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Banhart F. The Formation and Transformation of Low-Dimensional Carbon Nanomaterials by Electron Irradiation. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024:e2310462. [PMID: 38700071 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202310462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/05/2024]
Abstract
Low-dimensional materials based on graphene or graphite show a large variety of phenomena when they are subjected to irradiation with energetic electrons. Since the 1990s, electron microscopy studies, where a certain irradiation dose is unavoidable, have witnessed unexpected structural transformations of graphitic nanoparticles. It is recognized that electron irradiation is not only detrimental but also bears considerable potential in the formation of new graphitic structures. With the availability of aberration-corrected electron microscopes and the discovery of techniques to produce monolayers of graphene, detailed insight into the atomic processes occurring during electron irradiation became possible. Threshold energies for atom displacements are determined and models of different types of lattice vacancies are confirmed experimentally. However, experimental evidence for the configuration of interstitial atoms in graphite or adatoms on graphene remained indirect, and the understanding of defect dynamics still depends on theoretical concepts. This article reviews irradiation phenomena in graphene- or graphite-based nanomaterials from the scale of single atoms to tens of nanometers. Observations from the 1990s can now be explained on the basis of new results. The evolution of the understanding during three decades of research is presented, and the remaining problems are pointed out.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Banhart
- Institut de Physique et Chimie des Matériaux, UMR 7504, Université de Strasbourg, CNRS, Strasbourg, 67034, France
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2
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Moseenkov SI, Kuznetsov VL, Zolotarev NA, Kolesov BA, Prosvirin IP, Ishchenko AV, Zavorin AV. Investigation of Amorphous Carbon in Nanostructured Carbon Materials (A Comparative Study by TEM, XPS, Raman Spectroscopy and XRD). MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:1112. [PMID: 36770119 PMCID: PMC9919804 DOI: 10.3390/ma16031112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 01/22/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Amorphous carbon (AC) is present in the bulk and on the surface of nanostructured carbon materials (NCMs) and exerts a significant effect on the physical, chemical and mechanical properties of NCMs. Thus, the determination of AC in NCMs is extremely important for controlling the properties of a wide range of materials. In this work, a comparative study of the effect of heat treatment on the structure and content of amorphous carbon in deposited AC film, nanodiamonds, carbon black and multiwalled carbon nanotube samples was carried out by TEM, XPS, XRD and Raman spectroscopy. It has been established that the use of the 7-peak model for fitting the Raman spectra makes it possible not only to isolate the contribution of the modes of amorphous carbon but also to improve the accuracy of fitting the fundamental G and D2 (D) modes and obtain a satisfactory convergence between XPS and Raman spectroscopy. The use of this model for fitting the Raman spectra of deposited AC film, ND, CB and MWCNT films demonstrated its validity and effectiveness for investigating the amorphous carbon in various carbon systems and its applicability in comparative studies of other NCMs.
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3
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Xue H, Zhang M, Liu J, Wang J, Ren G. Cryo-electron tomography related radiation-damage parameters for individual-molecule 3D structure determination. Front Chem 2022; 10:889203. [PMID: 36110139 PMCID: PMC9468540 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2022.889203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the dynamic structure-function relationship of soft- and biomolecules, the determination of the three-dimensional (3D) structure of each individual molecule (nonaveraged structure) in its native state is sought-after. Cryo-electron tomography (cryo-ET) is a unique tool for imaging an individual object from a series of tilted views. However, due to radiation damage from the incident electron beam, the tolerable electron dose limits image contrast and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the data, preventing the 3D structure determination of individual molecules, especially at high-resolution. Although recently developed technologies and techniques, such as the direct electron detector, phase plate, and computational algorithms, can partially improve image contrast/SNR at the same electron dose, the high-resolution structure, such as tertiary structure of individual molecules, has not yet been resolved. Here, we review the cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) and cryo-ET experimental parameters to discuss how these parameters affect the extent of radiation damage. This discussion can guide us in optimizing the experimental strategy to increase the imaging dose or improve image SNR without increasing the radiation damage. With a higher dose, a higher image contrast/SNR can be achieved, which is crucial for individual-molecule 3D structure. With 3D structures determined from an ensemble of individual molecules in different conformations, the molecular mechanism through their biochemical reactions, such as self-folding or synthesis, can be elucidated in a straightforward manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Xue
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Jianfang Liu
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
| | - Jianjun Wang
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Gang Ren
- The Molecular Foundry, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA, United States
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4
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Irita M, Yamamoto T, Homma Y. Chirality Distributions for Semiconducting Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes Determined by Photoluminescence Spectroscopy. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11092309. [PMID: 34578625 PMCID: PMC8465080 DOI: 10.3390/nano11092309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
To realize single-walled carbon nanotube (SWCNT) chiral selective growth, elucidating the mechanism of SWCNT chirality (n,m) selectivity is important. For this purpose, an accurate evaluation method for evaluating the chirality distribution of grown SWCNTs without post-growth processing or liquid-dispersion of SWCNTs is indispensable. Here, we used photoluminescence spectroscopy to directly measure the chirality distributions of individual semiconducting SWCNTs suspended on a pillar-patterned substrate. The number of chirality-assigned SWCNTs was up to 332 and 17 chirality types with the chiral angles ranging from 0° to 28.05° were detected. The growth yield of SWCNTs was confirmed to primarily depends on the chiral angle in accordance with the screw dislocation model. Furthermore, when higher-yield chiralities are selected, the chiral angle distribution with a peak corresponding to near-armchair SWCNTs is well fitted with a model that incorporates the thermodynamic effect at the SWCNT-catalyst interface into the kink growth-based kinetic model. Our quantitative and statistical data provide new insights into SWCNT growth mechanism as well as experimental confirmation of theoretical predictions.
