Dammarane-type Saponins from Panax japonicus and their neurite outgrowth activity in SK-N-SH cells

In-Depth Excavation and Screening of Triterpene Saponins From the Rhizome of Panax japonicus Using High Performance Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Electrospray Ionization and Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

The rhizome of Panax japonicus (RPJ) has been used for thousands of years in west China. Triterpene saponins (TSs) were considered to be the main pharmacologically bioactive ingredients in RPJ. However, it is difficult and time-consuming to profile and identify them according to the traditional phytochemical methods. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization and quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS) was used for chemical identification of TSs from the extract of RPJ in negative ion mode. Their chemical structures were tentatively elucidated based on exact formulas, fragmentation patterns and literature data. In all, 42 TSs were discovered and tentatively characterized in RPJ, of which 12 TSs were identified as potential new compounds according to their molecular mass, fragmentation pattern and chromatographic behavior. The results demonstrated that the developed HPLC-ESI-QTOF-MS/MS method was conducive to the discovery of the active ingredients of RPJ and the establishment of quality standards.

Panax japonicus C.A. Meyer: a comprehensive review on botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and authentication

BACKGROUND

Panax japonicus C.A. Meyer (Zhujieshen) is widely used in traditional medicine as a tonic hemostatic and anti-inflammatory agent in China, Japan, and Korea. Furthermore, it is used as an important substitute for ginseng roots by minority ethnic groups in China. The purpose of this review is to summarize the latest research on Zhujieshen in recent years, aiming at providing a systematic overview of the current knowledge, and perspectives for future research and exploitation.

MAIN BODY

This review examines the research advances in botanical profile, phytochemicals, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and authentication of Zhujieshen. Various compounds have been reported as active components, mainly including saponins, volatile oils, and polysaccharides. Pharmacological investigations have demonstrated that Zhujieshen is an important herb with significant bioactivities, such as anti-inflammatory, hepato-protective, cardio-protective, neuro-protective, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant, anti-thrombotic and immunomodulatory activities.

CONCLUSION

Currently, research on Zhujieshen is in the preliminary stages, and further research is required to understand the active compounds present and mechanisms of action. We hope that this comprehensive review of Zhujieshen will serve as a background for future research and exploitation.

Saponins of Panax japonicus ameliorates cardiac aging phenotype in aging rats by enhancing basal autophagy through AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 pathway

Heart disease is a significant health concern for elderly individuals, with heart aging being the primary cause. Recent studies have shown that autophagy can play a protective role in preventing cardiac aging. Our previous research confirmed that Chikusetsu saponin IVa, a fundamental component of Saponins of Panax japonics (SPJ), can enhance basic autophagy levels in cardiomyocyte of isoproterenol induced cardiac fibrosis mice. However, it remains unclear whether SPJ possesses a protective effect on cardiac dysfunction during the natural aging process. Rats were randomly divided into four groups: adult control group (6 months old), aging group (24 months old), aging group treated with 10 mg/kg SPJ, and aging group treated with 30 mg/kg SPJ. The heart function, blood pressure, and heart mass index (HMI) were measured. Hematoxylin and eosin staining (H&E) and Wheat Germ Agglutinin (WGA) staining were used to observe the changes in morphology, while Masson staining was used to examine collagen deposition in the rat hearts and CD45 immunohistochemistry was conducted to examine the macrophage infiltration in heart tissues. TUNEL kit was used to detect apoptosis level of cardiomyocyte, and western blot was used to evaluate autophagy-related proteins as well as AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 pathway-related markers. SPJ treatment improved the cardiac function, reduced HMI, attenuated myocardial fiber disorder, inhibited inflammatory cell infiltration, and decreased collagen deposition and cardiomyocyte apoptosis in aging rats. Additionally, SPJ treatment decreased the expression of aging-related proteins and restored the expression of autophagy-related markers. SPJ activated autophagy through the activation of AMPK, which in turn increased the phosphorylation of ULK1(Ser555), while inhibited the phosphorylation of mTOR and ULK1(Ser757). Our study demonstrates that SPJ improves the cardiac function of aging rats by enhancing basal autophagy through the AMPK/mTOR/ULK1 pathway. These results offer a theoretical foundation and empirical evidence to support the clinical advancement of SPJ in enhancing age-related cardiac dysfunction.

Hormesis and embryonic stem cells

This paper provides an identification and detailed assessment of hormetic dose responses of embryonic stem cells (ESCs) with particular emphasis on cell renewal (proliferation) and differentiation, underlying mechanistic foundations and potential therapeutic implications. Hormetic dose responses were commonly reported, being induced by a broad range of chemicals, including pharmaceuticals (e.g., atorvastatin, isoproterenol, lithium, nicotine, ouabain), dietary supplements (e.g., curcumin, multiple ginsenosides, resveratrol), endogenous agents (e.g., estrogen, hydrogen peroxide, melatonin), and physical stressor agents (e.g., hypoxia, ionizing radiation). ESC-hormetic dose responses are similar for other stem cell types (e.g., adipose-derived stem cells, apical papilla, bone marrow stem cells, dental pulp stem cells, endothelial stem cells, muscle stem cells, periodontal ligament stem cells, neural stem cells), indicating a high degree of generality for the hormetic-stem cells response. The widespread occurrence of hormetic dose responses shown by ESCs and other stem cells suggests that the hormetic dose response may represent a fundamental and highly conserved evolutionary strategy.

