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Akagi Y, Mori Y, Sato Y, Iwasaki E, Komatsu T. Total synthesis of jadomycins A, B, and L-digitoxosyl-phenanthroviridin. Tetrahedron Lett 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2022.153919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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2
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Terenzi A, La Franca M, van Schoonhoven S, Panchuk R, Martínez Á, Heffeter P, Gober R, Pirker C, Vician P, Kowol CR, Stoika R, Salassa L, Rohr J, Berger W. Landomycins as glutathione-depleting agents and natural fluorescent probes for cellular Michael adduct-dependent quinone metabolism. Commun Chem 2021; 4:162. [PMID: 36697631 PMCID: PMC9814637 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-021-00600-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Landomycins are angucyclines with promising antineoplastic activity produced by Streptomyces bacteria. The aglycone landomycinone is the distinctive core, while the oligosaccharide chain differs within derivatives. Herein, we report that landomycins spontaneously form Michael adducts with biothiols, including reduced cysteine and glutathione, both cell-free or intracellularly involving the benz[a]anthraquinone moiety of landomycinone. While landomycins generally do not display emissive properties, the respective Michael adducts exerted intense blue fluorescence in a glycosidic chain-dependent manner. This allowed label-free tracking of the short-lived nature of the mono-SH-adduct followed by oxygen-dependent evolution with addition of another SH-group. Accordingly, hypoxia distinctly stabilized the fluorescent mono-adduct. While extracellular adduct formation completely blocked the cytotoxic activity of landomycins, intracellularly it led to massively decreased reduced glutathione levels. Accordingly, landomycin E strongly synergized with glutathione-depleting agents like menadione but exerted reduced activity under hypoxia. Summarizing, landomycins represent natural glutathione-depleting agents and fluorescence probes for intracellular anthraquinone-based angucycline metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessio Terenzi
- grid.10776.370000 0004 1762 5517Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 17, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - Mery La Franca
- grid.10776.370000 0004 1762 5517Department of Biological, Chemical and Pharmaceutical Sciences and Technologies, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Ed. 17, 90128 Palermo, Italy ,grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Sushilla van Schoonhoven
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rostyslav Panchuk
- grid.466769.cDepartment of Regulation of Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis, Institute of Cell Biology, Drahomanov St., 14/16, Lviv, 79005 Ukraine
| | - Álvaro Martínez
- grid.452382.a0000 0004 1768 3100Donostia International Physics Center and Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta Teknologia, Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, 20018 Spain
| | - Petra Heffeter
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Research Cluster “Translational Cancer Therapy Research”, University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Redding Gober
- grid.266539.d0000 0004 1936 8438College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, South Limestone Str. 789, Lexington, 40536-0596 USA
| | - Christine Pirker
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Petra Vician
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christian R. Kowol
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Research Cluster “Translational Cancer Therapy Research”, University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria ,grid.10420.370000 0001 2286 1424Institute of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Waehringer Straße 42, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rostyslav Stoika
- grid.466769.cDepartment of Regulation of Cell Proliferation and Apoptosis, Institute of Cell Biology, Drahomanov St., 14/16, Lviv, 79005 Ukraine
| | - Luca Salassa
- grid.452382.a0000 0004 1768 3100Donostia International Physics Center and Polimero eta Material Aurreratuak: Fisika, Kimika eta Teknologia, Kimika Fakultatea, Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea UPV/EHU, Paseo Manuel de Lardizabal 4, Donostia, 20018 Spain ,grid.424810.b0000 0004 0467 2314Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, 48011 Spain
| | - Jürgen Rohr
- grid.266539.d0000 0004 1936 8438College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, South Limestone Str. 789, Lexington, 40536-0596 USA
| | - Walter Berger
- Institute of Cancer Research and Comprehensive Cancer Center, Medical University Vienna, Spitalgasse 23, 1090, Vienna, Austria. .,Research Cluster "Translational Cancer Therapy Research", University of Vienna and Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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Morais PAB, Francisco CS, de Paula H, Ribeiro R, Eloy MA, Javarini CL, Neto ÁC, Júnior VL. Semisynthetic Triazoles as an Approach in the Discovery of Novel Lead Compounds. CURR ORG CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272825666210126100227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Historically, medicinal chemistry has been concerned with the approach of organic
chemistry for new drug synthesis. Considering the fruitful collections of new molecular entities,
the dedicated efforts for medicinal chemistry are rewarding. Planning and search for new
and applicable pharmacologic therapies involve the altruistic nature of the scientists. Since
the 19th century, notoriously applying isolated and characterized plant-derived compounds in
modern drug discovery and various stages of clinical development highlight its viability and
significance. Natural products influence a broad range of biological processes, covering transcription,
translation, and post-translational modification, being effective modulators of most
basic cellular processes. The research of new chemical entities through “click chemistry”