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5
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He M, Zhang S, Zhang J. Horizontal Single-Walled Carbon Nanotube Arrays: Controlled Synthesis, Characterizations, and Applications. Chem Rev 2020; 120:12592-12684. [PMID: 33064453 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) emerge as a promising material to advance carbon nanoelectronics. However, synthesizing or assembling pure metallic/semiconducting SWNTs required for interconnects/integrated circuits, respectively, by a conventional chemical vapor deposition method or by an assembly technique remains challenging. Recent studies have shown significant scientific breakthroughs in controlled SWNT synthesis/assembly and applications in scaled field effect transistors, which are a critical component in functional nanodevices, thereby rendering the horizontal SWNT array an important candidate for innovating nanotechnology. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the controlled synthesis, surface assembly, characterization techniques, and potential applications of horizontally aligned SWNT arrays. This review begins with the discussion of synthesis of horizontally aligned SWNTs with regulated direction, density, structure, and theoretical models applied to understand the growth results. Several traditional procedures applied for assembling SWNTs on target surface are also briefly discussed. It then discusses the techniques adopted to characterize SWNTs, ranging from electron/probe microscopy to various optical spectroscopy methods. Prototype applications based on the horizontally aligned SWNTs, such as interconnects, field effect transistors, integrated circuits, and even computers, are subsequently described. Finally, this review concludes with challenges and a brief outlook of the future development in this research field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maoshuai He
- State Key Laboratory of Eco-Chemical Engineering, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266042, China
| | - Shuchen Zhang
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Jin Zhang
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Center for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences (BNLMS), College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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6
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Chen Q, Dwyer C, Sheng G, Zhu C, Li X, Zheng C, Zhu Y. Imaging Beam-Sensitive Materials by Electron Microscopy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1907619. [PMID: 32108394 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201907619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Electron microscopy allows the extraction of multidimensional spatiotemporally correlated structural information of diverse materials down to atomic resolution, which is essential for figuring out their structure-property relationships. Unfortunately, the high-energy electrons that carry this important information can cause damage by modulating the structures of the materials. This has become a significant problem concerning the recent boost in materials science applications of a wide range of beam-sensitive materials, including metal-organic frameworks, covalent-organic frameworks, organic-inorganic hybrid materials, 2D materials, and zeolites. To this end, developing electron microscopy techniques that minimize the electron beam damage for the extraction of intrinsic structural information turns out to be a compelling but challenging need. This article provides a comprehensive review on the revolutionary strategies toward the electron microscopic imaging of beam-sensitive materials and associated materials science discoveries, based on the principles of electron-matter interaction and mechanisms of electron beam damage. Finally, perspectives and future trends in this field are put forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiaoli Chen
- Center for Electron Microscopy, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology and College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Christian Dwyer
- Department of Physics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-1504, USA
| | - Guan Sheng
- Advanced Membranes and Porous Materials Center, Physical Science and Engineering, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Chongzhi Zhu
- Center for Electron Microscopy, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology and College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Xiaonian Li
- Center for Electron Microscopy, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology and College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
| | - Changlin Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Surface Physics and Department of Physics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, China
| | - Yihan Zhu
- Center for Electron Microscopy, State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology and College of Chemical Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou, 310014, China
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7
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Slade CA, Sanchez AM, Sloan J. Unprecedented New Crystalline Forms of SnSe in Narrow to Medium Diameter Carbon Nanotubes. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:2979-2984. [PMID: 30973739 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b00133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We report the observation of four unprecedented new crystalline forms of SnSe, obtained as a result of encapsulation in narrow to medium diameter single-walled carbon nanotubes. Aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy at 80 kV revealed linear, zigzag, helical (i.e., 2 × 1) atomic chains and a new form of encapsulated SnSe. This new form is apparently isostructural to free-standing MoS, MoSe, and WSe extreme nanowires etched from the corresponding monolayer dichalcogenides and also recently observed encapsulated MoTe. A structural model has been attained from annular dark-field (ADF) images. The experimental imaging agrees well with image simulations produced from models anticipated for the new structural forms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte A Slade
- Department of Physics , University of Warwick , Coventry CV4 7AL , United Kingdom
| | - Ana M Sanchez
- Department of Physics , University of Warwick , Coventry CV4 7AL , United Kingdom
| | - Jeremy Sloan
- Department of Physics , University of Warwick , Coventry CV4 7AL , United Kingdom
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8
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Nguyen TTH, Le VK, Le Minh C, Nguyen NH. A theoretical study of carbon dioxide adsorption and activation on metal-doped (Fe, Co, Ni) carbon nanotube. COMPUT THEOR CHEM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.comptc.2016.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Koh AL, Sinclair R. Assessing and ameliorating the influence of the electron beam on carbon nanotube oxidation in environmental transmission electron microscopy. Ultramicroscopy 2016; 176:132-138. [PMID: 27979618 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2016.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 12/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In this work, we examine how the imaging electron beam can induce damage in carbon nanotubes (CNTs) at varying oxygen gas pressures and electron dose rates using environmental transmission electron microscopy (ETEM). Our studies show that there is a threshold cumulative electron dose which brings about damage in CNTs in oxygen - through removal of their graphitic walls - which is dependent on O2 pressure, with a 4-5 fold decrease in total electron dose per decade increase at a lower pressure range (10-6 to 10-5mbar) and approximately 1.3 -fold decrease per decade increase at a higher pressure range (10-3 to 100mbar). However, at a given pressure, damage in CNTs was found to occur even at the lowest dose rate utilized, suggesting the absence of a lower limit for the latter parameter. This study provides guidelines on the cumulative dose required to damage nanotubes in the 10-7mbar to 100mbar pressure regimes, and discusses the role of electron dose rate and total electron dose on beam-induced CNT degradation experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Leen Koh