Traditional uses, chemical diversity and biological activities of Panax L. (Araliaceae): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax L. (Araliaceae) is globally-recognized plant resource suitable for the globalization of traditional Chinese medicines. It has traditionally been used as tonic agents in various ethnomedicinal systems of East Asia, especially in China. It is often used to regulate bodily functions and considered as adjuvant therapy for tumor, resuscitation of traumatic hemorrhagic shock, etc. AIM OF THIS REVIEW: This review systematically summarized the information on distributions, botanical characteristics, traditional uses, chemical components and biological activities of the genus Panax, in order to explore and exploit the therapeutic potential of this plant.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The available information about genus Panax was collected via the online search on Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, Baidu Scholar, Science Direct, China National Knowledge Infrastructure and Springer search. The keywords used include Panax, saponin, secondary metabolites, chemical components, biological activity, pharmacology, traditional medicinal uses, safety and other related words. The Plant List (www.theplantlist.org) and Catalogue of Life: 2019 Annual Checklist (www.catalogueoflife.org/col/) databases were used to provide the scientific names, subspecies classification and distribution information of Panax.

RESULTS

Panax is widely assessed concerning its phytochemistry and biological activities. To date, at least 748 chemical compounds from genus Panax were isolated, including saponins, flavonoids, polysaccharides, steroids and phenols. Among them, triterpenoid saponins and polysaccharides were the representative active ingredients of Panax plants, which have been widely investigated. Modern pharmacological studies showed that these compounds exhibited a wide range of biological activities in vitro and in vivo including antineoplastic, anti-inflammatory, hepatorenal protective, neuroprotective, immunoregulatory, cardioprotective and antidiabetic activities. Many studies also confirmed that the mechanisms of organ-protective were closely related to molecular signaling pathways, the expression of related proteins and antioxidant reactions. To sum up, genus Panax has high medicinal and social value, deserving further investigation.

CONCLUSIONS

The genus Panax is very promising to be fully utilized in the development of nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products. However, there is a lack of in-depth studies on ethnomedicinal uses of Panax plants. In addition, further studies of single chemical component should be performed based on the diversity of chemical structure, significant biological activities and clinical application. If the bioactive molecules and multicomponent interactions are discovered, it will be of great significance to the clinical application of Panax plants. It is an urgent requirement to carry out detailed phytochemical, pharmacology and clinical research on Panax classical prescriptions for the establishment of modern medication guidelines. Exploring the molecular basis of herbal synergistic actions may provide a new understanding of the complex disease mechanisms and accelerate the process of pharmaceutical development.

Diversity of Ginsenoside Profiles Produced by Various Processing Technologies

Ginseng is a traditional medicinal herb commonly consumed world-wide owing to its unique family of saponins called ginsenosides. The absorption and bioavailability of ginsenosides mainly depend on an individual's gastrointestinal bioconversion abilities. There is a need to improve ginseng processing to predictably increase the pharmacologically active of ginsenosides. Various types of ginseng, such as fresh, white, steamed, acid-processed, and fermented ginsengs, are available. The various ginseng processing methods produce a range ginsenoside compositions with diverse pharmacological properties. This review is intended to summarize the properties of the ginsenosides found in different Panax species as well as the different processing methods. The sugar moiety attached to the C-3, C-6, or C-20 deglycosylated to produce minor ginsenosides, such as Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd→Rg3, F2, Rh2; Re, Rf→Rg1, Rg2, F1, Rh1. The malonyl-Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd were demalonylated into ginsenoside Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd by dehydration. Dehydration also produces minor ginsenosides such as Rg3→Rk1, Rg5, Rz1; Rh2→Rk2, Rh3; Rh1→Rh4, Rk3; Rg2→Rg6, F4; Rs3→Rs4, Rs5; Rf→Rg9, Rg10. Acetylation of several ginsenosides may generate acetylated ginsenosides Rg5, Rk1, Rh4, Rk3, Rs4, Rs5, Rs6, and Rs7. Acid processing methods produces Rh1→Rk3, Rh4; Rh2→Rk1, Rg5; Rg3→Rk2, Rh3; Re, Rf, Rg2→F1, Rh1, Rf2, Rf3, Rg6, F4, Rg9. Alkaline produces Rh16, Rh3, Rh1, F4, Rk1, ginsenoslaloside-I, 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rh1-60-acetate, 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh19, zingibroside-R1 through hydrolysis, hydration addition reactions, and dehydration. Moreover, biological processing of ginseng generates the minor ginsenosides of Rg3, F2, Rh2, CK, Rh1, Mc, compound O, compound Y through hydrolysis reactions, and synthetic ginsenosides Rd12 and Ia are produced through glycosylation. This review with respect to the properties of particular ginsenosides could serve to increase the utilization of ginseng in agricultural products, food, dietary supplements, health supplements, and medicines, and may also spur future development of novel highly functional ginseng products through a combination of various processing methods.

Effects of total saponins from Panacis majoris Rhizoma and its degradation products on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panacis majoris Rhizoma, which is a member of herbal medicine, is known for many years to remove blood stasis, promote blood circulation, and enrich the blood. The active ingredients of this plant are mainly attributed to saponins.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The total saponins from Panacis majoris Rhizoma (TSPJ), and the degradation products of TSPJ (DTSPJ), were designed in this study to compare the protective effects on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury, and the aim of this approach is to discover more effective agents for the treatment of ischemic heart diseases. We analyzed the main constituents of TSPJ and DTSPJ, aiming to make clear which saponins played important roles in this protective effect, and also investigated the possible mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

DTSPJ was prepared by the method of alkaline hydrolysis. High performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) were used to analyze the main chemical constituents of TSPJ and DTSPJ, which were isolated by chromatographic techniques and identified by comparison with the Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) data in reported literature. Male Wistar rats were randomized to sham-operated group, ischemia-reperfusion group, three TSPJ (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) groups, three DTSPJ (50, 100 and 200 mg/kg) groups, and isosorbide dinitrate tablet (5.0 mg/kg) group. The rats in all groups were intragastrically administrated once per day for three successive days. The establishment of the model of myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury was used the following method: firstly, the left coronary artery of experimental rat was ligated for 30 min and then reperfused for 120 min. Then the myocardial infarct size, hemorheological and biochemical parameters, whole blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, platelet adhesion rate, platelet aggregation and histopathology changes were assessed.

