Hydrodynamic characterization of surfactant encapsulated carbon nanotubes using an analytical ultracentrifuge

Sequence-Dependent Surface Coverage of ssDNA Coatings on Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes

A combination of experimental measurements and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations was used to investigate how the surfaces of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are covered by adsorbed ssDNA oligos with different base compositions and lengths. By analyzing the UV absorption spectra of ssDNA-coated SWCNTs before and after coating displacement by a transparent surfactant, the mass ratios of adsorbed ssDNA to SWCNTs were determined for poly-T, poly-C, GT-containing, and AT-containing ssDNA oligos. Based on the measured mass ratios, it is estimated that an average of 20, 22, 26, or 32 carbon atoms are covered by one adsorbed thymine, cytosine, adenine, or guanine nucleotide, respectively. In addition, the UV spectra revealed electronic interactions of varying strengths between the nucleobase aromatic rings and the nanotube π-systems. Short poly-T DNA oligos show stronger π-π stacking interactions with SWCNT surfaces than do short poly-C DNA oligos, whereas both long poly-C and poly-T DNA oligos show strong interactions. These experiments were complemented by MD computations on simulated systems that were constrained to match the measured ssDNA/SWCNT mass ratios. The surface coverages computed from the MD results varied with oligo composition in a pattern that correlates higher measured yields of nanotube fluorescence with greater surface coverage.

Surfactant-Aided Stabilization of Individual Carbon Nanotubes in Water around the Critical Micelle Concentration

Surfactants are widely used to disperse single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) and other nanomaterials for liquid-phase processing and characterization. Traditional techniques, however, demand high surfactant concentrations, often in the range of 1-2 wt/v% of the solution. Here, we show that optimal dispersion efficiency can be attained at substantially lower surfactant concentrations of approximately 0.08 wt/v%, near the critical micelle concentration. This unexpected observation is achieved by introducing "bare" nanotubes into water containing the anionic surfactant sodium deoxycholate (DOC) through a superacid-surfactant exchange process that eliminates the need for ultrasonication. Among the diverse ionic surfactants and charged biopolymers explored, DOC exhibits the highest dispersion efficiency, outperforming sodium cholate, a structurally similar bile salt surfactant containing just one additional oxygen atom compared to DOC. Employing all-atomistic molecular dynamics simulations, we unravel that the greater stabilization by DOC arises from its higher binding affinity to nanotubes and a substantially larger free energy barrier that resists nanotube rebundling. Further, we find that this barrier is nonelectrostatic in nature and does not obey the classical Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek (DLVO) theory of colloidal stability, underscoring the important role of nonelectrostatic dispersion and hydration interactions at the nanoscale, even in the case of ionic surfactants like DOC. These molecular insights advance our understanding of surfactant chemistry at the bare nanotube limit and suggest low-energy, surfactant-efficient solution processing of SWCNTs and potentially other nanomaterials.

Single-Molecule Methane Sensing Using Palladium-Functionalized nIR Fluorescent Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

There has been considerable interest in detecting atmospheric and process-associated methane (CH4) at low concentrations due to its potency as a greenhouse gas. Nanosensor technology, particularly fluorescent single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) arrays, is promising for such applications because of their chemical sensitivities at single-molecule detection limits. However, the methodologies for connecting the stochastic molecular fluctuations from gas impingement on such sensors require further development. In this work, we synthesize Pd-conjugated ss(GT)15-DNA-wrapped SWCNTas near-infrared (nIR) fluorescent, single-molecule sensors of CH4. The complexes are characterized using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and spectrophotometry, demonstrating spectral changes between the Pd2+ and Pd0 oxidation states. The nIR fluctuations generated upon exposure from 8 to 26 ppb of CH4 were separated into high- and low-frequency components. Aggregating the low-frequency components for an array of sensors showed the most consistent levels of detection with a limit of 0.7 ppb. These results advance the hardware and computational methods necessary to apply this approach to the challenge of environmental methane sensing.

Improved Characterization of Aqueous Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Dispersions Using Dynamic Light Scattering and Analytical Centrifuge Methods

Aqueous dispersions of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) with a surfactant were studied by using a combination of differential sedimentation and dynamic light scattering methods. When applied to elongated particles like SWCNTs, the differential sedimentation method makes it possible to measure their diameters in dispersions, while the dynamic light scattering method allows to measure their lengths. Both methods have logarithmic dependence on the ratio between the length and diameter of the particles, and their simultaneous use improves the accuracy of measuring particles' dimensions. It was shown that sonication of dispersions leads not only to unbundling of agglomerates into individual nanotubes but also to a decrease in their lengths and the appearance of new defects detectable in increasing the D/G ratio in the Raman spectra. Unbundling into individual nanotubes occurs after exposure to 1 kWh/L energy density, and the single nanotube diameter with SDBS is ca. 3.3 nm larger than that of the naked nanotubes. Conductivity of thin SWCNT films made out of individual nanotubes demonstrates a power law dependence with the exponent close to the theoretical one for rigid rods.