continuously opens up a map for the remarkable exploration of chemical space towards leading
natural products optimization by structure-activity relationship. Finally, in this review, we expect to gather a
broad knowledge involving triazolic natural product derivatives, synthetic routes, structures, and their biological activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro Alves Bezerra Morais
- Centro de Ciencias Exatas, Naturais e da Saude, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29500000, Alegre, ES, Brazil
| | - Carla Santana Francisco
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Quimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29075910, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Heberth de Paula
- Centro de Ciencias Exatas, Naturais e da Saude, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29500000, Alegre, ES, Brazil
| | - Rayssa Ribeiro
- Programa de Pos- Graduacao em Agroquimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29500000, Alegre, ES, Brazil
| | - Mariana Alves Eloy
- Programa de Pos- Graduacao em Agroquimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29500000, Alegre, ES, Brazil
| | - Clara Lirian Javarini
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Quimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29075910, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Álvaro Cunha Neto
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Quimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29075910, Vitória, ES, Brazil
| | - Valdemar Lacerda Júnior
- Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Quimica, Universidade Federal do Espirito Santo, 29075910, Vitória, ES, Brazil
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4
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Mei Y, Dong Y, Li J, Zhang B, Sun G, Zhou J, Si W, Han Y, Wu Z, Zhang J. FeCl3/C as an efficient catalyst for Ferrier rearrangement of 3,4,6-tri-O-Benzyl-D-glucal. J Carbohydr Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/07328303.2020.1788575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yuling Mei
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Youxian Dong
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Juan Li
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Guosheng Sun
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiafen Zhou
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenshuai Si
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiwen Han
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenliang Wu
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jianbo Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
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5
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de Koning CB, Ngwira KJ, Rousseau AL. Biosynthesis, synthetic studies, and biological activities of the jadomycin alkaloids and related analogues. THE ALKALOIDS. CHEMISTRY AND BIOLOGY 2020; 84:125-199. [PMID: 32416952 DOI: 10.1016/bs.alkal.2020.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The jadomycins are an expanding class of compounds produced from Streptomyces venezuelae, by diverting the normal biosynthesis which provides the antibiotic chloramphenicol. In the presence of amino acids, and either by heat shock, supplementation with ethanol, or when phage SV1 is added to the culture, the formation of substituted jadomycins and benzo[b]phenanthridines can be achieved. The first part of this review provides details of intermediates involved in the biosynthesis of the jadomycins and the related benzo[b]phenanthridines. Both the jadomycins and the benzo[b]phenanthridines share biosynthetic pathways with a large class of naturally occurring compounds known as the angucyclines. The biosynthetic pathways diverge when it is postulated that an intermediate quinone, such as 3-(2-formyl-6-hydroxy-4-methylphenyl)-8-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone-2-carboxylic acid is formed. The quinone then undergoes reactions with amino acids and derivatives in the culture medium to ultimately afford a library of jadomycins and a few benzo[b]phenanthridines. The second part of the review initially details synthetic efforts toward the synthesis of the naturally occurring benzo[b]phenanthridine, phenanthroviridin, and then outlines methods that have been used to assemble a selection of jadomycins. Total syntheses of jadomycin A and B, derived from l-isoleucine, are described. In addition, the synthesis of the aglycon of jadomycins M, W, S, and T is outlined. These four jadomycins were derived from l-methionine, l-tryptophan, l-serine and l-threonine respectively. As a result of these synthetic efforts, the structures of jadomycin S and T have been revised. The third part of the review describes the reported antibacterial and anticancer activities of both the jadomycins and some naturally occurring benzo[b]phenanthridines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles B de Koning
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - Kennedy J Ngwira
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Amanda L Rousseau
- Molecular Sciences Institute, School of Chemistry, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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6
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Vargas DF, Larghi EL, Kaufman TS. The 6π-azaelectrocyclization of azatrienes. Synthetic applications in natural products, bioactive heterocycles, and related fields. Nat Prod Rep 2019; 36:354-401. [PMID: 30090891 DOI: 10.1039/c8np00014j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 2006 to 2018 The application of the 6π-azaelectrocyclization of azatrienes as a key strategy for the synthesis of natural products, their analogs and related bioactive or biomedically-relevant compounds (from 2006 to date) is comprehensively reviewed. Details about reaction optimization studies, relevant reaction mechanisms and conditions are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Didier F Vargas
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR, CONICET-UNR), Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas - Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina.
