalline self-assembled superparticles are obtained via wet chemical synthesis and micelle self-assembly. The photothermal properties of the superstructures are investigated using the finite difference time domain method and laser radiation photothermography. The results show that the electromagnetic field intensity and photothermal efficiency of the self-assembly are significantly higher than those of isolated NPs, which is due to the plasmonic coupling of the NPs. The evaporation efficiency of the superstructure is significantly higher than that of isolated NPs, the metal salt ion and total organic carbon concentrations in the waterbody significantly decrease after evaporation, and the water polluted by high salt and organic dye concentrations is purified. The water quality significantly improves after the lake water from Fuxian Lake in the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau of China is used for solar evaporation. The color changes from pale yellow to colorless and the ion and total organic carbon contents significantly decrease.

Building ordered nanoparticle assemblies inspired by atomic epitaxy

Self-assembly of inorganic nanoparticles into mesoscopic or macroscopic nanoparticle assemblies is an efficient strategy to fabricate advanced devices with emergent nanoscale functionalities. Furthermore, assembly of nanoparticles onto substrates may enable the fabrication of substrate-integrated devices, akin to atomic crystal growth on a substrate. Recent progress in nanoparticle assembly suggests that ordered nanoparticle assemblies could be well produced on a selected substrate, referred to as soft epitaxial growth. Herein, recent advances in soft epitaxial growth of a nanoparticle assembly are presented, including the assembly strategies, the choice of substrate and the epitaxial modes. Perspectives are also discussed for the material design based on substrate-integrated soft epitaxial growth.

Versatile and robust synthesis process for the fine control of the chemical composition and core-crystallinity of spherical core-shell Au@Ag nanoparticles

Au nanoparticles (NPs) characterized by distinct surface chemistry (including dodecanethiol or oleylamine as capping agent), different sizes (∼5 and ∼10 nm) and crystallinities (polycrystalline or single crystalline), were chosen as seeds to demonstrate the versatility and robustness of our two-step core-shell Au@Ag NP synthesis process. The central component of this strategy is to solubilize the shell precursor (AgNO₃) in oleylamine and to induce the growth of the shell on selected seeds under heating. The shell thickness is thus controlled by the temperature, the annealing time, the (shell precursor)/(seed) concentration ratio, seed size and crystallinity. The shell thickness is thus shown to increase with the reactant concentration and to grow faster on polycrystalline seeds. The crystalline structure and chemical composition were characterized by HRTEM, STEM-HAADF, EELS and Raman spectroscopy. The plasmonic response of Au@Ag core-shell NPs as a function of core size and shell thickness was assessed by spectrophotometry and simulated by calculations based on the discrete dipole approximation (DDA) method. Finally, the nearly monodisperse core-shell Au@Ag NPs were shown to form micrometer-scale facetted 3D fcc-ordered superlattices (SLs) after solvent evaporation and deposition on a solid substrate. These SLs are promising candidates for applications as a tunable surface-enhanced Raman scattering platform.

Stress-Induced Structural Transformations in Au Nanocrystals

Nanocrystals can exist in multiply twinned structures like icosahedron or single crystalline structures like cuboctahedron. Transformations between these structures can proceed through diffusion or displacive motion. Experimental studies on nanocrystal structural transformations have focused on high-temperature diffusion-mediated processes. Limited experimental evidence of displacive motion exists. We report structural transformation of 6 nm Au nanocrystals under nonhydrostatic pressure of 7.7 GPa in a diamond anvil cell that is driven by displacive motion. X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy were used to detect the structural transformation from multiply twinned to single crystalline. Single crystalline nanocrystals were recovered after unloading, then quickly reverted to the multiply twinned state after dispersion in toluene. The dynamics of recovery was captured using TEM which showed surface recrystallization and rapid twin boundary motion. Molecular dynamics simulations showed that twin boundaries are unstable due to defects nucleated from the interior of the nanocrystal.