Site-Selective Oxidation of Monolayered Liquid-Exfoliated WS2 by Shielding the Basal Plane through Adsorption of a Facial Amphiphile

In recent years, various functionalization strategies for transition‐metal dichalcogenides have been explored to tailor the properties of materials and to provide anchor points for the fabrication of hybrid structures. Herein, new insights into the role of the surfactant in functionalization reactions are described. Using the spontaneous reaction of WS₂ with chloroauric acid as a model reaction, the regioselective formation of gold nanoparticles on WS₂ is shown to be heavily dependent on the surfactant employed. A simple model is developed to explain the role of the chosen surfactant in this heterogeneous functionalization reaction. The surfactant coverage is identified as the crucial element that governs the dominant reaction pathway and therefore can severely alter the reaction outcome. This study shows the general importance of the surfactant choice and how detrimental or beneficial a certain surfactant can be to the desired functionalization.

NIR-controlled HSP90 inhibitor release from hollow mesoporous nanocarbon for synergistic tumor photothermal therapy guided by photoacoustic imaging

Photothermal therapy (PTT) has been widely studied for tumor therapy. However, the clinical transformation of PTT has encountered significant challenges in tumor recurrence, because the uneven hyperthermia in tumor tissues can result in the survival of cancer cells in the lower temperature regions close to blood vessels (as the blood flow can dissipate the localized heat). It is therefore important for clinical treatments to retain the excellent therapeutic efficiency of PTT at relatively low temperatures. In this article, innocuous hollow mesoporous carbon spheres (HMCS) with a high photothermal conversion efficiency were obtained by a one-pot synthesis method. After modification with DSPE-PEG, the HMCS-PEG exhibited a superior stability in biomedia, which is beneficial for further biological applications. Interestingly, combined with hydrophobic gambogic acid (GA) which can downregulate heat shock protein 90 (HSP90), the HMCS-PEG-GA system showed a significant NIR-enhanced tumor therapeutic effect in vitro and in vivo under mild temperature conditions (∼43 °C), and the combination index (CI) value of HMCS-PEG-GA was found to be 0.72. Meanwhile, this nano-system possessed good photothermal imaging and photoacoustic imaging abilities. Guided by the photoacoustic imaging signal, HMCS-PEG-GA showed enormous potential for use in accurate tumor diagnosis and mild-temperature PPT treatment applications, which is very important for clinical transformation of this nano-system.

The viscosity of dilute carbon nanotube (1D) and graphene oxide (2D) nanofluids

Controlling the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles in fluids directly impacts on their liquid phase processing and applications in nanofluidics, thermal engineering, biomedicine and printed electronics. In this work, the temperature dependent viscosity of various aqueous nanofluids containing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene oxide (GO), i.e. 1D and 2D nanoparticles with extreme aspect ratios, is analyzed by empirical and predictive physical models. The focus is to understand how the nanoparticle shape, concentration, motion degrees and surface chemistry affect the viscosity of diluted dispersions. To this end, experimental results from capillary viscosimeters are first examined in terms of the energy of viscous flow and the maximum packing fraction applying the Maron-Pierce model. Next, a comparison of the experimental data with predictive physical models is carried out in terms of nanoparticle characteristics that affect the viscosity of the fluid, mostly their aspect ratio. The analysis of intrinsic viscosity data leads to a general understanding of motion modes for carbon nanoparticles, including those with extreme aspect ratios, in a flowing liquid. The resulting universal curve might be extended to the prediction of the viscosity for any kind of 1D and 2D nanoparticles in dilute suspensions.

Single-Particle Tracking for Understanding Polydisperse Nanoparticle Dispersions

Colloidal dispersions of nanomaterials are often polydisperse in size, significantly complicating their characterization. This is particularly true for materials early in their historical development due to synthetic control, dispersion efficiency, and instability during storage. Because a wide range of system properties and technological applications depend on particle dimensions, it remains an important problem in nanotechnology to identify a method for the routine characterization of polydispersity in nanoparticle samples, especially changes over time. Commonly employed methods such as dynamic light scattering or analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) accurately estimate only the first moment of the distribution or are not routine. In this work, the use of single-particle tracking (SPT) to probe size distributions of common nanoparticle dispersions, including polystyrene nanoparticles, single-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, chitosan-tripolyphosphate, acrylate, hexagonal boron nitride, and poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid), is proposed and explored. The analysis of particle tracks is conducted using a newly developed Bayesian algorithm that is called Maximum A posteriori Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis. By combining SPT and AUC techniques, it is shown that it is possible to independently estimate the mean aspect ratio of anisotropic particles, an important characterization property. It is concluded that SPT provides a facile, rapid analytical method for routine nanomaterials characterization.

Measuring in Situ Length Distributions of Polymer-Wrapped Monochiral Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Dispersed in Toluene with Analytical Ultracentrifugation

The length of a carbon nanotube is an important dimension that has to be adjusted to the requirements of an experiment or application, e.g., through sorting methods. So far, atomic force microscopy (AFM) has been the method of choice for measuring length distributions, despite being an ex situ method with apparent shortcomings. In this work, we explore analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) as an in situ method for measuring the length distribution of polymer-wrapped (7, 5) single-walled carbon nanotubes dispersed in toluene. This is an AUC study of nanotubes in nonaqueous media, the preferred media for nanotubes used in device fabrication. In AUC, the temporally and spatially dependent change in optical absorption of a sample is measured under centrifugation. The resulting sedimentation curves can be deconvoluted with a standard data processing procedure (SEDFIT), to yield the sedimentation coefficient distribution. However, the conversion of the sedimentation coefficient distribution into a length distribution is nontrivial and requires finding a suitable model for the nanotube friction coefficient. Also, since AUC is based on optical absorption, it yields a volume distribution and not a number distribution as obtained from AFM reference data. By meeting these challenges and finding a surprisingly simple empirical flexible-chain-like model to describe the sedimentation behavior of one specific chiral structure, we suggest AUC as a viable method for measuring in situ nanotube length distributions of nonaqueous dispersions.