- Stanford Nano Shared Facilities, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Robert Sinclair
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
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10
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Ibrahim I, Gemming T, Weber WM, Mikolajick T, Liu Z, Rümmeli MH. Current Progress in the Chemical Vapor Deposition of Type-Selected Horizontally Aligned Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes. ACS NANO 2016; 10:7248-7266. [PMID: 27427780 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b03744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Exciting electrical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes show promise as a future class of electronic materials, yet the manufacturing challenges remain significant. The key challenges are to determine fabrication approaches for complex and flexible arrangements of nanotube devices that are reliable, rapid, and reproducible. Realizing regular array structures is an important step toward this goal. Considerable efforts have and are being made in this vein, although the progress to date is somewhat modest. However, there are reasons to be optimistic. Positive steps of being able to control not only the spatial location and diameter of the tubes but also their electronic type (chiral control) are being made. Two primary approaches are being exploited to address the challenges. Tube deposition techniques, on the one hand, and direct growth of the desired tube at the target location are being explored. While this review covers both approaches, the emphasis is on recent developments in the direct fabrication of type-selected horizontally aligned single-walled carbon nanotubes by chemical vapor deposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imad Ibrahim
- NaMLab gGmbH , Nöthnitzer Strasse 64, D-01187 Dresden, Germany
| | - Thomas Gemming
- IFW Dresden , P.O. Box 270116, 01171 Dresden, Saxony, Germany
| | - Walter M Weber
- NaMLab gGmbH , Nöthnitzer Strasse 64, D-01187 Dresden, Germany
- Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Dresden University of Technology , 01062 Dresden, Saxony, Germany
| | - Thomas Mikolajick
- NaMLab gGmbH , Nöthnitzer Strasse 64, D-01187 Dresden, Germany
- Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (cfaed), Dresden University of Technology , 01062 Dresden, Saxony, Germany
- Chair of Nanoelectronic Materials, TU Dresden , D-01062 Dresden, Germany
| | - Zhongfan Liu
- College of Physics Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Centre for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
| | - Mark H Rümmeli
- College of Physics Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
- IFW Dresden , P.O. Box 270116, 01171 Dresden, Saxony, Germany
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences , M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, Zabrze 41-819, Poland
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11
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Ta HQ, Bachmatiuk A, Warner JH, Zhao L, Sun Y, Zhao J, Gemming T, Trzebicka B, Liu Z, Pribat D, Rümmeli MH. Electron-Driven Metal Oxide Effusion and Graphene Gasification at Room Temperature. ACS NANO 2016; 10:6323-6330. [PMID: 27218864 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.6b02625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Metal oxide nanoparticles decorating graphene have attracted abundant interest in the scientific community owing to their significant application in various areas such as batteries, gas sensors, and photocatalysis. In addition, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles are of great interest for the etching of graphene, for example, to form nanoribbons, through gasification reactions. Hence it is important to have a good understanding of how nanoparticles interact with graphene. In this work we examine, in situ, the behavior of CuO and ZnO nanoparticles on graphene at room temperature while irradiated by electrons in a transmission electron microscope. ZnO is shown to etch graphene through gasification. In the gasification reaction C from graphene is released as CO or CO2. We show that the reaction can occur at room temperature. Moreover, CuO and ZnO particles trapped within a graphene fold are shown to effuse out of a fold through small ruptures. The mass transport in the effusion process between the CuO and ZnO particles is fundamentally different. Mass transport for CuO occurs in an amorphous phase, while for ZnO mass transport occurs through the short-lived gliding of vacancies and dislocations. The work highlights the potential and wealth of electron beam driven chemical reactions of nanomaterials, even at room temperature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huy Q Ta
- College of Physics, Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences , M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, Zabrze 41-819, Poland
| | - Alicja Bachmatiuk
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences , M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, Zabrze 41-819, Poland
- IFW Dresden , P.O. Box D-01171 Dresden, Germany
| | - Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford , Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
| | - Liang Zhao
- College of Physics, Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
| | - Yinghui Sun
- College of Physics, Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
| | | | | | - Barbara Trzebicka
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences , M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, Zabrze 41-819, Poland
| | - Zhongfan Liu
- College of Physics, Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing Science and Engineering Centre for Nanocarbons, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University , Beijing 100871, China
| | | | - Mark H Rümmeli
- College of Physics, Optoelectronics and Energy & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University , Suzhou 215006, China
- Centre of Polymer and Carbon Materials, Polish Academy of Sciences , M. Curie-Sklodowskiej 34, Zabrze 41-819, Poland
- IFW Dresden , P.O. Box D-01171 Dresden, Germany
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12
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Koh AL, Gidcumb E, Zhou O, Sinclair R. Oxidation of Carbon Nanotubes in an Ionizing Environment. NANO LETTERS 2016; 16:856-63. [PMID: 26726919 PMCID: PMC4859757 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we present systematic studies on how an illuminating electron beam which ionizes molecular gas species can influence the mechanism of carbon nanotube oxidation in an environmental transmission electron microscope (ETEM). We found that preferential attack of the nanotube tips is much more prevalent than for oxidation in a molecular gas environment. We establish the cumulative electron doses required to damage carbon nanotubes from 80 keV electron beam irradiation in gas versus in high vacuum. Our results provide guidelines for the electron doses required to study carbon nanotubes within or without a gas environment, to determine or ameliorate the influence of the imaging electron beam. This work has important implications for in situ studies as well as for the oxidation of carbon nanotubes in an ionizing environment such as that occurring during field emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Leen Koh
- Stanford Nano Shared Facilities, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Emily Gidcumb
- Department of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Otto Zhou
- Department of Applied Physical Sciences, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Robert Sinclair
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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13
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Matsumoto N, Oshima A, Yumura M, Futaba DN, Hata K. Current treatment of bulk single walled carbon nanotubes to heal defects without structural change for increased electrical and thermal conductivities. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:8707-8714. [PMID: 25913108 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr00170f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