Acoustic Vibrations of Al Nanocrystals: Size, Shape, and Crystallinity Revealed by Single-Particle Transient Extinction Spectroscopy

Acoustic vibrations in plasmonic nanoparticles, monitored by an all-optical means, have attracted significant increasing interest because they provide unique insight into the mechanical properties of these metallic nanostructures. Al nanostructures are a recently emerging alternative to noble metal nanoparticles, because their broad wavelength tunability and high natural abundance make them ideal for many potential applications. Here, we investigate the acoustic vibrations of individual Al nanocrystals using a combination of electron microscopy and single-particle transient extinction spectroscopy, made possible with a low-pulse energy, high sensitivity, and probe-wavelength-tunable, single-particle transient extinction microscope. For chemically synthesized, faceted Al nanocrystals, the observed vibration frequency scales with the inverse particle diameter. In contrast, triangularly shaped Al nanocrystals support two distinct frequencies, corresponding to their in- and out-of-plane breathing modes. Unlike ensemble measurements, which measure average properties, measuring the damping time of the acoustic vibrations for individual particles enables us to investigate variations of the quality factor on the particle-to-particle level. Surprisingly, we find a large variation in quality factors even for nanocrystals of similar size and shape. This observed heterogeneity appears to result from substantially varying degrees of nanoparticle crystallinity even for chemically synthesized nanocrystals.

Light interactions with supracrystals either deposited on a substrate or dispersed in water

Nanocrystals with low size distribution are able to self-assemble into a 3D crystalline structure called colloidal crystals or super/supracrystals.

Elasticity of Cross-Linked Titania Nanocrystal Assemblies Probed by AFM-Bulge Tests

In order to enable advanced technological applications of nanocrystal composites, e.g., as functional coatings and layers in flexible optics and electronics, it is necessary to understand and control their mechanical properties. The objective of this study was to show how the elasticity of such composites depends on the nanocrystals’ dimensionality. To this end, thin films of titania nanodots (TNDs; diameter: ~3–7 nm), nanorods (TNRs; diameter: ~3.4 nm; length: ~29 nm), and nanoplates (TNPs; thickness: ~6 nm; edge length: ~34 nm) were assembled via layer-by-layer spin-coating. 1,12-dodecanedioic acid (12DAC) was added to cross-link the nanocrystals and to enable regular film deposition. The optical attenuation coefficients of the films were determined by ultraviolet/visible (UV/vis) absorbance measurements, revealing much lower values than those known for titania films prepared via chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images showed a homogeneous coverage of the substrates on the µm-scale but a highly disordered arrangement of nanocrystals on the nm-scale. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analyses confirmed the presence of the 12DAC cross-linker after film fabrication. After transferring the films onto silicon substrates featuring circular apertures (diameter: 32–111 µm), freestanding membranes (thickness: 20–42 nm) were obtained and subjected to atomic force microscopy bulge tests (AFM-bulge tests). These measurements revealed increasing elastic moduli with increasing dimensionality of the nanocrystals, i.e., 2.57 ± 0.18 GPa for the TND films, 5.22 ± 0.39 GPa for the TNR films, and 7.21 ± 1.04 GPa for the TNP films.

Controlling the Quality Factor of a Single Acoustic Nanoresonator by Tuning its Morphology

The mechanical vibrations of individual gold nanodisks nanopatterned on a sapphire substrate are investigated using ultrafast time-resolved optical spectroscopy. The number and characteristics of the detected acoustic modes are found to vary with nanodisk geometry. In particular, their quality factors strongly depend on nanodisk aspect ratio (i.e., diameter over height ratio), reaching a maximal value of ≈70, higher than those previously measured for substrate-supported nano-objects. The peculiarities of the detected acoustic vibrations are confirmed by finite-element simulations, and interpreted as the result of substrate-induced hybridization between the vibrational modes of a nanodisk. The present findings demonstrate novel possibilities for engineering the vibrational modes of nano-objects.