Release of Retained Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes in Gels

The separation of single-chirality, even-enantiomeric single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) has been well established using gel permeation chromatography. Successful SWCNTs separation has been considered to be the selective adsorption and desorption of specific SWCNTs on the porous sites of Sephacryl gels. This work reports two nonspecific releases of SWCNTs retained on Sephacryl gels: (1) a considerable number of SWCNTs were eluted using a low-concentration SDS condition solution (0.5 wt %) from the gels exclusively eluted with a high-concentration SDS eluting solution (5 wt %) after being stocked overnight and (2) the retained SWCNTs in Sephacryl gels can be eluted using a low-concentration SDS condition solution (0.5 wt %) after being stocked overnight without any treatments. Inspired by extracellular matrix systems, these releases are attributed to the strain-induced gel relaxation. The roles of surfactants, especially SDS, in the retention and release of SWCNTs on Sephacryl gels were discussed on the basis of spectral dilution and titration experiments using single-chirality (6,5) SWCNT as the probe.

Understanding the colloidal dispersion stability of 1D and 2D materials: Perspectives from molecular simulations and theoretical modeling

The colloidal dispersion stability of 1D and 2D materials in the liquid phase is critical for scalable nano-manufacturing, chemical modification, composites production, and deployment as conductive inks or nanofluids. Here, we review recent computational and theoretical studies carried out by our group to model the dispersion stability of 1D and 2D materials, including single-walled carbon nanotubes, graphene, and graphene oxide in aqueous surfactant solutions or organic solvents. All-atomistic (AA) molecular dynamics (MD) simulations can probe the molecular level details of the adsorption morphology of surfactants and solvents around these materials, as well as quantify the interaction energy between the nanomaterials mediated by surfactants or solvents. Utilizing concepts from reaction kinetics and diffusion, one can directly predict the rate constants for the aggregation kinetics and dispersion life times using MD outputs. Furthermore, the use of coarse-grained (CG) MD simulations allows quantitative prediction of surfactant adsorption isotherms. Combined with the Poisson-Boltzmann equation, the Langmuir isotherm, and the DLVO theory, one can directly use CGMD outputs to: (i) predict electrostatic potentials around the nanomaterial, (ii) correlate surfactant surface coverages with surfactant concentrations in the bulk dispersion medium, and (iii) determine energy barriers against coagulation. Finally, we discuss challenges associated with studying emerging 2D materials, such as, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN), phosphorene, and transition metal dichalcogenides (TMDCs), including molybdenum disulfide (MoS₂). An outlook is provided to address these challenges with plans to develop force-field parameters for MD simulations to enable predictive modeling of emerging 2D materials in the liquid phase.

Sedimentation of Reversibly Interacting Macromolecules with Changes in Fluorescence Quantum Yield

Sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation with fluorescence detection has emerged as a powerful method for the study of interacting systems of macromolecules. It combines picomolar sensitivity with high hydrodynamic resolution, and can be carried out with photoswitchable fluorophores for multicomponent discrimination, to determine the stoichiometry, affinity, and shape of macromolecular complexes with dissociation equilibrium constants from picomolar to micromolar. A popular approach for data interpretation is the determination of the binding affinity by isotherms of weight-average sedimentation coefficients s_w. A prevailing dogma in sedimentation analysis is that the weight-average sedimentation coefficient from the transport method corresponds to the signal- and population-weighted average of all species. We show that this does not always hold true for systems that exhibit significant signal changes with complex formation-properties that may be readily encountered in practice, e.g., from a change in fluorescence quantum yield. Coupled transport in the reaction boundary of rapidly reversible systems can make significant contributions to the observed migration in a way that cannot be accounted for in the standard population-based average. Effective particle theory provides a simple physical picture for the reaction-coupled migration process. On this basis, we develop a more general binding model that converges to the well-known form of s_w with constant signals, but can account simultaneously for hydrodynamic cotransport in the presence of changes in fluorescence quantum yield. We believe this will be useful when studying interacting systems exhibiting fluorescence quenching, enhancement, or Förster resonance energy transfer with transport methods.

Controlling the kinetics of the non-covalent functionalization of carbon nanotubes using sub-cmc dilutions in a co-surfactant environment

We investigate the origin of the slow kinetics of functionalization processes in micellar environments. We show that the ionic nature of the surfactants used to solubilize small molecules and nano-objects plays a central role in the slowness of the kinetics. In order to solve this issue, we have developed an innovative method that we apply to the hybrid compound porphyrin molecule/carbon nanotube. We use two ionic surfactants to solubilize the molecules and the nanotubes respectively. Passing the molecule suspension below the cmc allows circumventing the stability of the ionic surfactant while keeping the benefit of working with highly concentrated solutions. This method allows fine control of the functionalization reaction and tuning of the kinetics characteristic time over more than two orders of magnitude.