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7
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Heravi MM, Ghalavand N, Ghanbarian M, Mohammadkhani L. Applications of Mitsunobu Reaction in total synthesis of natural products. Appl Organomet Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/aoc.4464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Majid M. Heravi
- Department of Chemistry; Alzahra University; Vanak, P.O. Box 1993893973 Tehran Iran
| | - Nastaran Ghalavand
- Department of Chemistry; Alzahra University; Vanak, P.O. Box 1993893973 Tehran Iran
| | - Manizheh Ghanbarian
- Department of Chemistry; Alzahra University; Vanak, P.O. Box 1993893973 Tehran Iran
| | - Leyla Mohammadkhani
- Department of Chemistry; Alzahra University; Vanak, P.O. Box 1993893973 Tehran Iran
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8
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Engineered jadomycin analogues with altered sugar moieties revealing JadS as a substrate flexible O-glycosyltransferase. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2017; 101:5291-5300. [PMID: 28429060 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-017-8256-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 03/12/2017] [Accepted: 03/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Glycosyltransferases (GTs)-mediated glycodiversification studies have drawn significant attention recently, with the goal of generating bioactive compounds with improved pharmacological properties by diversifying the appended sugars. The key to achieving glycodiversification is to identify natural and/or engineered flexible GTs capable of acting upon a broad range of substrates. Here, we report the use of a combinatorial biosynthetic approach to probe the substrate flexibility of JadS, the GT in jadomycin biosynthesis, towards different non-native NDP-sugar substrates, enabling us to identify six jadomycin B analogues with different sugar moieties. Further structural engineering by precursor-directed biosynthesis allowed us to obtain 11 new jadomycin analogues. Our results for the first time show that JadS is a flexible O-GT that can utilize both L- and D- sugars as donor substrates, and tolerate structural changes at the C2, C4 and C6 positions of the sugar moiety. JadS may be further exploited to generate novel glycosylated jadomycin molecules in future glycodiversification studies.
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Colosimo DA, MacMillan JB. Detailed Mechanistic Study of the Non-enzymatic Formation of the Discoipyrrole Family of Natural Products. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:2383-8. [PMID: 26824832 PMCID: PMC4896212 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.5b13320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Discoipyrroles A–D (DPA–DPD)
are recently discovered
natural products produced by the marine bacterium Bacillus
hunanensis that exhibit anticancer properties in vitro.