Pseudoelasticity at Large Strains in Au Nanocrystals

Pseudoelasticity in metals is typically associated with phase transformations (e.g., shape memory alloys) but has recently been observed in sub-10 nm Ag nanocrystals that rapidly recovered their original shape after deformation to large strains. The discovery of pseudoelasticity in nanoscale metals dramatically changes the current understanding of the properties of solids at the smallest length scales, and the motion of atoms at surfaces. Yet, it remains unclear whether pseudoelasticity exists in different metals and nanocrystal sizes. The challenge of observing deformation at atomistic to nanometer length scales has prevented a clear mechanistic understanding of nanoscale pseudoelasticity, although surface diffusion and dislocation-mediated processes have been proposed. We further the understanding of pseudoelasticity in nanoscale metals by using a diamond anvil cell to compress colloidal Au nanocrystals under quasihydrostatic and nonhydrostatic pressure conditions. Nanocrystal structural changes are measured using optical spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy and modeled using electrodynamic theory. We find that 3.9 nm Au nanocrystals exhibit pseudoelastic shape recovery after deformation to large uniaxial strains of up to 20%, which is equivalent to an ellipsoid with an aspect ratio of 2. Nanocrystal absorbance efficiency does not recover after deformation, which indicates that crystalline defects may be trapped in the nanocrystals after deformation.

Form factor of rounded objects: the sections method

An analytical method, the sections method, is developed to build a close link between the singularities of the surface of a body and the asymptotic behaviour of its amplitude form factor at large scattering vector, q. In contrast with a sphere, for which the asymptotic behaviour is in q −2, surface singularities lead to both narrow regions, for which the amplitude form factor exhibits trailing behaviour, and extended regions, for which it exhibits a rapid decrease. A numerical study of a simple example, the fourfold truncated sphere, illustrates the usefulness of these analytical predictions.

Multimode Electron Tomography as a Tool to Characterize the Internal Structure and Morphology of Gold Nanoparticles

Three dimensional (3D) characterization of structural defects in nanoparticles by transmission electron microscopy is far from straightforward. We propose the use of a dose-efficient approach, so-called multimode tomography, during which tilt series of low and high angle annular dark field scanning transmission electron microscopy projection images are acquired simultaneously. In this manner, not only reliable information can be obtained concerning the shape of the nanoparticles, but also the twin planes can be clearly visualized in 3D. As an example, we demonstrate the application of this approach to identify the position of the seeds with respect to the twinning planes in anisotropic gold nanoparticles synthesized using a seed mediated growth approach.

Polycrystallinity of Lithographically Fabricated Plasmonic Nanostructures Dominates Their Acoustic Vibrational Damping

The study of acoustic vibrations in nanoparticles provides unique and unparalleled insight into their mechanical properties. Electron-beam lithography of nanostructures allows precise manipulation of their acoustic vibration frequencies through control of nanoscale morphology. However, the dissipation of acoustic vibrations in this important class of nanostructures has not yet been examined. Here we report, using single-particle ultrafast transient extinction spectroscopy, the intrinsic damping dynamics in lithographically fabricated plasmonic nanostructures. We find that in stark contrast to chemically synthesized, monocrystalline nanoparticles, acoustic energy dissipation in lithographically fabricated nanostructures is solely dominated by intrinsic damping. A quality factor of Q = 11.3 ± 2.5 is observed for all 147 nanostructures, regardless of size, geometry, frequency, surface adhesion, and mode. This result indicates that the complex Young's modulus of this material is independent of frequency with its imaginary component being approximately 11 times smaller than its real part. Substrate-mediated acoustic vibration damping is strongly suppressed, despite strong binding between the glass substrate and Au nanostructures. We anticipate that these results, characterizing the optomechanical properties of lithographically fabricated metal nanostructures, will help inform their design for applications such as photoacoustic imaging agents, high-frequency resonators, and ultrafast optical switches.

Investigations on the elasticity of functional gold nanoparticles using single-molecule force spectroscopy

In this focused review we turn our attention towards several approaches for detecting the elasticity of NPs, systematically summarizing the divergent elasticity values of distinct gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) with different surfaces.

Exploration of photothermal sensors based on photothermally responsive materials: a brief review

Photothermal sensors have emerged as a new type of sensor platform in recent decades and this brief review has summarized different types of photothermally responsive materials and their applications in various fields.