Separation of double-wall carbon nanotubes by electronic type and diameter

We introduce a new procedure for the efficient isolation and subsequent separation of double-wall carbon nanotubes (DWCNTs). A simplified, rate zonal ultracentrifugation (RZU) process is first applied to obtain samples of highly-enriched DWCNTs from a raw carbon nanotube material that has both single- and double-wall carbon nanotubes. Using this purified DWCNT suspension, we demonstrate for the first time that DWCNTs can be further processed using aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE) for sequential separation by electronic structure and diameter. Additionally, we introduce analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) as a new method for DWCNT characterization to assess DWCNT purity in separated samples. Results from AUC analysis are utilized to compare two DWCNT separation schemes. We find that RZU processing followed by sequential bandgap and diameter sorting via ATPE provides samples of highest DWCNT enrichment, whereas single-step redox sorting of the same raw material through ATPE yields SWCNT/DWCNT mixtures of similar diameter and electronic character. The presented methods offer significant advancement in DWCNT processing and separation while also providing a promising alternative for DWCNT sample analysis.

Affinity-mediated sorting order reversal of single-walled carbon nanotubes in density gradient ultracentrifugation

Sorted single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) are of paramount importance for their utilization in high-end optoelectronic applications. Sodium cholate (SC)-based density gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU) has been instrumental in isolating small diameter (d t) SWNTs. Here, we show that SWNTs wrapped by flavin mononucleotide (FMN) as a dispersing agent are sorted in DGU, and show sorting order reversal behavior, departing from prototypical SC-SWNT trends. Larger d t SWNTs are sorted in lower density (ρ), and buoyant ρ distribution of FMN-SWNT ranges from 1.15-1.25 g cm(-3). Such a nanotube layering pattern originates from both the binding affinity between FMN and SWNT and the less-susceptible hydrated volume of remote phosphate sidechains of FMN according to nanotube d t change.

Spinning Liquid Marble and Its Dual Applications as Microcentrifuge and Miniature Localized Viscometer

Liquid marble offers an attractive droplet manipulation approach by isolating microdroplet in a nonstick encapsulating shell formed via the spontaneous coating of hydrophobic particles onto the liquid surface. While liquid marble prepared using magnetic nanoparticles enables precise spatiotemporal actuation of microdroplets, these manipulations are generally limited to simple and linear spatial maneuver of microdroplets. Herein, we demonstrate the unique and three-dimensional spinning of microliter-sized liquid marble (LM) and its subsequent dual applications as (1) the world's smallest centrifuge and (2) a miniature and localized viscometer. Our LM is responsive to an applied rotating magnetic field, with its spinning speed programmable between 0 and 1300 rpm. This spinning generates an unprecedented centrifugal force of >2g in a LM of ∼1 mm radius. Such centrifugal force facilitates an outward and radial hydrodynamic flow in the enclosed microdroplet, enabling LM to serve as a microcentrifuge for the sedimentation of nanoparticles with >85% separation efficiency. Furthermore, we apply spinning LM as an ultrasensitive spin-to-viscosity transducer to quantify the viscosity of the external suspended liquid in the relative viscosity (η/ηwater) range of 1-70 using ≤1 mL liquid sample. Collectively, the ensemble of benefits offered by spinning LM creates enormous opportunities in the development of multifunctional micromagneto-mechanical devices as promising surface-sensitive microsensor, miniature centrifugal pump, and even microreactor with directed heat and mass transfer mechanism.

Sedimentation coefficient distributions of large particles

The spatial and temporal evolution of concentration boundaries in sedimentation velocity analytical ultracentrifugation reports on the size distribution of particles with high hydrodynamic resolution. For large particles such as large protein complexes, fibrils, viral particles, or nanoparticles, sedimentation conditions usually allow migration from diffusion to be neglected relative to sedimentation. In this case, the shape of the sedimentation boundaries of polydisperse mixtures relates directly to the underlying size-distributions. Integral and derivative methods for calculating sedimentation coefficient distributions g*(s) of large particles from experimental boundary profiles have been developed previously, and are recapitulated here in a common theoretical framework. This leads to a previously unrecognized relationship between g*(s) and the time-derivative of concentration profiles. Of closed analytical form, it is analogous to the well-known Bridgman relationship for the radial derivative. It provides a quantitative description of the effect of substituting the time-derivative by scan differences with finite time intervals, which appears as a skewed box average of the true distribution. This helps to theoretically clarify the differences between results from time-derivative method and the approach of directly fitting the integral definition of g*(s) to the entirety of experimental boundary data.

Quantification of Carbon Nanotubes in Environmental Matrices: Current Capabilities, Case Studies, and Future Prospects

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have numerous exciting potential applications and some that have reached commercialization. As such, quantitative measurements of CNTs in key environmental matrices (water, soil, sediment, and biological tissues) are needed to address concerns about their potential environmental and human health risks and to inform application development. However, standard methods for CNT quantification are not yet available. We systematically and critically review each component of the current methods for CNT quantification including CNT extraction approaches, potential biases, limits of detection, and potential for standardization. This review reveals that many of the techniques with the lowest detection limits require uncommon equipment or expertise, and thus, they are not frequently accessible. Additionally, changes to the CNTs (e.g., agglomeration) after environmental release and matrix effects can cause biases for many of the techniques, and biasing factors vary among the techniques. Five case studies are provided to illustrate how to use this information to inform responses to real-world scenarios such as monitoring potential CNT discharge into a river or ecotoxicity testing by a testing laboratory. Overall, substantial progress has been made in improving CNT quantification during the past ten years, but additional work is needed for standardization, development of extraction techniques from complex matrices, and multimethod comparisons of standard samples to reveal the comparability of techniques.