By applying electrical current with heat, we succeeded in improving the graphitization of single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) without increasing the diameter and wall number. At 800 °C, 150 A cm(-2) (1150 W cm(-2)) for 1 min, we achieved a 3.2-times increase in the Raman G- to D-band ratio, a 3.1-times increase in electrical conductivity (from 25.2 to 78.1 S cm(-1)), a 3.7-times increase in thermal conductivity (from 3.5 to 12.8 W m(-1) K(-1)), and even a 1.7-times increase in dispersibility (from 1.7 to 2.9 mg L(-1)). The electrical and thermal conductivities did not only increase simultaneously, but their relative increases were identical across our experimental range that stems from defect healing without any change in diameter and wall number. In contrast, a significant increase in diameter and wall number was observed when current was not applied. These results demonstrate the importance of applying current to improve the graphitization of SWCNTs while maintaining their structure as SWCNTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Matsumoto
- Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565, Japan.
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14
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Matsumoto N, Oshima A, Sakurai S, Yumura M, Hata K, Futaba DN. Scalability of the Heat and Current Treatment on SWCNTs to Improve their Crystallinity and Thermal and Electrical Conductivities. NANOSCALE RESEARCH LETTERS 2015; 10:220. [PMID: 26019697 PMCID: PMC4439406 DOI: 10.1186/s11671-015-0917-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We have investigated the scalability of our post-synthesis graphitization process for single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), which applies heat and current to SWCNTs to improve the thermal and electrical conductivities. This investigation was performed by examining the relationship between the processing conditions and the amount of treated SWCNTs. Characterization of all cases of treated SWCNTs showed the same level of improvement of ~3 times to both the thermal and electrical conductivities and that the SWCNTs remained SWCNTs, i.e., no change in diameter or wall number. These results provided evidence that the ability to improve the crystallinity of the SWCNTs was independent of the treatment amount. Further, our results showed that an increase in SWCNT amount required increased applied current density or increased in applied temperature to achieve optimum property improvement. Finally, we found a trade-off between the current density and temperature indicating that either a high current or high temperature was required to achieve the optimum process conditions. These results demonstrated that our heat and current SWCNT treatment was fundamentally scalable and applied towards larger scale (i.e., gram-level or more) amounts of SWCNT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Matsumoto
- />Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
| | - Azusa Oshima
- />Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
| | - Shunsuke Sakurai
- />National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
| | - Motoo Yumura
- />Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
- />National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
| | - Kenji Hata
- />Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
- />National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
| | - Don N Futaba
- />Technology Research Association for Single Wall Carbon Nanotubes (TASC), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
- />National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8565 Japan
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15
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Argentero G, Mangler C, Kotakoski J, Eder F, Meyer J. Towards weighing individual atoms by high-angle scattering of electrons. Ultramicroscopy 2015; 151:23-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2014] [Revised: 11/18/2014] [Accepted: 11/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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16
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Souza N, Zeiger M, Presser V, Mücklich F. In situ tracking of defect healing and purification of single-wall carbon nanotubes with laser radiation by time-resolved Raman spectroscopy. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra09316c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fine-tuned localised laser heating of pristine or mechanically dispersed (for composite processing) SWCNTs resulting in precision healing and purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- N. Souza
- Department of Materials Science
- Saarland University
- 66123 Saarbrücken
- Germany
| | - M. Zeiger
- Department of Materials Science
- Saarland University
- 66123 Saarbrücken
- Germany
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials & Department of Materials Science
| | - V. Presser
- Department of Materials Science
- Saarland University
- 66123 Saarbrücken
- Germany
- INM – Leibniz Institute for New Materials & Department of Materials Science
| | - F. Mücklich
- Department of Materials Science
- Saarland University
- 66123 Saarbrücken
- Germany
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17
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Zhao Q, Zhang J. Characterizing the chiral index of a single-walled carbon nanotube. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2014; 10:4586-4605. [PMID: 25330979 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201401567] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Revised: 09/12/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) mainly depend on their geometry. However, there are still formidable difficulties to determine the chirality of SWCNTs accurately. In this review, some efficient methods to characterize the chiral indices of SWCNTs are illuminated. These methods are divided into imaging techniques and spectroscopy techniques. With these methods, diameter, helix angle, and energy states can be measured. Generally speaking, imaging techniques have a higher accuracy and universality, but are time-consuming with regard to the sample preparation and characterization. The spectroscopy techniques are very simple and fast in operation, but these techniques can be applied only to the particular structure of the sample. Here, the principles and operations of each method are introduced, and a comprehensive understanding of each technique, including their advantages and disadvantages, is given. Advanced applications of some methods are also discussed. The aim of this review is to help readers to choose methods with the appropriate accuracy and time complexity and, furthermore, to put forward an idea to find new methods for chirality characterization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qiuchen Zhao
- Center for Nanochemistry, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory for the Physics and Chemistry of Nanodevices, State Key Laboratory for Structural, Chemistry of Unstable and Stable Species, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, P.R. China
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18
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Koshino M. Multiple reaction pathways of metallofullerenes investigated by transmission electron microscopy. Dalton Trans 2014; 43:7359-65. [PMID: 24638213 DOI: 10.1039/c3dt53639d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in molecule-by-molecule transmission electron microscopy (TEM) have provided time-series structural information of individual molecules supported by nano-carbon materials, enabling researchers to trace their motions and reactions. In this paper, the chemical reactions of fullerenes and metallofullerene derivatives, focusing on their deformation process, are reviewed and discussed based on the single-molecule-resolved TEM analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masanori Koshino
- Nanotube Research Centre, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, AIST Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba 305-8565, Japan.