Form factor of any polyhedron: a general compact formula and its singularities

A general and compact formula is established for the form factor of any polyhedron, which involves only the apex coordinates and the apex connections. For large diffusion vectorq, the form factor behaves likeq−3for generic directions, but it exhibitsq−2singularities in the directions perpendicular to the edges andq−1singularities in the directions normal to the faces. General results are established for these singularities. Using a Python implementation, illustrative examples are discussed. The generality of the formula and of its singularities are likely to be important for any discussion of scattering from polyhedral particles.

Water-Dispersed Hydrophobic Au Nanocrystal Assemblies with a Plasmon Fingerprint

Hydrophobic Au nanocrystal assemblies (both ordered and amorphous) were dispersed in aqueous solution via the assistance of lipid vesicles. The intertwine between vesicles and Au assemblies was made possible through a careful selection of the length of alkyl chains on Au nanocrystals. Extinction spectra of Au assemblies showed two peaks that were assigned to a scattering mode that red-shifted with increasing the assembly size and an absorption mode associated with localized surface plasmon that was independent of their size. This plasmon fingerprint could be used as a probe for investigating the optical properties of such assemblies. Our water-soluble assemblies enable exploring a variety of potential applications including solar energy and biomedicine.

Impact of the Metallic Crystalline Structure on the Properties of Nanocrystals and Their Mesoscopic Assemblies

The spontaneous assembly of uniform-sized globular entities into ordered arrays is a universal phenomenon observed for objects with diameters spanning a broad range of length scales. These extend from the atomic scale (10^-8 cm), through molecular and macromolecular scales with proteins, synthetic low polymers, and colloidal crystals (∼10^-6 cm), to the wavelength of visible light (∼10^-5 cm). The associated concepts of sphere packing have had an influence in diverse fields ranging from pure geometrical analysis to architectural models or ideals. Self-assembly of atoms, supramolecules, or nanocrystals into ordered functional superstructures is a universal process and prevalent topic in science. About five billion years ago in the early solar system, highly uniform magnetite particles of a few hundred nanometers in size were assembled in 3D arrays.1 Thirty million years ago, silicate particles with submicrometer size were self-organized in the form of opal.2 Opal is colorless when composed of disordered silicate microparticles whereas it shows specific reflectivity when particles order in arrays. Nowadays, nanocrystals, characterized by a narrow size distribution and coated with alkyl chains to maintain their integrity, self-assemble to form crystallographic orders called supracrystals. Nanocrystals and supracrystals are arrangements of highly ordered atoms and nanocrystals, respectively. The morphologies of nanocrystals, supracrystals, and minerals are similar at various scales from nanometer to millimeter scale.3,4 Such suprastructures, which enable the design of novel materials, are expected to become one of the main driving forces in material research for the 21st century.5,6 Nanocrystals vibrate coherently in a supracrystal as atoms in a nanocrystal. Longitudinal acoustic phonons are detected in supracrystals as with atomic crystals, where longitudinal acoustic phonons propagate through coherent movements of atoms of the lattice out of their equilibrium positions. These vibrational properties show a full analogy with atomic crystals: In supracrystals, atoms are replaced by (uncompressible) nanocrystals and atomic bonds by coating agents (carbon chains), which act like mechanical springs holding together the nanocrystals. Electronic properties of very thick (more than a few micrometers) supracrystals reveal homogeneous conductance with the fingerprint of the isolated nanocrystal. Triangular single crystals formed by heat-induced (50 °C) coalescence of thin supracrystals deposited on a substrate as epitaxial growth of metal particles on a substrate with specific orientation produced by ultrahigh vacuum (UHV). Here we demonstrate that marked changes can occur in the chemical and physical properties of nanocrystals differing by their nanocrystallinity, that is, their crystalline structure. Furthermore, the properties (mechanical, growth processes) of supracrystals also change with the nanocrystallinity of the nanoparticles used as building blocks.