Characterizing the Effect of Salt and Surfactant Concentration on the Counterion Atmosphere around Surfactant Stabilized SWCNTs Using Analytical Ultracentrifugation

Accurate characterization of dispersed-phase nanoparticle properties such as density, size, solvation, and charge is necessary for their utilization in applications such as medicine, energy, and materials. Herein, analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) is used to quantify bile salt surfactant adsorption on length sorted (7,6) single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) as a function of bulk surfactant concentration and in the presence of varying quantities of a monovalent salt-sodium chloride. These measurements provide high precision adsorbed surfactant density values in the literature for only the second SWCNT structure to date and report the quantity of adsorbed surfactant across a broad range of bulk surfactant concentrations utilized in SWCNT dispersion processing. Second, the measurements presented herein unambiguously demonstrate, via AUC, a direct relation between the size of the counterion cloud around a surfactant-stabilized SWCNT and solution ionic strength. The results show that changes in the size of the counterion cloud around surfactant-stabilized SWCNT are attributable to electrostatic phenomenon and not to changes in the quantity of adsorbed surfactant with salt addition. These results provide important reference values for projecting SWCNT dispersion behavior as a function of solution conditions and extend the range of nanoparticle properties measurable via AUC.

Chirality-dependent densities of carbon nanotubes by in situ 2D fluorescence-excitation and Raman characterisation in a density gradient after ultracentrifugation

Density gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU) becomes increasingly important for the sorting of nanomaterials according to the particles' density, hence structure and dimensions, which determine their unique properties, but the further development of this separation technique is hindered by the limited precision with which the densities could be characterized. In this work, we determine these densities by position-dependent 2D wavelength-dependent IR fluorescence-excitation and resonant Raman spectroscopy measured directly in the density gradient after ultracentrifugation. We apply this method to study the diameter and chirality-dependent sorting of empty and water-filled single-walled carbon nanotubes coated with two different surfactants, sodium cholate (SC) and sodium deoxycholate (DOC). The results elucidate the long standing contradiction that SC would provide better diameter sorting, while DOC is the most efficient surfactant to solubilise the nanotubes. A more predictable separation is obtained for empty DOC-coated nanotubes since their density is found to vary very smoothly with diameter. The accurate and chirality-dependent densities furthermore provide information on the surfactant coating, which is also important for other separation techniques, and allow to determine the mass percentage of water encapsulated inside the nanotubes.

Solution-Processed Dielectrics Based on Thickness-Sorted Two-Dimensional Hexagonal Boron Nitride Nanosheets

Gate dielectrics directly affect the mobility, hysteresis, power consumption, and other critical device metrics in high-performance nanoelectronics. With atomically flat and dangling bond-free surfaces, hexagonal boron nitride (h-BN) has emerged as an ideal dielectric for graphene and related two-dimensional semiconductors. While high-quality, atomically thin h-BN has been realized via micromechanical cleavage and chemical vapor deposition, existing liquid exfoliation methods lack sufficient control over h-BN thickness and large-area film quality, thus limiting its use in solution-processed electronics. Here, we employ isopycnic density gradient ultracentrifugation for the preparation of monodisperse, thickness-sorted h-BN inks, which are subsequently layer-by-layer assembled into ultrathin dielectrics with low leakage currents of 3 × 10(-9) A/cm(2) at 2 MV/cm and high capacitances of 245 nF/cm(2). The resulting solution-processed h-BN dielectric films enable the fabrication of graphene field-effect transistors with negligible hysteresis and high mobilities up to 7100 cm(2) V(-1) s(-1) at room temperature. These h-BN inks can also be used as coatings on conventional dielectrics to minimize the effects of underlying traps, resulting in improvements in overall device performance. Overall, this approach for producing and assembling h-BN dielectric inks holds significant promise for translating the superlative performance of two-dimensional heterostructure devices to large-area, solution-processed nanoelectronics.

Isolation of >1 nm Diameter Single-Wall Carbon Nanotube Species Using Aqueous Two-Phase Extraction

In this contribution we demonstrate the effective separation of single-wall carbon nanotube (SWCNT) species with diameters larger than 1 nm through multistage aqueous two-phase extraction (ATPE), including isolation at the near-monochiral species level up to at least the diameter range of SWCNTs synthesized by electric arc synthesis (1.3-1.6 nm). We also demonstrate that refined species are readily obtained from both the metallic and semiconducting subpopulations of SWCNTs and that this methodology is effective for multiple SWCNT raw materials. Using these data, we report an empirical function for the necessary surfactant concentrations in the ATPE method for separating different SWCNTs into either the lower or upper phase as a function of SWCNT diameter. This empirical correlation enables predictive separation design and identifies a subset of SWCNTs that behave unusually as compared to other species. These results not only dramatically increase the range of SWCNT diameters to which species selective separation can be achieved but also demonstrate that aqueous two-phase separations can be designed across experimentally accessible ranges of surfactant concentrations to controllably separate SWCNT populations of very small (∼0.62 nm) to very large diameters (>1.7 nm). Together, the results reported here indicate that total separation of all SWCNT species is likely feasible by the ATPE method, especially given future development of multistage automated extraction techniques.