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19
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Schrettl S, Stefaniu C, Schwieger C, Pasche G, Oveisi E, Fontana Y, Morral AFI, Reguera J, Petraglia R, Corminboeuf C, Brezesinski G, Frauenrath H. Functional carbon nanosheets prepared from hexayne amphiphile monolayers at room temperature. Nat Chem 2014; 6:468-76. [DOI: 10.1038/nchem.1939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 03/28/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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20
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Meyer JC, Kotakoski J, Mangler C. Atomic structure from large-area, low-dose exposures of materials: a new route to circumvent radiation damage. Ultramicroscopy 2013; 145:13-21. [PMID: 24315660 PMCID: PMC4153813 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2013] [Revised: 11/21/2013] [Accepted: 11/21/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Beam-induced structural modifications are a major nuisance in the study of materials by high-resolution electron microscopy. Here, we introduce a new approach to circumvent the radiation damage problem by a statistical treatment of large, noisy, low-dose data sets of non-periodic configurations (e.g. defects) in the material. We distribute the dose over a mixture of different defect structures at random positions and with random orientations, and recover representative model images via a maximum likelihood search. We demonstrate reconstructions from simulated images at such low doses that the location of individual entities is not possible. The approach may open a route to study currently inaccessible beam-sensitive configurations. A new approach to circumvent radiation damage. Statistical treatment of large noisy data sets. Analysis of radiation sensitive material defects.
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Meyer
- University of Vienna, Department of Physics, Vienna, Austria.
| | - J Kotakoski
- University of Vienna, Department of Physics, Vienna, Austria
| | - C Mangler
- University of Vienna, Department of Physics, Vienna, Austria
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21
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Robertson AW, Warner JH. Atomic resolution imaging of graphene by transmission electron microscopy. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:4079-93. [PMID: 23595204 DOI: 10.1039/c3nr00934c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
The atomic structure of a material influences its electronic, chemical, magnetic and mechanical properties. Characterising carbon nanomaterials, such as fullerenes, nanotubes and graphene, at the atomic level is challenging due to their chemical reactivity and low atomic mass. Transmission electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy are two of the leading methods for imaging graphene at the atomic level. Here, we report on recent advances in atomic resolution imaging of graphene using aberration-corrected high resolution transmission electron microscopy and how it has revealed many of the structural deviations from the pristine monolayer form. Structures in graphene such as vacancy defects, edges, grain boundaries, linear chains, impurity dopants, layer number, layer stacking and bond rotations are explored.
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22
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Koh AL, Gidcumb E, Zhou O, Sinclair R. Observations of carbon nanotube oxidation in an aberration-corrected environmental transmission electron microscope. ACS NANO 2013; 7:2566-72. [PMID: 23360330 PMCID: PMC3609878 DOI: 10.1021/nn305949h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
We report the first direct study on the oxidation of carbon nanotubes at the resolution of an aberration-corrected environmental transmission electron microscope (ETEM), as we locate and identify changes in the same nanotubes as they undergo oxidation at increasing temperatures in situ in the ETEM. Contrary to earlier reports that CNT oxidation initiates at the end of the tube and proceeds along its length, our findings show that only the outside graphene layer is being removed and, on occasion, the interior inner wall is oxidized, presumably due to oxygen infiltrating into the hollow nanotube through an open end or breaks in the tube. We believe that this work provides the foundation for a greater scientific understanding of the mechanism underlying the nanotube oxidation process, as well as guidelines to manipulate the nanotubes' structure or prevent their oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ai Leen Koh
- Stanford Nanocharacterization Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Emily Gidcumb
- Curriculum in Applied Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Otto Zhou
- Curriculum in Applied Sciences and Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Robert Sinclair
- Stanford Nanocharacterization Laboratory, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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23
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Barreiro A, Börrnert F, Avdoshenko SM, Rellinghaus B, Cuniberti G, Rümmeli MH, Vandersypen LMK. Understanding the catalyst-free transformation of amorphous carbon into graphene by current-induced annealing. Sci Rep 2013. [PMCID: PMC3552284 DOI: 10.1038/srep01115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
We shed light on the catalyst-free growth of graphene from amorphous carbon (a–C) by current-induced annealing by witnessing the mechanism both with in-situ transmission electron microscopy and with molecular dynamics simulations. Both in experiment and in simulation, we observe that small a–C clusters on top of a graphene substrate rearrange and crystallize into graphene patches. The process is aided by the high temperatures involved and by the van der Waals interactions with the substrate. Furthermore, in the presence of a–C, graphene can grow from the borders of holes and form a seamless graphene sheet, a novel finding that has not been reported before and that is reproduced by the simulations as well. These findings open up new avenues for bottom-up engineering of graphene-based devices.