Optomechanics of Single Aluminum Nanodisks

Aluminum nanostructures support tunable surface plasmon resonances and have become an alternative to gold nanoparticles. Whereas gold is the most-studied plasmonic material, aluminum has the advantage of high earth abundance and hence low cost. In addition to understanding the size and shape tunability of the plasmon resonance, the fundamental relaxation processes in aluminum nanostructures after photoexcitation must be understood to take full advantage of applications such as photocatalysis and photodetection. In this work, we investigate the relaxation following ultrafast pulsed excitation and the launching of acoustic vibrations in individual aluminum nanodisks, using single-particle transient extinction spectroscopy. We find that the transient extinction signal can be assigned to a thermal relaxation of the photoexcited electrons and phonons. The ultrafast heating-induced launching of in-plane acoustic vibrations reveals moderate binding to the glass substrate and is affected by the native aluminum oxide layer. Finally, we compare the behavior of aluminum nanodisks to that of similarly prepared and sized gold nanodisks.

Coating agent-induced mechanical behavior of 3D self-assembled nanocrystals

The Young's modulus of three-dimensional self-assembled Ag nanocrystals, as so-called supracrystals, is correlated with the type of coating agent as well as the nanocrystal morphology.

Elastic properties of gold supracrystals: Effects of nanocrystal size, ligand length, and nanocrystallinity

Atomistic molecular dynamics simulations are performed to study the elastic properties of alkylthiol-functionalized gold supracrystals. The predicted Young's and shear moduli are around 1 GPa and 100 MPa, respectively. We show that, with increasing NC size, the Young's modulus decreases while the shear modulus essentially remains invariant; with increasing ligand length, the Young's modulus increases but the shear modulus decreases. Moreover, significant increase in the Young's modulus is seen when the polycrystalline NCs are replaced by single-crystal ones of the same size. All these are in reasonable agreement with available experiments. We attribute the mechanisms to the interaction between capping ligands as well as its variations caused by the change in ligand length and NC geometry. The results may deepen our understanding of elastic properties of the supracrystals and their influential factors.

Molecular dynamics simulation of interparticle spacing and many-body effect in gold supracrystals

Interparticle spacing in supracrystals is a crucial parameter for photoelectric applications as it dominates the transport rates between neighboring nanoparticles (NPs). Based on large-scale molecular dynamics simulations, we calculate interparticle spacing in alkylthiol-stabilized gold supracrystals as a function of the NP size, ligand length and external pressure. The repulsive many-body interactions in the supracrystals are also quantified by comparing the interparticle spacing with that between two individual NPs at equilibrium. Our results are consistent with available experiments, and are expected to help precise control of interparticle spacing in supracrystal devices.

Measuring Lattice Strain in Three Dimensions through Electron Microscopy

The three-dimensional (3D) atomic structure of nanomaterials, including strain, is crucial to understand their properties. Here, we investigate lattice strain in Au nanodecahedra using electron tomography. Although different electron tomography techniques enabled 3D characterizations of nanostructures at the atomic level, a reliable determination of lattice strain is not straightforward. We therefore propose a novel model-based approach from which atomic coordinates are measured. Our findings demonstrate the importance of investigating lattice strain in 3D.

Gold Nanoparticle Internal Structure and Symmetry Probed by Unified Small-Angle X-ray Scattering and X-ray Diffraction Coupled with Molecular Dynamics Analysis

Shape and size are known to determine a nanoparticle's properties. Hardly ever studied in synthesis, the internal crystal structure (i.e., particle defects, crystallinity, and symmetry) is just as critical as shape and size since it directly impacts catalytic efficiency, plasmon resonance, and orients anisotropic growth of metallic nanoparticles. Hence, its control cannot be ignored any longer in today's research and applications in nanotechnology. This study implemented an unprecedented reliable measurement combining these three structural aspects. The unified small-angle X-ray scattering and diffraction measurement (SAXS/XRD) was coupled with molecular dynamics to allow simultaneous determination of nanoparticles' shape, size, and crystallinity at the atomic scale. Symmetry distribution (icosahedra-Ih, decahedra-Dh, and truncated octahedra-TOh) of 2-6 nm colloidal gold nanoparticles synthesized in organic solvents was quantified. Nanoparticle number density showed the predominance of Ih, followed by Dh, and little, if any, TOh. This result contradicts some theoretical predictions and highlights the strong effect of the synthesis environment on structure stability. We foresee that this unified SAXS/XRD analysis, yielding both statistical and quantitative counts of nanoparticles' symmetry distribution, will provide new insights into nanoparticle formation, growth, and assembly.