A settling curve modeling method for quantitative description of the dispersion stability of carbon nanotubes in aquatic environments

Understanding the aggregation and deposition behavior of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) is of great significance in terms of their fate and transport in the environment. Attachment efficiency is a widely used index for well-dispersed CNT solutions. However, in natural waters, CNTs are usually heterogeneous in particle size. The attachment efficiency method is not applicable to such systems. Describing the dispersion stability of CNTs in natural aquatic systems is still a challenge. In this work, a settling curve modeling (SCM) method was developed for the description of the aggregation and deposition behavior of CNTs in aqueous solutions. The effects of water chemistry (natural organic matter, pH, and ionic strength) on the aggregation and deposition behavior of pristine and surface-functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) were systematically studied to evaluate the reliability of the SCM method. The results showed that, as compared to particle size and optical density, the centrifugal sedimentation rate constant (ks) from the settling curve profile is a practical, useful and reliable index for the description of heterogeneous CNT suspensions. The SCM method was successfully applied to MWCNT in three natural waters. The constituents in water, especially organic matter, determine the dispersion stability of MWCNTs in natural water bodies.

Determination of the lateral dimension of graphene oxide nanosheets using analytical ultracentrifugation

In this paper, a method to determine the lateral dimensions of 2D nanosheets directly in suspension by analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) is shown. The basis for this study is a well-characterized and stable dispersion of graphene oxide (GO) monolayers in water. A methodology is developed to correlate the sedimentation coefficient distribution measured by AUC with the lateral size distribution of the 2D GO nanosheets obtained from atomic force microscopy (AFM). A very high accuracy can be obtained by virtue of counting several thousand sheets, thereby minimizing any coating effects or statistical uncertainties. The AFM statistics are further used to fit the lateral size distribution obtained from the AUC to determine the unknown hydrodynamic sheet thickness or density. It is found that AUC can derive nanosheet diameter distributions with a relative error of the mean sheet diameter of just 0.25% as compared to the AFM analysis for 90 mass% of the particles in the distribution. The standard deviation of the size-dependent error for the total distribution is found to be 3.25%. Based on these considerations, an expression is given to calculate the cut size of 2D nanosheets in preparative centrifugation experiments.

Potent antibacterial nanoparticles for pathogenic bacteria

Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have emerged because of the prevalent use of antibacterial agents. Thus, new antibacterial agents and therapeutics that can treat bacterial infections are necessary. Vancomycin is a potent antibiotic. Unfortunately, some bacterial strains have developed their resistance toward vancomycin. Nevertheless, it has been demonstrated that vancomycin-immobilized nanoparticles (NPs) are capable to be used in inhibition of the cell growth of vancomycin-resistant bacterial strains through multivalent interactions. However, multistep syntheses are usually necessary to generate vancomycin-immobilized NPs. Thus, maintaining the antibiotic activity of vancomycin when the drug is immobilized on the surface of NPs is challenging. In this study, a facile approach to generate vancomycin immobilized gold (Van-Au) NPs through one-pot stirring of vancomycin with aqueous tetrachloroauric acid at pH 12 and 25 °C for 24 h was demonstrated. Van-Au NPs (8.4 ± 1.3 nm in size) were readily generated. The generated Van-Au NPs maintained their antibiotic activities and inhibited the cell growth of pathogens, which included Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria as well as antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains. Furthermore, the minimum inhibitory concentration of the Van-Au NPs against bacteria was lower than that of free-form vancomycin. Staphylococcus aureus-infected macrophages were used as the model samples to examine the antibacterial activity of the Van-Au NPs. Macrophages have the tendency to engulf Van-Au NPs through endocytosis. The results showed that the cell growth of S. aureus in the macrophages was effectively inhibited, suggesting the potential of using the generated Van-Au NPs as antibacterial agents for bacterial infectious diseases.

Purifying colloidal nanoparticles through ultracentrifugation with implications for interfaces and materials

Liquid-phase processing and colloidal self-assembly will be critical to the successful implementation of nanotechnology in the next generation of materials and devices. A key hurdle to realizing this will be the development of efficient methods to purify nanomaterials composed of a variety of shapes, including nanocrystals, nanotubes, and nanoplates. Although density-gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU) has long been appreciated as a valuable tool for separating biological macromolecules and components, the method has recently emerged as an effective way to purify colloidal nanoparticles by size and optical and electronic properties. In this feature article, we review our recent contributions to this growing field, with an emphasis on some of the implications that our results have for interfaces and materials. Through transient or isopycnic DGU performed in both aqueous and organic environments, we demonstrate some explicit examples of how the mechanical, electronic, and optical properties of thin films assembled from two specific colloidal nanomaterials--single-walled carbon nanotubes and silicon nanocrystals--can be modified in response to fractionation.

Dynamical contact line pinning and zipping during carbon nanotube coffee stain formation

Thin films of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) can be deposited onto solid substrates by evaporation-induced self-assembly. However, for this process to become more accessible to thin-film-based device fabrication requires optimization and a better understanding of the parameters and mechanisms governing nanoparticle film growth. Here, we focus on the role of contact-line (CL) dynamics at the edge of a receding meniscus for the deposition of thin nanoparticle films from colloidal suspensions. We find that film deposition rates can be increased by up to 2 orders of magnitude over earlier reports if parameters such as SWNT concentration, surfactant concentration, and height of the capillary bridge from which particles are deposited are properly adjusted. Most importantly we have also discovered that CL dynamics leading to the formation of striped films (coffee stains) are best described by dynamical pinning and kink-induced zipping. The existence of critical SWNT and surfactant concentrations as well as their role in determining stripe characteristics can be well accounted for by the proposed dynamical pinning and zipping model.