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24
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Börrnert F, Fu L, Gorantla S, Knupfer M, Büchner B, Rümmeli MH. Programmable sub-nanometer sculpting of graphene with electron beams. ACS NANO 2012; 6:10327-10334. [PMID: 23110721 DOI: 10.1021/nn304256a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Electron beams in transmission electron microscopes are very attractive to engineer and pattern graphene toward all-carbon device fabrication. The use of condensed beams typically used for sequential raster imaging is particularly exciting since they potentially provide high degrees of precision. However, technical difficulties, such as the formation of electron beam induced deposits on sample surfaces, have hindered the development of this technique. We demonstrate how one can successfully use a condensed electron beam, either with or without C(s) correction, to structure graphene with sub-nanometer precision in a programmable manner. We further demonstrate the potential of the developed technique by combining it with an established route to engineer graphene nanoribbons to single-atom carbon chains.
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25
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KISELEV N, KUMSKOV A, ZAKALYUKIN R, VASILIEV A, CHERNISHEVA M, ELISEEV A, KRESTININ A, FREITAG B, HUTCHISON J. The structure of nanocomposite 1D cationic conductor crystal@SWNT. J Microsc 2012; 246:309-21. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2818.2012.03622.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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26
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Meyer JC, Eder F, Kurasch S, Skakalova V, Kotakoski J, Park HJ, Roth S, Chuvilin A, Eyhusen S, Benner G, Krasheninnikov AV, Kaiser U. Accurate measurement of electron beam induced displacement cross sections for single-layer graphene. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2012; 108:196102. [PMID: 23003063 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.108.196102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
We present an accurate measurement and a quantitative analysis of electron-beam-induced displacements of carbon atoms in single-layer graphene. We directly measure the atomic displacement ("knock-on") cross section by counting the lost atoms as a function of the electron-beam energy and applied dose. Further, we separate knock-on damage (originating from the collision of the beam electrons with the nucleus of the target atom) from other radiation damage mechanisms (e.g., ionization damage or chemical etching) by the comparison of ordinary (12C) and heavy (13C) graphene. Our analysis shows that a static lattice approximation is not sufficient to describe knock-on damage in this material, while a very good agreement between calculated and experimental cross sections is obtained if lattice vibrations are taken into account.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik C Meyer
- Central Facility for Electron Microscopy, Group of Electron Microscopy of Materials Science, University of Ulm, Albert Einstein Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany.
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27
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Rodríguez-Manzo JA, Krasheninnikov AV, Banhart F. Engineering the Atomic Structure of Carbon Nanotubes by a Focused Electron Beam: New Morphologies at the Sub-Nanometer Scale. Chemphyschem 2012; 13:2596-600. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201101000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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28
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Performance and early applications of a versatile double aberration-corrected JEOL-2200FS FEG TEM/STEM at Aalto University. Micron 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2011.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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29
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Schäffel F, Wilson M, Warner JH. Motion of light adatoms and molecules on the surface of few-layer graphene. ACS NANO 2011; 5:9428-9441. [PMID: 22087879 DOI: 10.1021/nn2036494] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Low-voltage aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM) is applied to investigate the feasibility of continuous electron beam cleaning of graphene and monitor the removal of residual species as present on few-layer graphene (FLG) surfaces. This combined approach allows us to detect light adatoms and evaluate their discontinuous sporadic motional behavior. Furthermore, the formation and dynamic behavior of isolated molecules on the FLG surface can be captured. The preferential source of adatoms and adsorbed molecules appeared to be carbonaceous clusters accumulated from residual solvents on the graphene surface. TEM image simulations provide potential detail on the observed molecular structures. Molecular dynamics simulations confirm the experimentally observed dynamics occurring on the energy scale imposed by the presence of the 80 kV electron beam and help elucidate the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Schäffel
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom.
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30
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Warner JH, Young NP, Kirkland AI, Briggs GAD. Resolving strain in carbon nanotubes at the atomic level. NATURE MATERIALS 2011; 10:958-62. [PMID: 21963574 DOI: 10.1038/nmat3125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 08/23/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Details of how atomic structure responds to strain are essential for building a deeper picture of mechanics in nanomaterials. Here, we provide the first experimental evidence of atomic displacements associated with shear strain in single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) by direct imaging using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy. The atomic structure of a zig-zag SWNT is resolved with unprecedented accuracy and the strain induced by bending is mapped in two dimensions. We show the existence of a dominant non-uniform shear strain that varies along the SWNT axis. The direction of shear is opposite to what would be expected from a simple force applied perpendicular to the axis to produce the bending. This highlights the complex atomistic strain behaviour of beam-bending mechanics in highly anisotropic SWNTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Rd, Oxford OX1 3PH, UK.