RESULTS

Five C₃,C₂₈-bidesmosidic oleanane-type saponins and ginsenoside Rd were the main constituents of TSPJ, and their total content in TSPJ was 79.2 %. The main constituents of DTSPJ were five C₃-monodesmosidic oleanane-type saponins and ginsenoside Rd, and their total content in DTSPJ was 72.6 %. The HPLC analysis revealed that the five C₃,C₂₈-bidesmosidic oleanane-type saponins in TSPJ were completely turned into five C₃-monodesmosidic oleanane-type saponins in DTSPJ through the method of alkaline hydrolysis, but ginsenoside Rd remained unchanged. Both TSPJ and DTSPJ could significantly reduced myocardial infarct size, and improved heart function, and lowered the activities of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and creatine kinase isoenzymes (CK-MB), and malonyldialdehyde (MDA) content, as well as the levels of whole blood viscosity, plasma viscosity, platelet adhesion rate, and platelet aggregation; on the contrary, both the level of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) were notablely increased. The results of histopathological examination further supported the cardioprotective effects of TSPJ and DTSPJ.

CONCLUSION

Both TSPJ and DTSPJ can guard cardiomyocytes against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury. The underlying mechanisms may be closely related to its enhancing anti-oxidative properties, modifying blood viscosity, and inhibiting platelet aggregation and platelet adhesion. As a whole, the protection of DTSPJ against myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury was a little stronger than those of TSPJ. The results display the prospect of DTSPJ as a drug candidate for treating ischemic heart disease.

Characteristics of Panax ginseng Cultivars in Korea and China

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is one of the most important medicinal herbs in Asia. Its pharmacological activity comes from ginsenosides, and its roots are produced commercially for traditional and Oriental medicine. Though 17 Panax species are available around the world, there was a need to develop cultivars adapted to different climatic conditions and resistant to various diseases while still producing high-quality, high-yield roots. Thus, 12 and 9 commercial P. ginseng cultivars have been registered in South Korea and China, respectively. Those varieties show superiority to local landraces. For example, Chunpoong is more highly resistant to rusty rot disease than the local Jakyungjong landrace and has a good root shape; it is highly cultivated to produce red ginseng. The Chinese cultivar Jilin Huangguo Renshen has higher ginsenoside content than its local landraces. This review provides information about P. ginseng cultivars and offers directions for future research, such as intra- and interspecific hybridization.

Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of the Saponins in Panacis Japonici Rhizoma Using Ultra-Fast Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Triple Quadrupole-Time of Flight Tandem Mass Spectrometry and Ultra-Fast Liquid Chromatography Coupled with Triple Quadrupole-Linear Ion Trap Tandem Mass Spectrometry

Panacis Japonici Rhizoma (PJR) contains various kinds of saponins, which possesses extensive pharmacological activities, but studies of comprehensive analysis of its saponins were limited. Thus, ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole-time of flight tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS) and ultra-fast liquid chromatography coupled with triple quadrupole-linear ion trap tandem mass spectrometry (UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS) methods were established for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of the saponins in PJR, separately. Fifty three saponins in PJR were identified by UFLC-Triple TOF-MS/MS method, 23 saponins of which were unequivocally identified by reference substances. In addition, fragmentation pathways of different types of saponins were preliminarily deduced by fragmentation behavior of 53 saponins. Furthermore, the simultaneous determination of the contents of 13 saponins in PJR samples harvested at different times were analyzed by UFLC-QTRAP-MS/MS method. Furthermore, the quality of the samples was evaluated by grey relational analysis. This study might be beneficial to the quality assessment and control of PJR. Meanwhile, it might provide the basic information for confirming its optimal harvested period.

Comprehensive Investigation on Metabolites of Wild-Simulated American Ginseng Root Based on Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry

Aiming to evaluate the similarities and differences of the phytochemicals in different morphological regions of wild-simulated American ginseng (WsAG) root, the comprehensive metabolite profiling of main root (MR), branch root (BR), rhizome (RH), adventitious root (AR), and fibrous root (FR) was performed on the basis of ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the first time. First, in the screening analysis, a total of 128 shared compounds were identified or tentatively characterized. The results showed that these five parts were all rich in phytochemicals and contained similar structure types. Second, in the untargeted metabolomic study, it was found that there indeed existed differences between the MR&BR group, RH&AR group, and FR part when considering the contents of every ingredient. A total of 31 (12, 7, and 12 for MR&BR, RH&AR, and FR, respectively) potential chemical markers enabling the differentiation were discovered. This comprehensive phytochemical profile study revealed the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the similar/different patterns in five morphological regions of WsAG root. It could provide chemical evidence for the rational application of different parts of WsAG root.