Rod hydrodynamics and length distributions of single-wall carbon nanotubes using analytical ultracentrifugation

Because of their repetitive chemical structure, extreme rigidity, and the separability of populations with varying aspect ratio, SWCNTs are excellent candidates for use as model rodlike colloids. In this contribution, the sedimentation velocities of length and density sorted single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) are compared to predictions from rod hydrodynamic theories of increasing complexity over a range of aspect ratios from <50 to >400. Independently measuring all contributions to the sedimentation velocity besides the shape factor, excellent agreement is found between the experimental findings and theoretical predictions for numerically calculated hydrodynamic radius values and for multiterm analytical expansion approximations; values for the hydrodynamic radii in these cases are additionally found to be consistent with the apparent hydrated particle radius determined independently by buoyancy measurements. Lastly, we utilize this equivalency to calculate the apparent distribution of nanotube lengths in each population from their sedimentation coefficient distribution without adjustable parameters, achieving excellent agreement with distributions from atomic force microscopy. The method developed herein provides an alternative for the ensemble measurement of SWCNT length distributions and others rodlike particles.

Binding affinities and thermodynamics of noncovalent functionalization of carbon nanotubes with surfactants

Binding affinity and thermodynamic understanding between a surfactant and carbon nanotube is essential to develop various carbon nanotube applications. Flavin mononucleotide-wrapped carbon nanotubes showing a large redshift in optical signature were utilized to determine the binding affinity and related thermodynamic parameters of 12 different nanotube chiralities upon exchange with other surfactants. Determined from the midpoint of sigmoidal transition, the equilibrium constant (K), which is inversely proportional to the binding affinity of the initial surfactant-carbon nanotube, provided quantitative binding strengths of surfactants as SDBS > SC ≈ FMN > SDS, irrespective of electronic types of SWNTs. Binding affinity of metallic tubes is weaker than that of semiconducting tubes. The complex K patterns from semiconducting tubes show preference to certain SWNT chiralities and surfactant-specific cooperativity according to nanotube chirality. Controlling temperature was effective to modulate K values by 30% and enables us to probe thermodynamic parameters. Equally signed enthalpy and entropy changes produce Gibbs energy changes with a magnitude of a few kJ/mol. A greater negative Gibbs energy upon exchange of surfactant produces an enhanced nanotube photoluminescence, implying the importance of understanding thermodynamics for designing nanotube separation and supramolecular assembly of surfactant.

Analyzing surfactant structures on length and chirality resolved (6,5) single-wall carbon nanotubes by analytical ultracentrifugation

The structure and density of the bound interfacial surfactant layer and associated hydration shell were investigated using analytical ultracentrifugation for length and chirality purified (6,5) single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) in three different bile salt surfactant solutions. The differences in the chemical structures of the surfactants significantly affect the size and density of the bound surfactant layers. As probed by exchange of a common parent nanotube population into sodium deoxycholate, sodium cholate, or sodium taurodeoxycholate solutions, the anhydrous density of the nanotubes was least for the sodium taurodeoxycholate surfactant, and the absolute sedimentation velocities greatest for the sodium cholate and sodium taurodeoxycholate surfactants. These results suggest that the thickest interfacial layer is formed by the deoxycholate, and that the taurodeoxycholate packs more densely than either sodium cholate or deoxycholate. These structural differences correlate well to an observed 25% increase in fluorescence intensity relative to the cholate surfactant for deoxycholate and taurodeoxycholate dispersed SWCNTs displaying equivalent absorbance spectra. Separate sedimentation velocity experiments including the density modifying agent iodixanol were used to establish the buoyant density of the (6,5) SWCNT in each of the bile salt surfactants; from the difference in the buoyant and anhydrous densities, the largest hydrated diameter is observed for sodium deoxycholate. Understanding the effects of dispersant choice and the methodology for measurement of the interfacial density and hydrated diameter is critical for rationally advancing separation strategies and applications of nanotubes.

Scenarios and methods that induce protruding or released CNTs after degradation of nanocomposite materials

ABSTRACT

Nanocomposite materials may be considered as a low-risk application of nanotechnology, if the nanofillers remain embedded throughout the life-cycle of the products in which they are embedded. We hypothesize that release of free CNTs occurs by a combination of mechanical stress and chemical degradation of the polymer matrix. We experimentally address limiting cases: Mechanically released fragments may show tubular protrusions on their surface. Here we identify these protrusions unambiguously as naked CNTs by chemically resolved microscopy and a suitable preparation protocol. By size-selective quantification of fragments we establish as a lower limit that at least 95 % of the CNTs remain embedded. Contrary to classical fiber composite approaches, we link this phenomenon to matrix materials with only a few percent elongation at break, predicting which materials should still cover their CNT nanofillers after machining. Protruding networks of CNTs remain after photochemical degradation of the matrix, and we show that it takes the worst case combinations of weathering plus high-shear wear to release free CNTs in the order of mg/m²/year. Synergy of chemical degradation and mechanical energy input is identified as the priority scenario of CNT release, but its lab simulation by combined methods is still far from real-world validation.