Initial biosynthetic studies demonstrated that DPA is formed in the
liquid fermentation medium of B. hunanensis from three secreted metabolites through an unknown but protein-independent
mechanism. The increased identification of natural products that depend
on non-enzymatic steps creates a significant need to understand how
these different reactions can occur. In this work, we utilized 15N-labeled starting materials and continuous high-sensitivity 1H–15N HMBC NMR spectroscopy to resolve scarce
reaction intermediates of the non-enzymatic discoipyrrole reaction
as they formed in real time. This information guided supplemental
experiments using 13C- and 18O-labeled materials
to elucidate the details of DPA’s non-enzymatic biosynthesis,
which features a highly concerted pyrrole formation and necessary
O2-mediated oxidation. We have illustrated a novel way
of using isotopically enhanced two-dimensional NMR spectroscopy to
interrogate reaction mechanisms as they occur. In addition, these
findings add to our growing knowledge of how multicomponent non-enzymatic
reactions can occur through inherently reactive bacterial metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominic A Colosimo
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
| | - John B MacMillan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center , 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, United States
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10
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Fu P, Legako A, La S, MacMillan JB. Discovery, Characterization, and Analogue Synthesis of Bohemamine Dimers Generated by Non-enzymatic Biosynthesis. Chemistry 2016; 22:3491-3495. [PMID: 26834079 DOI: 10.1002/chem.201600024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Dibohemamines A-C (5-7), three new dimeric bohemamine analogues dimerized through a methylene group, were isolated from a marine-derived Streptomyces spinoverrucosus. The structures determined by spectroscopic analysis were confirmed through the semi-synthetic derivatization of monomeric bohemamines and formaldehyde. These reactions, which could occur under mild conditions, together with the detection of formaldehyde in the culture, revealed that this dimerization is a non-enzymatic process. In addition to the unique dimerization of the dibohemamines, dibohemamines B and C were found to have nm cytotoxicity against the non-small cell-lung cancer cell line A549. In view of the potent cytotoxicity of compounds 6 and 7, a small library of bohemamine analogues was generated for biological evaluation by utilizing a series of aryl and alkyl aldehydes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Fu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA
| | - Aaron Legako
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA
| | - Scott La
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA
| | - John B MacMillan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas, 75390, USA.
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11
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Cañeque T, Gomes F, Mai TT, Maestri G, Malacria M, Rodriguez R. Synthesis of marmycin A and investigation into its cellular activity. Nat Chem 2015; 7:744-51. [PMID: 26291947 PMCID: PMC5892709 DOI: 10.1038/nchem.2302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Accepted: 06/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Anthracyclines such as doxorubicin are used extensively in the treatment of cancers. Anthraquinone-related angucyclines also exhibit antiproliferative properties and have been proposed to operate via similar mechanisms, including direct genome targeting. Here, we report the chemical synthesis of marmycin A and the study of its cellular activity. The aromatic core was constructed by means of a one-pot multistep reaction comprising a regioselective Diels-Alder cycloaddition, and the complex sugar backbone was introduced through a copper-catalysed Ullmann cross-coupling, followed by a challenging Friedel-Crafts cyclization. Remarkably, fluorescence microscopy revealed that marmycin A does not target the nucleus but instead accumulates in lysosomes, thereby promoting cell death independently of genome targeting. Furthermore, a synthetic dimer of marmycin A and the lysosome-targeting agent artesunate exhibited a synergistic activity against the invasive MDA-MB-231 cancer cell line. These findings shed light on the elusive pathways through which anthraquinone derivatives act in cells, pointing towards unanticipated biological and therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Cañeque
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
| | - Filipe Gomes
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
| | - Trang Thi Mai
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
| | - Giovanni Maestri
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
- Department of Chemistry, Università degli Studi di Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 17/a, Parma 43124, Italy
| | - Max Malacria
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
- Institut Parisien de Chimie Moléculaire, Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMR CNRS 8232, Paris CEDEX 05 75252, France
| | - Raphaël Rodriguez
- Centre de Recherche de Gif, Institut de Chimie des Substances Naturelles du CNRS, 1 Avenue de la Terrasse, Gif sur-Yvette 91198, France
- Institut Curie Research Center, Organic Synthesis and Cell Biology Group, 26 rue d’Ulm, Paris Cedex 05 75248, France
- CNRS UMR 3666, Paris 75005, France