Non-Targeted Metabolomic Analysis of Methanolic Extracts of Wild-Simulated and Field-Grown American Ginseng

Aiming at revealing the structural diversity of secondary metabolites and the different patterns in wild-simulated American ginseng (WsAG) and field-grown American ginseng (FgAG), a comprehensive and unique phytochemical profile study was carried out. In the screening analysis, a total of 121 shared compounds were characterized in FgAG and WsAG, respectively. The results showed that both of these two kinds of American ginseng were rich in natural components, and were similar in terms of the kinds of compound they contained. Furthermore, in non-targeted metabolomic analysis, when taking the contents of the constituents into account, it was found that there indeed existed quite a difference between FgAG and WsAG, and 22 robust known biomarkers enabling the differentiation were discovered. For WsAG, there were 12 potential biomarkers including two ocotillol-type saponins, two steroids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponins and one other compound. On the other hand, for FgAG, there were 10 potential biomarkers including two organic acids, six damarane-type saponins, one oleanane-type saponin, and one ursane. In a word, this study illustrated the similarities and differences between FgAG and WsAG, and provides a basis for explaining the effect of different growth environments on secondary metabolites.

Simultaneous determination of six bioactive saponins from Rhizoma Panacis Japonici in rat plasma by UHPLC-MS/MS: Application to a pharmacokinetic study

A specific, sensitive and rapid ultra high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed and validated for simultaneous determination of six major bioactive constituents in Rhizoma Panacis Japonici (RPJ), including oleanolic acid-type chikusetsusaponin V, IV, hemsgiganoside B, damarane-type ginsenoside Rb1, Rg1 and Re in rat plasma, using estazolam as the internal standard (IS). Plasma samples were pretreated with methanol/acetonitrile (1:1, V/V) for protein precipitation. Chromatographic separation was performed on an Agilent Eclipse Plus C₁₈ column, using a gradient mobile phase consisting of methanol and 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution. A tandem mass spectrometric detection with an electrospray ionization (ESI) interface was conducted via multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) under positive ionization mode. For all the six analytes of interest, the calibration curves were linear in the concentration range of 2.00-500 ng/mL with r ≥ 0.9956. The intra- and inter-day precisions (in terms of relative standard deviation, RSD) were all below 10.2% and the accuracies (in terms of relative error, RE) were within -5.0% to 6.3% for all six analytes. Extraction recovery, matrix effect and stability data all met the acceptance criteria of FDA guideline for bioanalytical method validation. The developed method was applied to the pharmacokinetic study in rat. After oral administration of the total saponins from RPJ, six analytes were quickly absorbed into the blood and presented the phenomenon of double peaks. Among the six analytes, ginsenoside Rb1 showed slowest elimination from plasma with a t_1/2z of 16.00 h, while that of the others were between 1.72 and 5.62 h. In conclusion, the developed method was successfully used to simultaneously analyze major oleanolic acid-type and damarane-type saponins of RPJ in rat plasma after oral administration.

Polyacetylenic Oleanane-Type Triterpene Saponins from the Roots of Panax japonicus

Three new polyacetylenic oleanane-type triterpenoids, baisanqisaponins A-C (1-3), and one new oleanane-type triterpenoid, chikusetsusaponin-V ethyl ester (4), together with 19 known compounds (5-23), were isolated from the roots of Panax japonicus. The structures were elucidated on the basis of spectroscopic analyses and chemical methods. Compounds 1-3 feature a rare panaxytriol group containing a polyacetylene on the saponin skeleton. Neuroprotective activity was evaluated for compounds 1-17, and angiotensin II-induced vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation inhibition was tested for compounds 5-7 and 10-12.

Effects of Oleanane-Type Triterpene Saponins from the Leaves of Eleutherococcus senticosus in an Axonal Outgrowth Assay

An aqueous extract of Eleutherococcus senticosus leaves exerted a beneficial effect in restoring the neurite outgrowth from Aβ25-35-induced degeneration using an axonal density assay. Subsequent bioassay-guided fractionation afforded seven new oleanane-type triterpene saponins, ezoukoginosides A-G (1-7), along with nine known analogues. The structures of 1-7 were elucidated through chemical and spectroscopic approaches, and their effects on restoring the neurite outgrowth from Aβ25-35-induced degeneration were investigated. The results revealed that hydrophilic oleanane-type saponins substituted with a free carboxylic acid, hydroxy, or formyl group in the aglycone, especially when the oxidation occurred at C-29, not only restrained Aβ25-35-induced degeneration but also restored axonal outgrowth significantly. Compounds 2 (-COOH at C-29) and 3 (-CH2OH at C-29) showed the most potent bioactivity among the isolates.

Analysis of the Constituents in "Zhu She Yong Xue Shuan Tong" by Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography with Quadrupole Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Combined with Preparative High Performance Liquid Chromatography

“Zhu She Yong Xue Shuan Tong” lyophilized powder (ZSYXST), consists of a series of saponins extracted from Panax notoginseng, which has been widely used in China for the treatment of strokes. In this study, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-TOF/MS) combined with preparative high performance liquid chromatography (PHPLC) method was developed to rapidly identify both major and minor saponins in ZSYXST. Some high content components were removed through PHPLC in order to increase the sensitivity of the trace saponins. Then, specific characteristic fragment ions in both positive and negative mode were utilized to determine the types of aglycone, saccharide, as well as the saccharide chain linkages. As a result, 94 saponins, including 20 pairs of isomers and ten new compounds, which could represent higher than 98% components in ZSYXST, were identified or tentatively identified in commercial ZSYXST samples.

Resource investigation of traditional medicinal plant Panax japonicus (T.Nees) C.A. Mey and its varieties in China

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Panax japonicus, the perennial herb in the Araliaceae family, was used as the natural medicinal herb by Chinese traditional doctors for more than thousand years. Its rhizome was mainly used as a tonic, anti-inflammatory and hemostatic agent in China. Most of the therapeutic effects of P. japonicus had been reported due to the presence of tetracyclic or pentacyclic triterpene saponins. Volatile oil, polysaccharides and amino acids had also been found in P. japonicus species and reported in the pharmacological functions.