Cu7 S4 Nanosuperlattices with Greatly Enhanced Photothermal Efficiency

According to the simulation, the self-assembly of Cu7 S4 nanocrystals would enhance the photothermal conversion efficiency (PCE) because of the localized surface plasmon resonance effects, which is highly desirable for photothermal therapy (PTT). A new strategy to synthesize Cu7 S4 nanosuperlattices with greatly enhanced PCE up to 65.7% under irradiation of 808 nm near infrared light is reported here. By tuning the surface properties of Cu7 S4 nanocrystals during the synthesis via thermolysis of a new single precursor, dispersed nanoparticles (NPs), rod-like alignments, and nanosuperlattices are obtained, respectively. To explore their PTT applications, these hydrophobic nanostructures are transferred into water by coating with home-made amphiphilic polymer while maintaining their original structures. Under identical conditions, the PCE are 48.62% and 56.32% for dispersed NPs and rod-like alignments, respectively. As expected, when the nanoparticles are self-assembled into nanosuperlattices, the PCE is greatly enhanced up to 65.7%. This strong PCE, along with their excellent photothermal stability and good biocompatibility, renders these nanosuperlattices good candidates as PTT agents. In vitro photothermal ablation performances have undoubtedly proved the excellent PCE of our Cu7 S4 nanosuperlattices. This research offers a versatile and effective solution to get PTT agents with high photothermal efficiency.

Strong Coupling between Plasmonic Gap Modes and Photonic Lattice Modes in DNA-Assembled Gold Nanocube Arrays

Control of both photonic and plasmonic coupling in a single optical device represents a challenge due to the distinct length scales that must be manipulated. Here, we show that optical metasurfaces with such control can be constructed using an approach that combines top-down and bottom-up processes, wherein gold nanocubes are assembled into ordered arrays via DNA hybridization events onto a gold film decorated with DNA-binding regions defined using electron beam lithography. This approach enables one to systematically tune three critical architectural parameters: (1) anisotropic metal nanoparticle shape and size, (2) the distance between nanoparticles and a metal surface, and (3) the symmetry and spacing of particles. Importantly, these parameters allow for the independent control of two distinct optical modes, a gap mode between the particle and the surface and a lattice mode that originates from cooperative scattering of many particles in an array. Through reflectivity spectroscopy and finite-difference time-domain simulation, we find that these modes can be brought into resonance and coupled strongly. The high degree of synthetic control enables the systematic study of this coupling with respect to geometry, lattice symmetry, and particle shape, which together serve as a compelling example of how nanoparticle-based optics can be useful to realize advanced nanophotonic structures that hold implications for sensing, quantum plasmonics, and tunable absorbers.

Nano-contact microscopy of supracrystals

BACKGROUND

Highly ordered three-dimensional colloidal crystals (supracrystals) comprised of 7.4 nm diameter Au nanocrystals (with a 5% size dispersion) have been imaged and analysed using a combination of scanning tunnelling microscopy and dynamic force microscopy.

RESULTS

By exploring the evolution of both the force and tunnel current with respect to tip-sample separation, we arrive at the surprising finding that single nanocrystal resolution is readily obtained in tunnelling microscopy images acquired more than 1 nm into the repulsive (i.e., positive force) regime of the probe-nanocrystal interaction potential. Constant height force microscopy has been used to map tip-sample interactions in this regime, revealing inhomogeneities which arise from the convolution of the tip structure with the ligand distribution at the nanocrystal surface.

CONCLUSION

Our combined STM-AFM measurements show that the contrast mechanism underpinning high resolution imaging of nanoparticle supracrystals involves a form of nanoscale contact imaging, rather than the through-vacuum tunnelling which underpins traditional tunnelling microscopy and spectroscopy.