Probing carbon nanotube-surfactant interactions with two-dimensional DOSY NMR

Two-dimensional diffusion ordered spectroscopy (2D DOSY) NMR was used to probe the micellar structure of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and sodium cholate (SC) in aqueous solutions with and without semiconducting and metallic single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs). The solutions contain SDS and SC at weight ratios of 1:4 and 3:2, the ratios commonly used to isolate semiconducting and metallic SWCNTs through density gradient ultracentrifugation (DGU). These results show that the coverage of surfactant on the semiconducting and metallic SWCNTs is nearly identical in the 1:4 surfactant mixture, and a lower degree of bundling is responsible for the greater buoyancy of semiconducting SWCNTs. In the 3:2 surfactant mixture, the metallic SWCNTs are only encapsulated in SC while the semiconducting SWCNTs remain encapsulated in a poorly packed two-surfactant micelle, leading to a large buoyant density difference between the electronic species. This work provides insight into future directions to increase the purity of semiconducting and metallic SWCNTs sorted through DGU and demonstrates the utility of 2D DOSY NMR in probing SWCNT-surfactant complexes.

Large-area, electronically monodisperse, aligned single-walled carbon nanotube thin films fabricated by evaporation-driven self-assembly

By varying the evaporation conditions and the nanotube and surfactant concentrations, large-area, aligned single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) thin films are fabricated from electronically monodisperse SWCNT solutions by evaporation-driven self-assembly with precise control over the thin film growth geometry. Tunability is possible from 0.5 μm stripes to continuous thin films. The resulting SWCNT thin films possess highly anisotropic electrical and optical properties that are well suited for transparent conductor applications.

Oriented, polymer-stabilized carbon nanotube films: influence of dispersion rheology

Thin carbon nanotube films have great potential for transparent electrodes for solar cells and displays. One advantage for using carbon nanotubes is the potential for solution processing. However, research has not been done to connect solution rheological properties with the corresponding film characteristics. Here we study the rheological properties of single-walled carbon nanotube/polythiophene composite dispersions to better understand the alignment that can be achieved during deposition. Several parameters are varied to explore the cause of the alignment and the requirements of achieving a uniform, aligned carbon nanotube/polythiophene film. By understanding the dispersions thoroughly, the film quality can be predicted.

Validity range of centrifuges for the regulation of nanomaterials: from classification to as-tested coronas

Granulometry is the regulatory category where the differences between traditional materials and nanomaterials culminate. Reported herein is a careful validation of methods for the quantification of dispersability and size distribution in relevant media, and for the classification according to the EC nanodefinition recommendation. Suspension-based techniques can assess the nanodefinition only if the material in question is reasonably well dispersed. Using dispersed material of several chemical compositions (organic, metal, metal-oxide) as test cases we benchmark analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC), dynamic light scattering (DLS), hydrodynamic chromatography, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) against the known content of bimodal suspensions in the commercially relevant range between 20 nm and a few microns. The results validate fractionating techniques, especially AUC, which successfully identifies any dispersed nanoparticle content from 14 to 99.9 nb% with less than 5 nb% deviation. In contrast, our screening casts severe doubt over the reliability of ensemble (scattering) techniques and highlights the potential of NTA to develop into a counting upgrade of DLS. The unique asset of centrifuges with interference, X-ray or absorption detectors-to quantify the dispersed solid content for each size interval from proteins over individualized nanoparticles up to agglomerates, while accounting for their loose packing-addresses also the adsorption/depletion of proteins and (de-)agglomeration of nanomaterials under cell culture conditions as tested for toxicological endpoints.

Measuring the grafting density of nanoparticles in solution by analytical ultracentrifugation and total organic carbon analysis

Many of the solution phase properties of nanoparticles, such as their colloidal stability and hydrodynamic diameter, are governed by the number of stabilizing groups bound to the particle surface (i.e., grafting density). Here, we show how two techniques, analytical ultracentrifugation (AUC) and total organic carbon analysis (TOC), can be applied separately to the measurement of this parameter. AUC directly measures the density of nanoparticle-polymer conjugates while TOC provides the total carbon content of its aqueous dispersions. When these techniques are applied to model gold nanoparticles capped with thiolated poly(ethylene glycol), the measured grafting densities across a range of polymer chain lengths, polymer concentrations, and nanoparticle diameters agree to within 20%. Moreover, the measured grafting densities correlate well with the polymer content determined by thermogravimetric analysis of solid conjugate samples. Using these tools, we examine the particle core diameter, polymer chain length, and polymer solution concentration dependence of nanoparticle grafting densities in a gold nanoparticle-poly(ethylene glycol) conjugate system.

Measuring single-walled carbon nanotube length distributions from diffusional trajectories

A new method is demonstrated for measuring the length distributions of dispersed single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) samples by analyzing diffusional motions of many individual nanotubes in parallel. In this method, termed "length analysis by nanotube diffusion" (LAND), video sequences of near-IR fluorescence microscope images showing many semiconducting SWCNTs are recorded and processed by custom image analysis software. This processing locates the individual nanotubes, tracks their translational trajectories, computes the corresponding diffusion coefficients, and converts those values to nanotube lengths. The deduced length values are then compiled into a histogram of lengths present in the sample. By using specific excitation wavelengths and emission filters, this analysis is performed on selected (n,m) structural species. The new LAND method has been found to give distributions in very good agreement with those obtained by conventional AFM analysis of the same samples. Because it is fluorescence-based, LAND monitors only semiconducting, relatively pristine SWCNTs. However, it is less sensitive to artifacts from impurities and bundled nanotubes than AFM or light scattering methods. In addition, samples can be analyzed with less time and operator attention than by AFM. LAND is a promising alternative method for characterizing length distributions of SWCNTs in liquid suspension.