AIM OF THE STUDY

A three-year survey was conducted to determine the current resource status of P. japonicus (T.Nees) C. A. Mey and its varieties (P. japonicus var. major (Burkill) C.Y.Wu & Feng and P. japonicus var. bipinnatifidus (Seem.) C.Y.Wu & Feng) in 10 provinces of southern and southwestern China.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Whole plants were sampled at 64 sites. Resource distribution, habitat type, morphological variation and market trend of them were studied and discussed. The natural resource in China is rarely available due to extensive exploitation and continual environment deterioration in recent decades, Abundance of P. japonicus was much lower than previous records, mainly found in Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhou and Yunnan province. Wild resources of P.japonicus var. major and P.japonicus var. bipinnatifidus were even scarcer, only found in Guizhou and Yunan province. Despite their dramatic rise of market trend, the artificial cultivation of them was still not fully developed in China, but progressed rapidly in Hubei province.

CONCLUSION

In this study, we synthesized our understandings of the current resource state of P. japonicus׳s existence, variation and cultivation in China. This study will aid further investigations and increased protection of these plants, which are very valuable to traditional herbal medicine.

Neuroprotection by saponins

Saponins, an important group of bioactive plant natural products, are glycosides of triterpenoid or steroidal aglycones. Their diverse biological activities are ascribed to their different structures. Saponins have long been recognized as key ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine. Accumulated evidence suggests that saponins have significant neuroprotective effects on attenuation of central nervous system disorders, such as stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Huntington's disease. However, our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the observed effects remains incomplete. Based on recently reported data from basic and clinical studies, this review highlights the proposed mechanisms of their neuroprotective function including antioxidant, modulation of neurotransmitters, anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, attenuating Ca(2+) influx, modulating neurotrophic factors, inhibiting tau phosphorylation, and regeneration of neural networks.

Saponins in the genus Panax L. (Araliaceae): a systematic review of their chemical diversity

The Panax genus is a crucial source of natural medicines that has benefited human health for a long time. Three valuable medicinal herbs, namely Panax ginseng, Panax quinquefolius, and Panax notoginseng, have received considerable interest due to their extensive application in clinical therapy, healthcare products, and as foods and food additives world-wide. Panax species are known to contain abundant levels of saponins, also dubbed ginsenosides, which refer to a series of dammarane or oleanane type triterpenoid glycosides. These saponins exhibit modulatory effects to the central nervous system and beneficial effects to patients suffering from cardiovascular diseases, and also have anti-diabetic and anti-tumor properties. To the end of 2012, at least 289 saponins were reported from eleven different Panax species. This comprehensive review describes the advances in the phytochemistry of the genus Panax for the period 1963-2012, based on the 134 cited references. The reported saponins can be classified into protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol, octillol, oleanolic acid, C17 side-chain varied, and miscellaneous subtypes, according to structural differences in sapogenins. The investigational history of Panax is also reviewed, with special attention being paid to the structural features of the six different subtypes, together with their (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopic characteristics which are useful for determining their structures and absolute configuration.

Neuroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rb1 on hippocampal neuronal injury and neurite outgrowth

Ginsenoside Rb1 has been reported to exert anti-aging and anti-neurodegenerative effects. In the present study, we investigate whether ginsenoside Rb1 is involved in neurite outgrowth and neuroprotection against damage induced by amyloid beta (25-35) in cultured hippocampal neurons, and explore the underlying mechanisms. Ginsenoside Rb1 significantly increased neurite outgrowth in hippocampal neurons, and increased the expression of phosphorylated-Akt and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2. These effects were abrogated by API-2 and PD98059, inhibitors of the signaling proteins Akt and MEK. Additionally, cultured hippocampal neurons were exposed to amyloid beta (25-35) for 30 minutes; ginsenoside Rb1 prevented apoptosis induced by amyloid beta (25-35), and this effect was blocked by API-2 and PD98059. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rb1 significantly reversed the reduction in phosphorylated-Akt and phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 levels induced by amyloid beta (25-35), and API-2 neutralized the effect of ginsenoside Rb1. The present results indicate that ginsenoside Rb1 enhances neurite outgrowth and protects against neurotoxicity induced by amyloid beta (25-35) via a mechanism involving Akt and extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 signaling.

Neurotrophic natural products: chemistry and biology

Neurodegenerative diseases and spinal cord injury affect approximately 50 million people worldwide, bringing the total healthcare cost to over 600 billion dollars per year. Nervous system growth factors, that is, neurotrophins, are a potential solution to these disorders, since they could promote nerve regeneration. An average of 500 publications per year attests to the significance of neurotrophins in biomedical sciences and underlines their potential for therapeutic applications. Nonetheless, the poor pharmacokinetic profile of neurotrophins severely restricts their clinical use. On the other hand, small molecules that modulate neurotrophic activity offer a promising therapeutic approach against neurological disorders. Nature has provided an impressive array of natural products that have potent neurotrophic activities. This Review highlights the current synthetic strategies toward these compounds and summarizes their ability to induce neuronal growth and rehabilitation. It is anticipated that neurotrophic natural products could be used not only as starting points in drug design but also as tools to study the next frontier in biomedical sciences: the brain activity map project.