Size and nanocrystallinity controlled gold nanocrystals: synthesis, electronic and mechanical properties

The influence of nanocrystallinity on the electronic and mechanical properties of metal nanoparticles is still poorly understood, due to the difficulty in synthesizing nanoparticles with a controlled internal structure. Here, we report on a new method for the selective synthesis of Au nanoparticles in either a single-domain or a polycrystalline phase maintaining the same chemical environment. We obtain quasi-spherical nanoparticles whose diameter is tunable from 6 to 13 nm with a resolution down to ≈0.5 nm and narrow size distribution (4-5%). The availability of such high-quality samples allows the study of the impact of the particle size and nanocrystallinity on a number of parameters, such as plasmon dephasing time, electron-phonon coupling, period and damping time of the radial breathing modes.

Synthesis of hollow and trimetallic nanostructures by seed-mediated co-reduction

Seed-mediated co-reduction coupled with galvanic replacement is a new route to structurally defined trimetallic nanoparticles.

Dimensionality-dependent charge transport in close-packed nanoparticle arrays: from 2D to 3D

Charge transport properties in close-packed nanoparticle arrays with thickness crossing over from two dimensions to three dimensions have been studied. The dimensionality transition of nanoparticle arrays was realized by continually printing spatially well-defined nanoparticle monolayers on top of the device in situ. The evolution of charge transport properties depending on the dimensionality has been investigated in both the Efros-Shaklovskii variable-range-hopping (ES-VRH) (low temperature) regime and the sequential hopping (SH) (medium temperature) regime. We find that the energy barriers to transport decrease when the thickness of nanoparticle arrays increases from monolayer to multilayers, but start to level off at the thickness of 4–5 monolayers. The energy barriers are characterized by the coefficient β_D at ES-VRH regime and the activation energy E_a at SH regime. Moreover, a turning point for the temperature coefficient of conductance was observed in multilayer nanoparticle arrays at high temperature, which is attributed to the increasing mobility with decreasing temperature of hopping transport in three dimensions.

Spontaneous formation of high-index planes in gold single domain nanocrystal superlattices

Crystals of nanocrystals, also called supracrystals and nanocrystal superlattices, are expected to exhibit specific properties that differ from both the corresponding bulk material and nanosized elementary units. In particular, their surfaces have a great potential as nanoscale interaction plateforms. However, control of the symmetry, compacity, and roughness of their surfaces remains an open question. Here, we describe the spontaneous formation of upper vicinal surfaces for supracrystals of Au nanocrystals grown on a sublayer of ordered Co nanocrystals. Stepped or kinked surfaces vicinal to the {100}, {110}, and {111} planes are observed to be extended on the micrometer range. The formation of such high-index planes is explained by a heteroepitaxial relationship between both Co and Au nanocrystal superlattice.

How nanocrystallinity and order define the magnetic properties of ε-Co supracrystals

Single domain cubic ε-Co nanocrystals are synthesized via a high-temperature thermal decomposition of cobalt carbonyl in the presence of oleic acid and trioctylphosphane oxide (TOPO). The ε-Co nanocrystals are characterized by a low size distribution (σ < 7%) and the average diameter is tuned from 7 nm to 9 nm by tailoring the molar ratio of the surfactants oleic acid and TOPO. Moreover, we have demonstrated the self-assembly of ε-Co nanocrystals in highly ordered three-dimensional (3D) face-centered cubic (fcc) structures called supracrystals. The layer-by-layer organization of these building blocks is achieved through solvent evaporation. Simultaneously, we produce. with the same ε-Co nanocrystals, disordered (amorphous) films. We demonstrate the presence of large interparticle magnetic interactions in the supracrystals by comparing their magnetic properties with the diluted samples. Then, by a detailed comparison of their collective magnetic properties with partially disordered films, the significant differences due to the change in anisotropy and distribution of dipolar interaction energies in the two systems are presented. This is attributed to the orientational and spatial ordering of single domain ε-Co nanocrystals markedly changing between ordered and disordered assemblies. The thermal evolution of the magnetization in ZFC/FC procedure presents three characteristic temperatures representing the blocking, the irreversibility and the maximum of Zeeman coupling temperatures. They are all affected by the presence of the order in supracrystals and they present different evolution trends as a function of nanoparticles size. While the variations of reduced remanent magnetizations in both condensed series are in good agreement with the previous theoretical calculations, the coercive fields present opposite evolutions.