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31
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Zhao J, Zhu J. Electron microscopy and in situ testing of mechanical deformation of carbon nanotubes. Micron 2011; 42:663-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2011.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2011] [Revised: 04/12/2011] [Accepted: 04/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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32
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Ardavan A, Briggs GAD. Quantum control in spintronics. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2011; 369:3229-3248. [PMID: 21727123 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2011.0009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Superposition and entanglement are uniquely quantum phenomena. Superposition incorporates a phase that contains information surpassing any classical mixture. Entanglement offers correlations between measurements in quantum systems that are stronger than any that would be possible classically. These give quantum computing its spectacular potential, but the implications extend far beyond quantum information processing. Early applications may be found in entanglement-enhanced sensing and metrology. Quantum spins in condensed matter offer promising candidates for investigating and exploiting superposition and entanglement, and enormous progress is being made in quantum control of such systems. In gallium arsenide (GaAs), individual electron spins can be manipulated and measured, and singlet-triplet states can be controlled in double-dot structures. In silicon, individual electron spins can be detected by ionization of phosphorus donors, and information can be transferred from electron spins to nuclear spins to provide long memory times. Electron and nuclear spins can be manipulated in nitrogen atoms incarcerated in fullerene molecules, which in turn can be assembled in ordered arrays. Spin states of charged nitrogen vacancy centres in diamond can be manipulated and read optically. Collective spin states in a range of materials systems offer scope for holographic storage of information. Conditions are now excellent for implementing superposition and entanglement in spintronic devices, thereby opening up a new era of quantum technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ardavan
- The Clarendon Laboratory, Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PU, UK.
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33
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Wang H, Luo J, Schäffel F, Rümmeli MH, Briggs GAD, Warner JH. Carbon nanotube nanoelectronic devices compatible with transmission electron microscopy. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2011; 22:245305. [PMID: 21508501 DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/22/24/245305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
We report on a novel method to fabricate carbon nanotube (CNT) nanoelectronic devices on silicon nitride membrane grids that are compatible with high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM). Resist-based electron beam lithography is used to fabricate electrodes on 50 nm thin silicon nitride membranes and focused-ion-beam milling is used to cut out a 200 nm gap across a gold electrode to produce the viewing window for HRTEM. Spin-coating and AC electrophoresis are used as methods to deposit small bundles of carbon nanotubes across the electrodes. We demonstrate the viability of this approach by performing both electrical measurements and HRTEM imaging of solution-processed CNTs in a device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiliang Wang
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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34
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Ran K, Zuo JM, Chen Q, Shi Z. Electron beam stimulated molecular motions. ACS NANO 2011; 5:3367-3372. [PMID: 21428451 DOI: 10.1021/nn2006909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Electron microscopy with advances in aberration correction has the power to resolve atoms in single molecules. However, its application is limited by electron irradiation induced molecular motions. A better understanding of damage mechanisms is required to achieve the full potential of electron imaging. Here, we report a direct observation of molecular motions stimulated by an electron beam, which allows us to study the breakdown and formation of molecular bonds using C(60)'s encapsulated inside single-walled carbon nanotubes as a model system. An activation energy of 100 s meV is estimated for the observed molecular motions based on van der Waals interactions. We demonstrate that the molecular confinement can significantly increase the electron energy threshold for breaking the vdW bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Ran
- Key Laboratory for Physics and Chemistry of Nanodevices and Department of Electronics, Peking University, Beijing 100871, People's Republic of China
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35
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Schäffel F, Wilson M, Bachmatiuk A, Rümmeli MH, Queitsch U, Rellinghaus B, Briggs GAD, Warner JH. Atomic resolution imaging of the edges of catalytically etched suspended few-layer graphene. ACS NANO 2011; 5:1975-1983. [PMID: 21344881 DOI: 10.1021/nn103035y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanostructured graphene and graphene nanoribbons have been fabricated by catalytic hydrogenation, and the edge smoothness has been examined via direct imaging with atomic resolution. When abstaining from solvents during sample preparation, the prepared nanoribbons possess clean edges ready for inspection via transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Edges with subnanometer smoothness could be observed. A method has been developed to make catalytic hydrogenation experiments compatible with TEM, which enables monitoring of the nanoparticles prior to and after hydrogenation. In this way, etching of free-standing few-layer graphene could be demonstrated. Our results enable evaluation of the degree of edge control that can be achieved by means of catalytic hydrogenation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Schäffel
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom.
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36
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Warner JH, Plant SR, Young NP, Porfyrakis K, Kirkland AI, Briggs GAD. Atomic scale growth dynamics of nanocrystals within carbon nanotubes. ACS NANO 2011; 5:1410-1417. [PMID: 21268597 DOI: 10.1021/nn1031802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The confined interior region of carbon nanotubes has proved to be an effective "nano-test-tube" to conduct chemical reactions in a restricted volume. It also benefits from being thin and relatively transparent to electrons, enabling structural characterization using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. This permits real-time monitoring of chemical reactions with atomic resolution. Here, we have studied the dynamics of single Pr atoms released from Pr(2)@C(72) metallofullerenes. We show that the Pr atoms form small nanoclusters that subsequently coalesce to ordered, stable nanocrystals within the confines of a carbon nanotube. This process has been tracked in situ with atomic-resolution using low-voltage aberration-corrected high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. We reveal that nanocrystal formation within a nanotube does not generally occur by the addition of single atoms to one pre-existing cluster but rather through aggregation of several smaller clusters. These results provide some of the deepest insights into the dynamics of single-atom behavior in the solid state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom.