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Hall SR, Blundon HL, Ladda MA, Robertson AW, Martinez-Farina CF, Jakeman DL, Goralski KB. Jadomycin breast cancer cytotoxicity is mediated by a copper-dependent, reactive oxygen species-inducing mechanism. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2015; 3:e00110. [PMID: 25729577 PMCID: PMC4324684 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Jadomycins are natural products biosynthesized by the bacteria Streptomyces venezuelae which kill drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant breast cancer cells in culture. Currently, the mechanisms of jadomycin cytotoxicity are poorly understood; however, reactive oxygen species (ROS)–induced DNA cleavage is suggested based on bacterial plasmid DNA cleavage studies. The objective of this study was to determine if and how ROS contribute to jadomycin cytotoxicity in drug-sensitive MCF7 (MCF7-CON) and taxol-resistant MCF7 (MCF7-TXL) breast cancer cells. As determined using an intracellular, fluorescent, ROS-detecting probe, jadomycins B, S, SPhG, and F dose dependently increased intracellular ROS activity 2.5- to 5.9-fold. Cotreatment with the antioxidant N-acetyl cysteine lowered ROS concentrations to below baseline levels and decreased the corresponding cytotoxic potency of the four jadomycins 1.9- to 3.3-fold, confirming a ROS-mediated mechanism. Addition of CuSO4 enhanced, whereas addition of the Cu(II)-chelator d-penicillamine reduced, the ROS generation and cytotoxicity of each jadomycin. Specific inhibitors of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase 1, glutathione S-transferase, and thioredoxin reductase, but not catalase, enhanced jadomycin-mediated ROS generation and anticancer activity. In conclusion, the results indicate that jadomycin cytotoxicity involves the generation of cytosolic superoxide via a Cu(II)-jadomycin reaction, a mechanism common to all jadomycins tested and observed in MCF7-CON and drug-resistant MCF7-TXL cells. The superoxide dismutase 1, glutathione, and peroxiredoxin/thioredoxin cellular antioxidant enzyme pathways scavenged intracellular ROS generated by jadomycin treatment. Blocking these antioxidant pathways could serve as a strategy to enhance jadomycin cytotoxic potency in drug-sensitive and multidrug-resistant breast cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven R Hall
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - Heather L Blundon
- College of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Professions, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - Matthew A Ladda
- College of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Professions, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - Andrew W Robertson
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - Camilo F Martinez-Farina
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - David L Jakeman
- College of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Professions, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2 ; Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
| | - Kerry B Goralski
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2 ; College of Pharmacy, Faculty of Health Professions, Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada, B3H 4R2
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13
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Martinez-Farina CF, McCormick N, Robertson AW, Clement H, Jee A, Ampaw A, Chan NL, Syvitski RT, Jakeman DL. Investigations into the binding of jadomycin DS to human topoisomerase IIβ by WaterLOGSY NMR spectroscopy. Org Biomol Chem 2015; 13:10324-7. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ob01508a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
First evidence that jadomycins bind human topoisomerase IIβ.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Helen Clement
- College of Pharmacy
- Dalhousie University
- Halifax
- Canada
| | - Alison Jee
- College of Pharmacy
- Dalhousie University
- Halifax
- Canada
| | - Anna Ampaw
- Department of Chemistry
- Dalhousie University
- Halifax
- Canada
| | - Nei-Li Chan
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
- College Medicine
- National Taiwan University
- Taipei City 100
- Taiwan
| | - Ray T. Syvitski
- Department of Chemistry
- Dalhousie University
- Halifax
- Canada
- Institute of Marine Biosciences
| | - David L. Jakeman
- Department of Chemistry
- Dalhousie University
- Halifax
- Canada
- College of Pharmacy
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14
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Khodade VS, Sharath Chandra M, Banerjee A, Lahiri S, Pulipeta M, Rangarajan R, Chakrapani H. Bioreductively Activated Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Generators as MRSA Inhibitors. ACS Med Chem Lett 2014; 5:777-81. [PMID: 25050164 DOI: 10.1021/ml5001118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Accepted: 05/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The number of cases of drug resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections is on the rise globally and new strategies to identify drug candidates with novel mechanisms of action are in urgent need. Here, we report the synthesis and evaluation of a series of benzo[b]phenanthridine-5,7,12(6H)-triones, which were designed based on redox-active natural products. We find that the in vitro inhibitory activity of 6-(prop-2-ynyl)benzo[b]phenanthridine-5,7,12(6H)-trione (1f) against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), including a panel of patient-derived strains, is comparable or better than vancomycin. We show that the lead compound generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the cell, contributing to its antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinayak S. Khodade
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 Maharashtra, India
| | - Mallojjala Sharath Chandra
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 Maharashtra, India
| | - Ankita Banerjee
- Vitas
Pharma Research Private Limited, Technology Business Incubator, University of Hyderabad, C. R. Rao Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Surobhi Lahiri
- Vitas