Assessing the relevance of building block crystallinity for tuning the stiffness of gold nanocrystal superlattices

We study the influence of the size and nanocrystallinity of dodecanethiol-coated gold nanocrystals (NCs) on the stiffness of 3D self-assembled NC superlattices (called supracrystals). Using single domain and polycrystalline NCs as building blocks for supracrystals, it is shown that the stiffness of supracrystals can be tuned upon change in relative amounts of single and polycrystalline NCs.

Electronic properties of supracrystals of Au nanocrystals: influence of thickness and nanocrystallinity

Well-defined superlattices of colloidal nanocrystals, called supracrystals, are expected to have interesting physical properties. While the electronic properties of thin supracrystals have been extensively studied in the planar configuration, little is known about electron transport through micrometer-thick supracrystals. Here, we investigate the electronic properties of supracrystals made of Au nanocrystals with diameters of 5, 6, 7 and 8 nm using scanning tunneling microscopy/spectroscopy at low temperatures. The current-voltage characteristics show power-law dependences with exponents varying strongly with supracrystal thicknesses from 30 nm to a few microns. The crystallinity of these nanocrystals, called nanocrystallinity, is exclusively single domain for 5 nm nanocrystals and a mixture of single and polycrystalline phase for 6, 7 and 8 nm nanocrystals. We observed that supracrystals made of 5 nm nanocrystals have a different behavior than supracrystals made of 6, 7 and 8 nm nanocrystals and this might be related to the nanocrystallinity. These results help us to better understand the electron transport mechanism in such miniscule structures built from a bottom-up approach.

Hierarchy in Au nanocrystal ordering in supracrystals: a potential approach to detect new physical properties

Here we describe the morphologies of Au nanocrystals self-assembled in fcc 3D superlattices called supracrystals. The average size of the nanocrystals is either 5 or 7 nm with a very small size distribution (<7%). The coating agents used to stabilize the nanocrystals are dodecanethiol (C12H25-SH), tetradecanethiol (C14H29-SH), and hexadecanethiol (C16H33-SH). The influences of the evaporation time, the volume of the chamber used to evaporate the toluene solvent, and the substrate temperature are studied. For nanocrystals characterized by the same size and coating agent, the supracrystal morphologies markedly change on increasing the evaporation time from 8 to 9 to 25 h whereas a slight change takes place on increasing the chamber volume. The nanocrystals' ability to self-order in supracrystals decreases upon increasing the chain length of the coating agent from dodecanethiol (C12) to tetradecanethiol (C14) to hexadecanethiol (C16). Decreasing the evaporation rate (25 h) and/or increasing the substrate temperature (50 °C) improves the nanocrystal ordering in fcc supracrystals. A hierarchy in nanocrystal ordering has the following sequence disordered assemblies, supracrystal film sitting on a disordered nanocrystal film, supracrystal films grown layer-by-layer, and finally supracrystals grown in solution with various well-defined shapes.

Nanocrystallinity and the ordering of nanoparticles in two-dimensional superlattices: controlled formation of either core/shell (Co/CoO) or hollow CoO nanocrystals

Here it is demonstrated that the diffusion process of oxygen in Co nanoparticles is controlled by their 2D ordering and crystallinity. The crystallinity of isolated Co nanoparticles deposited on a substrate does not play any role in the oxide formation. When they are self-assembled in 2D superlattices, the oxidation process is slowed and produces either core/shell (Co/CoO) nanoparticles or hollow CoO nanocrystals. This is attributed to the decrease in the oxygen diffusion rate when the nanoparticles are interdigitated. Initially, polycrystalline nanoparticles form core/shell (Co/CoO) structures, while for single-domain hexagonal close-packed Co nanocrystals, the outward diffusion of Co ions is favored over the inward diffusion of oxygen, producing hollow CoO single-domain nanocrystals.