Determination of chikusetsusaponin V and chikusetsusaponin IV in rat plasma by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry and its application to a preliminary pharmacokinetic study

A sensitive liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-mass spectrometry method has been developed and validated for determination of two major bioactive saponins in rat plasma after oral administration of saponins extracted from Rhizoma Panacis Japonici, including chikusetsusaponin V and chikusetsusaponin IV for the first time. Akebia saponin D was used as the internal standard (IS). Plasma samples were prepared by protein precipitation with methanol. A Phenomenex C18 column (150 × 4.6 mm, 4 µm) was used as the analytical column with a mobile phase of acetonitrile and 0.05% aqueous formic acid. Mass spectrometric detection was achieved by single quadrupole mass spectrometer equipped with an electrospray ionization interface operating in negative ionization mode. Calibration curves showed good linearity over the concentration range of 5-500 ng/mL for the two analytes in rat plasma. The lower limit of quantification was 5 ng/mL. The intra- and inter-batch precisions were within 10.3% and accuracy ranged from -3.9 to 5.4%. The method was validated and successfully applied to the preliminary pharmacokinetic study of chikusetsusaponin V and chikusetsusaponin IV in rat plasma after oral administration of saponins extracted from Rhizoma Panacis Japonici.

Comparative studies of saponins in 1-3-year-old main roots, fibrous roots, and rhizomes of Panax notoginseng, and identification of different parts and growth-year samples

Notoginsenosides R1, R4, Fa, and K (N-R1, N-R4, N-Fa, and N-K), as well as ginsenosides Rg1, Rb1, Rd, Re, Rf, Rg2 and Rh1 (G-Rg1, G-Rb1, G-Rd, G-Re, G-Rf, G-Rg2 and G-Rh1) in 47 Notoginseng samples including 1-, 2- and 3-year-old main roots, rhizomes and fibrous roots of Panax notoginseng were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection method. Total contents (%) of the 11 saponins were 9.82-14.57 for 2-year old and 14.20-16.00 for 3-year-old rhizomes; 2.72-4.50 for 2-year-old and 1.98-4.92 for 3-year-old fibrous roots; 1.75-3.05 for 1-year-old whole roots; and 3.71-8.98 for 2-year-old and 7.03-11.23 for 3-year-old main roots. Contents of most saponins and total content of 11 saponins were in the order 3- >2- >1-year-old main root samples. G-Rf content, sum of G-Rf and G-Rh1 were, respectively, 0.08-0.18 and 0.14-0.32 for 2- or 3-year-old rhizomes, and 0.01-0.07 and 0.03-0.10 for 2- or 3-year-old main roots. Combined contents of N-R1, G-Rg1 and G-Rb1 were 5.78-9.37 in 3-year-old main roots, and 2.99-7.13 in 2-year-old main roots, of which nearly one-third of samples were lower than the limit (5 %) in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Those of 2- or 3-year-old fibrous roots (1.47-3.83) and 1-year-old whole roots (1.41-2.44) were much lower than the limit, and were considered not suitable for use as Notoginseng. Two-year-old main roots are not appropriate for collection as Notoginseng. Different parts and growth years of P. notoginseng can be identified from each another according to differences in saponin content.

The role of bioactive compounds on the promotion of neurite outgrowth

Neurite loss is one of the cardinal features of neuronal injury. Apart from neuroprotection, reorganization of the lost neuronal network in the injured brain is necessary for the restoration of normal physiological functions. Neuritogenic activity of endogenous molecules in the brain such as nerve growth factor is well documented and supported by scientific studies which show innumerable compounds having neurite outgrowth activity from natural sources. Since the damaged brain lacks the reconstructive capacity, more efforts in research are focused on the identification of compounds that promote the reformation of neuronal networks. An abundancy of natural resources along with the corresponding activity profiles have shown promising results in the field of neuroscience. Recently, importance has also been placed on understanding neurite formation by natural products in relation to neuronal injury. Arrays of natural herbal products having plentiful active constituents have been found to enhance neurite outgrowth. They act synergistically with neurotrophic factors to promote neuritogenesis in the diseased brain. Therefore use of natural products for neuroregeneration provides new insights in drug development for treating neuronal injury. In this study, various compounds from natural sources with potential neurite outgrowth activity are reviewed in experimental models.

Cardioprotective effects of saponins from Panax japonicus on acute myocardial ischemia against oxidative stress-triggered damage and cardiac cell death in rats

AIM

To study the cardioprotective effects of saponins from Panax japonicus (SPJ) on acute myocardial ischemia injury rats induced by ligating of the left anterior descending branch (LAD), on the basis of this investigation, the possible mechanism of SPJ was elucidated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SPJ was identified by high performance liquid chromatography-evaporative light scattering detection. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (200-220g) were randomly divided into four groups: sham-operated, LAD, LAD+l-SPJ (SPJ, 50mg/kg/day, orally) and LAD+h-SPJ (SPJ, 100mg/kg/day, orally). Before operation, the foregoing groups were pretreated with homologous drug once a day for 7 days, respectively. After twelve hours in LAD, the cardioprotective effects of SPJ were evaluated by infarct size, biochemical values, hemodynamic, and histopathological observations and the antioxidative and antiapoptotic relative gene expressions.

RESULTS

SPJ significantly improved heart function and decreased infarct size; remarkably decreased levels of serum lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, xanthine oxide and malondialdehyde content, increased contents of serum total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase, catalase; quantitative real-time PCR results showed that SPJ might markedly reverse the down-regulated mRNA expressions of the SOD1, SOD2 and SOD3, ameliorate the increased Bax and caspase-3 mRNA expressions and decreased Bcl-2 mRNA expression and ratios of Bcl-2 to Bax. Histopathological observations provided supportive evidence for biochemical analyses, and with the dose of SPJ increasing, the aforesaid improvement became more and more strong.

CONCLUSIONS

The studies demonstrated that in ischemic myocardium, oxidative stress caused the overgeneration and accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which was central of cardiac ischemic injury. SPJ exerted beneficially cardioprotective effects on myocardial ischemia injury rats, mainly scavenging oxidative stress-triggered overgeneration and accumulation of ROS, alleviating myocardial ischemia injury and cardiac cell death.