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37
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Wang H, Luo J, Robertson A, Ito Y, Yan W, Lang V, Zaka M, Schäffel F, Rümmeli MH, Briggs GAD, Warner JH. High-performance field effect transistors from solution processed carbon nanotubes. ACS NANO 2010; 4:6659-6664. [PMID: 20958015 DOI: 10.1021/nn1020743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Nanoelectronic field effect transistors (FETs) are produced using solution processed individual carbon nanotubes (CNTs), synthesized by both arc discharge and laser ablation methods. We show that the performance of solution processed FETs approaches that of CVD-grown FETs if the nanotubes have minimal lattice defects and are free from surface contamination. This is achieved by treating the nanotubes to a high-temperature vacuum annealing process and using 1,2-dichloroethane for dispersion. We present CNT FETs with mobilities of up to 3546 cm(2)/(V s), transconductance of 4.22 μS, on-state conductance of 9.35 μS and on/off ratios as high as 10(6). High-resolution transmission electron microscopy is used to examine the presence of catalyst particles and amorphous carbon on the surface and Raman spectroscopy is used to examine the lattice defects, both of which lead to reduced device performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiliang Wang
- Department of Materials, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PH, United Kingdom
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38
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Gorantla S, Börrnert F, Bachmatiuk A, Dimitrakopoulou M, Schönfelder R, Schäffel F, Thomas J, Gemming T, Borowiak-Palen E, Warner JH, Yakobson BI, Eckert J, Büchner B, Rümmeli MH. In situ observations of fullerene fusion and ejection in carbon nanotubes. NANOSCALE 2010; 2:2077-2079. [PMID: 20714658 DOI: 10.1039/c0nr00426j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
We present in situ experimental observations of fullerenes seamlessly fusing to single-walled carbon nanotubes. The morphing-entry of a fullerene to the interior of a nanotube is also captured. The confined (1D) motion of the newly-encapsulated fullerene within its host attests to the actual change from the exterior to interior.
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39
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Kobayashi K, Suenaga K, Saito T, Shinohara H, Iijima S. Photoreactivity preservation of AgBr nanowires in confined nanospaces. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2010; 22:3156-3160. [PMID: 20574949 DOI: 10.1002/adma.200904346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Keita Kobayashi
- Nanotube Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Japan.
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40
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Analysis of the reactivity and selectivity of fullerene dimerization reactions at the atomic level. Nat Chem 2010; 2:117-24. [PMID: 21124402 DOI: 10.1038/nchem.482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy has proved useful for its ability to provide time-resolved images of small molecules and their movements. One of the next challenges in this area is to visualize chemical reactions by monitoring time-dependent changes in the atomic positions of reacting molecules. Such images may provide information that is not available with other experimental methods. Here we report a study on bimolecular reactions of fullerene and metallofullerene molecules inside carbon nanotubes as a function of electron dose. Images of how the fullerenes move during the dimerization process reveal the specific orientations in which two molecules interact, as well as how bond reorganization occurs after their initial contact. Studies on the concentration, specimen temperature, effect of catalyst and accelerating voltage indicate that the reactions can be imaged under a variety of conditions.
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41
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Wirth CT, Zhang C, Zhong G, Hofmann S, Robertson J. Diffusion- and reaction-limited growth of carbon nanotube forests. ACS NANO 2009; 3:3560-6. [PMID: 19877596 DOI: 10.1021/nn900613e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
We present a systematic study of the temperature and pressure dependence of the growth rate of vertically aligned small diameter (single- and few-walled) carbon nanotube forests grown by thermal chemical vapor deposition over the temperature range 560-800 degrees C and 10(-5) to 14 mbar partial pressure range, using acetylene as the feedstock and Al(2)O(3)-supported Fe nanoparticles as the catalyst. We observe a pressure dependence of P(0.6) and activation energies of <1 eV. We interpret this as a growth rate limited by carbon diffusion in the catalyst, preceded by a pre-equilibrium of acetylene dissociation on the catalyst surface. The carbon nanotube forest growth was recorded by high-resolution real-time optical imaging.
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Warner JH, Ito Y, Rümmeli MH, Büchner B, Shinohara H, Briggs GAD. Capturing the motion of molecular nanomaterials encapsulated within carbon nanotubes with ultrahigh temporal resolution. ACS NANO 2009; 3:3037-3044. [PMID: 19743832 DOI: 10.1021/nn900747r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We use in situ low-voltage aberration corrected high resolution transmission electron microscopy with a temporal resolution of 80 ms to track the motional dynamics of nanostructures encapsulated within carbon nanotubes. Two different nanostructures are examined and both are produced by electron beam irradiation of peapods containing La@C(82) metallofullerenes. The first novel nanostructure consists of a LaC(2) metal cluster attached to carbon nanotube inside a nanotube host. It exhibits repeated nanopiston-like behavior over a 5 min duration, driven by energy supplied by electron beam irradiation. Interaction of the metal cluster with the nanotube host is also examined, revealing that the metal cluster can open up the nanotube sidewall, exit, and then seal the hole in the wall back up with carbon from the surrounding region. Finally, the intrinsic motional dynamics of an isolated single fullerene within a SWNT is captured and we report velocities up to 112 nm/s.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jamie H Warner
- Department of Materials, Quantum Information Processing Interdisciplinary Research Collaboration, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, United Kingdom.
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