Pharma Research Private Limited, Technology Business Incubator, University of Hyderabad, C. R. Rao Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Mallikarjuna Pulipeta
- Vitas
Pharma Research Private Limited, Technology Business Incubator, University of Hyderabad, C. R. Rao Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Radha Rangarajan
- Vitas
Pharma Research Private Limited, Technology Business Incubator, University of Hyderabad, C. R. Rao Road, Gachibowli, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Harinath Chakrapani
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Pune, Dr. Homi Bhabha Road, Pune, 411008 Maharashtra, India
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15
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Hu Y, Potts MB, Colosimo D, Herrera-Herrera ML, Legako AG, Yousufuddin M, White MA, MacMillan JB. Discoipyrroles A-D: isolation, structure determination, and synthesis of potent migration inhibitors from Bacillus hunanensis. J Am Chem Soc 2013; 135:13387-92. [PMID: 23984625 PMCID: PMC3845659 DOI: 10.1021/ja403412y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Discoidin domain receptor 2 (DDR2) is a receptor tyrosine kinase involved in a variety of cellular response pathways, including regulation of cell growth, proliferation, and motility. Using a newly developed platform to identify the signaling pathway/molecular target of natural products, we identified a family of alkaloid natural products, discoipyrroles A-D (1-4), from Bacillus hunanensis that inhibit the DDR2 signaling pathway. The structure of 1-4, determined by detailed two-dimensional (2D) NMR methods and confirmed by X-ray crystallographic analysis has an unusual 3H-benzo[d]pyrrolo][1,3]oxazine-3,5-dione core. Discoipyrroles A-D potently inhibit DDR2 dependent migration of BR5 fibroblasts and show selective cytotoxicity to DDR2 mutant lung cancer cell lines (IC50 120-400 nM). Examination of the biosynthesis has led to the conclusion that the discoipyrroles are formed through a nonenzymatic process, leading to a one-pot total synthesis of 1.
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MESH Headings
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/chemistry
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/isolation & purification
- Antineoplastic Agents, Phytogenic/pharmacology
- Bacillus/chemistry
- Biological Products/chemistry
- Biological Products/isolation & purification
- Biological Products/pharmacology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cell Survival/drug effects
- Discoidin Domain Receptors
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Drug Screening Assays, Antitumor
- Fibroblasts/cytology
- Fibroblasts/drug effects
- Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/chemistry
- Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/isolation & purification
- Heterocyclic Compounds, 3-Ring/pharmacology
- Humans
- Models, Molecular
- Molecular Structure
- Pyrrolidinones/chemistry
- Pyrrolidinones/isolation & purification
- Pyrrolidinones/pharmacology
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/metabolism
- Receptors, Mitogen/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptors, Mitogen/genetics
- Receptors, Mitogen/metabolism
- Signal Transduction/drug effects
- Stereoisomerism
- Structure-Activity Relationship
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Affiliation(s)
- Youcai Hu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Malia B. Potts
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Dominic Colosimo
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Mireya L. Herrera-Herrera
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Aaron G. Legako
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - Muhammed Yousufuddin
- Department of Chemistry, Center for Nanostructured Materials, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019
| | - Michael A. White
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
- Simmons Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
| | - John B. MacMillan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390
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16
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17
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Wen LR, Sun QC, Zhang HL, Li M. A new rapid multicomponent domino heteroannulation of heterocyclic keteneaminals: solvent-free regioselective synthesis of functionalized benzo[g]imidazo[1,2-a]quinolinediones. Org Biomol Chem 2013; 11:781-6. [DOI: 10.1039/c2ob27137k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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18
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Pan E, Oswald NW, Legako AG, Life JM, Posner BA, MacMillan JB. Precursor-Directed Generation of Amidine Containing Ammosamide Analogs: Ammosamides E-P. Chem Sci 2013; 4:482-488. [PMID: 23209870 PMCID: PMC3510655 DOI: 10.1039/c2sc21442c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ammosamides E-F (1-2), are amidine analogs of the ammosamide family of alkaloids isolated from a marine-derived Streptomyces variabilis. Further studies with S. variabilis revealed a variety of aryl and alkyl amines added into the fermentation media could be efficiently incorporated into the ammosamide framework to generate a library of precursor-directed amidine analogs, ammosamides G-P (9 - 18). We demonstrate that the amines are introduced via non-enzymatic addition to the iminium ion of ammosamide C. Biological evaluation of the amidine analogs against quinone reductase 2 (QR2) showed low nM potency for a number of analogs. When tested for in vivo activity against a panel of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) cell-lines there was a clear increase in potency by incorporation of lipophilic alkylamines, with the most potent compounds having sub μM IC(50) values (0.4 to 0.8 μM).