Protective Effects of Rosa damascena and Its Active Constituent on Aβ(25-35)-Induced Neuritic Atrophy

Dementia is a clinical syndrome characterized by multiple cognitive deficits and causes progressive neurodegeneration leading eventually to death. The incidence of dementia is increasing worldwide with the increase in ageing population. However, no effective treatment is available yet. It has been hypothesized that drugs activating neurite outgrowth might induce neuronal reconstruction and help in the recovery of brain function. Working on this hypothesis, we recently observed that the chloroform extract of the Rosa damascena significantly induced the neurite outgrowth activity and inhibited the Aβ(25–35)-induced atrophy and cell death. Further workup led the isolation of a very long polyunsaturated fatty acid having molecular formula C₃₇H₆₄O₂ as an active constituent. The structure of this compound was established by extensive analysis of fragmentations observed in EI-MS mode. The isolated compound protected Aβ(25–35)-induced atrophy and displayed strong neurite outgrowth activity. The length of dendrite in the cells treated with this compound were comparable to those of nerve growth factor (NGF) treated cells.

Neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides Rh1 and Rg2 on neuronal cells

Background

The present study investigates the effects of ginsenosides Rh₁ and Rg₂ against 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA), a neurotoxin on SH-SY5Y cells and PC-12 cells. The effects of these two ginsenosides on neuronal differentiation are also examined.

Methods

LDH assay was used to measure cell viability after exposure to 6-OHDA and ginsenosides. Neuronal differentiation was evaluated by changes in cell morphology and density of neurite outgrowths. Western blotting was used to determine the ginsenosides' effects on activation of extracellular signal-regulated protein kinases (ERKs).

Results

Rh₁ and Rg₂ attenuated 6-OHDA toxicity in SH-SY5Y cells and induced neurite outgrowths in PC-12 cells. 6-OHDA-induced ERK phosphorylation was decreased by Rh₁ and Rg₂. 20(R)-form and 20(S)-form of the ginsenosides exerted similar effects in inducing neurite outgrowths in PC-12 cells.

Conclusion

The present study demonstrates neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides Rh₁ and Rg₂ on neuronal cell lines. These results suggest potential Chinese medicine treatment for neurodegenerative disorders (eg Parkinson's disease).

Isolation and analysis of ginseng: advances and challenges

Ginseng occupies a prominent position in the list of best-selling natural products in the world. Because of its complex constituents, multidisciplinary techniques are needed to validate the analytical methods that support ginseng's use worldwide. In the past decade, rapid development of technology has advanced many aspects of ginseng research. The aim of this review is to illustrate the recent advances in the isolation and analysis of ginseng, and to highlight new applications and challenges. Emphasis is placed on recent trends and emerging techniques.

Ginsenosides chemistry, biosynthesis, analysis, and potential health effects

Ginsenosides are a special group of triterpenoid saponins that can be classified into two groups by the skeleton of their aglycones, namely dammarane- and oleanane-type. Ginsenosides are found nearly exclusively in Panax species (ginseng) and up to now more than 150 naturally occurring ginsenosides have been isolated from roots, leaves/stems, fruits, and/or flower heads of ginseng. Ginsenosides have been the target of a lot of research as they are believed to be the main active principles behind the claims of ginsengs efficacy. The potential health effects of ginsenosides that are discussed in this chapter include anticarcinogenic, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, antiallergic, antiatherosclerotic, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic effects as well as antistress activity and effects on the central nervous system. Ginsensoides can be metabolized in the stomach (acid hydrolysis) and in the gastrointestinal tract (bacterial hydrolysis) or transformed to other ginsenosides by drying and steaming of ginseng to more bioavailable and bioactive ginsenosides. The metabolization and transformation of intact ginsenosides, which seems to play an important role for their potential health effects, are discussed. Qualitative and quantitative analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides are important in relation to quality control of ginseng products and plant material and for the determination of the effects of processing of plant material as well as for the determination of the metabolism and bioavailability of ginsenosides. Analytical techniques for the analysis of ginsenosides that are described in this chapter are thin-layer chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with various detectors, gas chromatography (GC), colorimetry, enzyme immunoassays (EIA), capillary electrophoresis (CE), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, and spectrophotometric methods.

A novel compound from Hedysarum polybotrys

A polyhydroxyl constituent (1), named as polybotrin, along with two known compounds, were isolated from the roots of Hedysarum polybotrys. Their structures were identified based on chemical and spectroscopic evidence.

Analysis of Ginsenosides in Ginseng Drugs Using Liquid Chromatography-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry

Analysis of ginsenosides in five Ginseng drugs derived from Panax ginseng (white ginseng), P. quinquefolius, P. japonicus produced in Japan, P. notoginseng, and P. vietnamensis using Liquid Chromatography-Fourier Transform Ion Cyclotron Resonance Mass Spectrometry (LC-FTICR-MS) was performed. Ginsenosides in the drugs were identified by the molecular formula obtained from high-resolution mass data and multiple stage MS/MS analysis. Twenty-six known ginsenosides were identified as the major constituents in the extracts of the Ginseng drugs. The five Ginseng drugs showed different reconstructed mass chromatographic profiles and were discriminated from each other.