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Affiliation(s)
- Ende Pan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Nathaniel W. Oswald
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Aaron G. Legako
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Janie M. Life
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
| | - Bruce A. Posner
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
| | - John B. MacMillan
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Blvd., Dallas, TX, USA
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19
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Goss RJM, Shankar S, Fayad AA. The generation of "unnatural" products: synthetic biology meets synthetic chemistry. Nat Prod Rep 2012; 29:870-89. [PMID: 22744619 DOI: 10.1039/c2np00001f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Natural product analogue generation is important, providing tools for chemical biology, enabling structure activity relationship determination and insight into the way in which natural products interact with their target biomolecules. The generation of analogues is also often necessary in order to improve bioavailability and to fine tune compounds' activity. This review provides an overview of the catalogue of approaches available for accessing series of analogues. Over the last few years there have been major advances in genome sequencing and the development of tools for biosynthetic pathway engineering; it is therefore becoming increasingly easy to combine molecular biology and synthetic organic chemistry in order to enable expeditious access to series of natural products. This review outlines the various ways of combining biology and chemistry that have been applied to analogue generation, drawing upon a series of examples to illustrate each approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca J M Goss
- School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UKNR4 7TJ
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20
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Evaluation of the cytotoxic activity of new jadomycin derivatives reveals the potential to improve its selectivity against tumor cells. J Antibiot (Tokyo) 2012; 65:449-52. [DOI: 10.1038/ja.2012.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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21
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Khodade VS, Dharmaraja AT, Chakrapani H. Synthesis, reactive oxygen species generation and copper-mediated nuclease activity profiles of 2-aryl-3-amino-1,4-naphthoquinones. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 22:3766-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.04.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2011] [Revised: 03/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/03/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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22
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Sharif EU, O’Doherty GA. Biosynthesis and Total Synthesis Studies on The Jadomycin Family of Natural Products. European J Org Chem 2012; 2012:10.1002/ejoc.201101609. [PMID: 24371430 PMCID: PMC3871192 DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201101609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Jadomycins are unique angucycline polyketides, which are produced by soil bacteria Streptomyces venezuelae under specific nutrient and environmental conditions. Their unique structural complexity and biological activities have engendered extensive study of the jadomycin class of natural compounds in terms of biological activity, biosynthesis, and synthesis. This review outlines the recent developments in the study of the synthesis and biosynthesis of jadomycins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ehesan U. Sharif
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, Homepage: http://nuweb9.neu.edu/odoherty/
| | - George A. O’Doherty
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, 02115, Homepage: http://nuweb9.neu.edu/odoherty/
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23
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Kharel MK, Pahari P, Shepherd MD, Tibrewal N, Nybo SE, Shaaban KA, Rohr J. Angucyclines: Biosynthesis, mode-of-action, new natural products, and synthesis. Nat Prod Rep 2012; 29:264-325. [PMID: 22186970 PMCID: PMC11412254 DOI: 10.1039/c1np00068c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Covering: 1997 to 2010. The angucycline group is the largest group of type II PKS-engineered natural products, rich in biological activities and chemical scaffolds. This stimulated synthetic creativity and biosynthetic inquisitiveness. The synthetic studies used five different strategies, involving Diels-Alder reactions, nucleophilic additions, electrophilic additions, transition-metal mediated cross-couplings and intramolecular cyclizations to generate the angucycline frames. Biosynthetic studies were particularly intriguing when unusual framework rearrangements by post-PKS tailoring oxidoreductases occurred, or when unusual glycosylation reactions were involved in decorating the benz[a]anthracene-derived cores. This review follows our previous reviews, which were published in 1992 and 1997, and covers new angucycline group antibiotics published between 1997 and 2010. However, in contrast to the previous reviews, the main focus of this article is on new synthetic approaches and biosynthetic investigations, most of which were published between 1997 and 2010, but go beyond, e.g. for some biosyntheses all the way back to the 1980s, to provide the necessary context of information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madan K Kharel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 S. Limestone Street, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0596, USA