Chromatographic determination of plant saponins—An update (2002–2005)

The developments during 2002-2005 in the methods used for saponin analyses in plant material are presented. There were number of papers published on isolation and identification of new saponins by chromatographic techniques. Some new developments can be found in separation techniques or solid and mobiles phases used. Separation of individual saponins is still complicated and time consuming. This is due to the fact that in most of the plant species saponins occur as a multi-component mixture of compounds of very similar polarities. Thus, to isolate single compound for structure elucidation or biological activity testing, a combination of different chromatographic techniques has to be used, e.g. first separation of the mixture to simpler sub-fractions on reversed phase C18 has to be followed by further purification on normal phase Silica gel column. Especially difficult is determination of saponins in plant material as these compounds do not possess chromophores and their profiles cannot be registered in UV. Most HPLC methods apply not only specific registration at 200-210 nm, but these methods are not applicable for determination of many saponins in plant material at levels lower than 200-300 mg/kg. Some new or improved techniques for quantification of saponins in plant material were published in reviewed period. These include further progress in the application of evaporative light scattering detection (ELSD) for saponin profiling and quantification, which is also not only specific but also more sensitive in comparison to 200-210 nm detection. Some progress in development of new applications for liquid chromatography-electrospray mass spectrometry (LC/ESI/MS) for saponin determination has also been done. This method gives highest sensitivity and on line identification of separated saponins and should be recommended for specialized analyses of extracts and pharmaceutical formulas like the validation of a new assay. From non-chromatographic techniques for saponin determination, a sensitive and compound specific ELISA tests for some saponins were developed.

Withanoside IV and its active metabolite, sominone, attenuate Aβ(25-35)-induced neurodegeneration

At the present, medication of dementia is limited to symptomatic treatments such as the use of cholinesterase inhibitors. To cure dementia completely, that is regaining neuronal function, reconstruction of neuronal networks is necessary. Therefore, we have been exploring antidementia drugs based on reconstructing neuronal networks in the damaged brain and found that withanoside IV (a constituent of Ashwagandha; the root of Withania somnifera) induced neurite outgrowth in cultured rat cortical neurons. Oral administration of withanoside IV (10 micromol/kg/day) significantly improved memory deficits in Abeta(25-35)-injected (25 nmol, i.c.v.) mice and prevented loss of axons, dendrites, and synapses. Sominone, an aglycone of withanoside IV, was identified as the main metabolite after oral administration of withanoside IV. Sominone (1 microM) induced axonal and dendritic regeneration and synaptic reconstruction significantly in cultured rat cortical neurons damaged by 10 microM Abeta(25-35). These data suggest that orally administrated withanoside IV may ameliorate neuronal dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease and that the active principle after metabolism is sominone.

Terpenoids from Cleome droserifolia (Forssk.) Del

A new diacetyl triterpene lactone, drosericarpone (2), was isolated from the hexane extract of the herb Cleome droserifolia, together with buchariol (1, a sesquiterpene oxide, isolated for the first time from Cleome species) and stigmasterol glucoside (3). The structures of 1-3 were identified by spectroscopic means.

Search for natural products related to regeneration of the neuronal network

The reconstruction of neuronal networks in the damaged brain is necessary for the therapeutic treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. We have screened the neurite outgrowth activity of herbal drugs, and identified several active constituents. In each compound, neurite outgrowth activity was investigated under amyloid-beta-induced neuritic atrophy. Most of the compounds with neurite regenerative activity also demonstrated memory improvement activity in Alzheimer's disease-model mice. Protopanaxadiol-type saponins in Ginseng drugs and their metabolite, M1 (20-O-beta-D-glucopyranosyl-(20S)-protopanaxadiol), showed potent regeneration activity for axons and synapses, and amelioration of memory impairment. Withanolide derivatives (withanolide A, withanoside IV, and withanoside VI) isolated from the Indian herbal drug Ashwagandha, also showed neurite extension in normal and damaged cortical neurons. Trigonelline, a constituent of coffee beans, demonstrated the regeneration of dendrites and axons, in addition to memory improvement.

Triterpenoids

This review covers the isolation and structure determination of triterpenoids including squalene derivatives, lanostanes, cycloartanes, dammaranes, euphanes, tirucallanes, tetranortriterpenoids, quassinoids, lupanes, oleannes, friedelanes, ursanes, hopanes, isomalabaricanes and saponins. The literature from January to December 2002 is reviewed and 221 references are used.

Biological activities and distribution of plant saponins

Plant saponins are widely distributed amongst plants and have a wide range of biological properties. The more recent investigations and findings into their biological activities were summarized. Isolation studies of saponins were examined to determine which are the more commonly studied plant families and in which families saponins have been identified.

Simultaneous Determination of Triterpene Saponins in Ginseng Drugs by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

A HPLC method for the simultaneous determination of 11 triterpene saponins with four-type aglycones (protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol, ocotillol and oleanolic acid types) in Ginseng drugs was developed and validated. Using a gradient of acetonitrile and 10 mM K-phosphate buffer (pH 5.80) as the mobile phase and UV detection at 196 nm, more than 18 ginsenosides with different aglycones were separated satisfactorily within 60 min. The detection limits (signal/noise> or =3) were 0.1 microg for ginsenosides Rb1, Rc, Rd, Re and Rg1, chikusetsusaponin III, and notoginsenoside R2, 0.2 microg for gisenoside Ro and chikusetsusaponin IVa, 0.3 microg for chikusetsusaponin IV, and 3 microg for majonoside R2. The calibration curve of each saponin had a correlation coefficient close to 1. Intra- and interday precisions were less than 2.1% (n=5) and 3.3% (n=15), respectively. The recovery rates of extraction were in the range of 96.4-102.7% for all ginsenosides. By adopting this method, the determinations of 11 ginsenosides in three Ginseng drugs derived from Panax ginseng, Panax vietnamensis var. fuscidiscus and Panax japonicus (Japan) were achieved.