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24
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Tajima T, Akagi Y, Kumamoto T, Suzuki N, Ishikawa T. Synthesis of jadomycin A and related jadomycin aglycons: structural re-examination of jadomycins S and T may be needed. Tetrahedron Lett 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tetlet.2011.10.160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
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25
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Dupuis SN, Robertson AW, Veinot T, Monro SMA, Douglas SE, Syvitski RT, Goralski KB, McFarland SA, Jakeman DL. Synthetic diversification of natural products: semi-synthesis and evaluation of triazole jadomycins. Chem Sci 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c2sc00663d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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26
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Dupuis SN, Veinot T, Monro SMA, Douglas SE, Syvitski RT, Goralski KB, McFarland SA, Jakeman DL. Jadomycins derived from the assimilation and incorporation of norvaline and norleucine. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2011; 74:2420-2424. [PMID: 22050382 DOI: 10.1021/np200689w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Streptomyces venezuelae ISP5230 is recognized for the production of chloramphenicol and the jadomycin family of natural products. The jadomycins are angucycline natural products containing a unique oxazolone ring incorporating an amino acid present in the minimal culture media. Substitution of different amino acids results in products of varying biological activity. Analysis of cultures of S. venezuelae ISP5230 incubated with l- and d-norvaline and l- and d-norleucine indicated that only the d-configured amino acids were incorporated into the natural products. Subsequently, jadomycin DNV and jadomycin DNL were isolated and characterized (titers 4 and 9 mg L(-1), respectively). The compounds were evaluated in the National Cancer Institute cell line cancer growth inhibition and cytotoxicity screens, for antimicrobial activity against selected Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, and as DNA-cleavage agents in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie N Dupuis
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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27
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Monro SM, Cottreau KM, Spencer C, Wentzell JR, Graham CL, Borissow CN, Jakeman DL, McFarland SA. Copper-mediated nuclease activity of jadomycin B. Bioorg Med Chem 2011; 19:3357-60. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2011.04.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2011] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 04/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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28
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Shan M, Sharif EU, O'Doherty GA. Total synthesis of jadomycin A and a carbasugar analogue of jadomycin B. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2011; 49:9492-5. [PMID: 20979078 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201005329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingde Shan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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29
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Deb Roy A, Grüschow S, Cairns N, Goss RJM. Gene expression enabling synthetic diversification of natural products: chemogenetic generation of pacidamycin analogs. J Am Chem Soc 2010; 132:12243-5. [PMID: 20712319 DOI: 10.1021/ja1060406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Introduction of prnA, the halogenase gene from pyrrolnitrin biosynthesis, into Streptomyces coeruleorubidus resulted in efficient in situ chlorination of the uridyl peptide antibotic pacidamycin. The installed chlorine provided a selectably functionalizable handle enabling synthetic modification of the natural product using mild cross-coupling conditions in crude aqueous extracts of the culture broth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhijeet Deb Roy
- School of Chemistry, University of East Anglia, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
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30
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