Stromelysin-1 (MMP-3) in forming enamel and predentine in rat incisor-coordinated distribution with proteoglycans suggests a functional role

MMP-9 expression in rat pup incisor teeth is not altered by maternal hypertension or maternal atenolol treatment during pregnancy and lactation

Hypertension alters tooth formation and Atenolol reduces the blood pressure of spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) during pregnancy and lactation, and as demonstrated before, increases the microhardness of the SHR offspring's teeth. MMP-9 is overexpressed in different tissues of hypertensive animals and treatment of hypertension substances can reverse this alteration. We hypothesize hypertension alters the expression of MMP-9 in dental structures of SHR offspring and that treating female SHR with atenolol prevents this alteration. This study aimed to evaluate the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9) in incisor teeth (IT) in male offspring of SHR (30 days old) treated or untreated with Atenolol during pregnancy and lactation. MMP-9 expression was evaluated in ameloblasts (AM), enamel matrix (EM), odontoblasts (OD), and predentin (PD) of IT through immunohistochemical reactions (immunoperoxidase). Data were analyzed by Shapiro-Wilk and Kruskal-Wallis (p < 0.05), with Dunn post-test. Histological differences were not observed between IT tissues of SHR and normotensive Wistar rats. For the first time, our data showed that MMP-9 expression in specific dental structures is not altered in SHR. Atenolol treatment increased MMP-9 immunostaining in EM of Wistar rat, however, Atenolol did not alter MMP-9 in the IT tissues of SHR. Our results demonstrated that MMP-9 expression in dental tissues is not affected by hypertension or atenolol treatment in dental tissues. If confirmed in humans, the results obtained in this study will corroborate the suggestion that MMP-9 is not a viable therapeutic target for the treatment of dental alterations associated with maternal hypertension.

Targeting Matrix Metalloproteinase-3 for Dental Caries Prevention Using Herbal Isolates: MMP3 Inhibition by Cinnamic Acids

Objectives: Dental caries, a prevalent infectious disease affecting teeth, ranks highest among 328 diseases, according to a 2017 Lancet study. In demineralized human dentin, matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP3) functions as a proteoglycanase, contributing to the degradation of proteoglycan components. This process exposes collagen fibrils, thereby facilitating the demineralization of the dentin matrix. Inhibiting MMP3 shows potential for preventing dental caries. Methods: The binding affinity of 20 cinnamic acid derivatives, namely cynarin, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, cinnamyl caffeate, phenethyl caffeate, N-p-coumaroyltyramine, caffeic acid 3-glucoside, caffeic acid phenethyl ester, roscovitine, benzyl caffeate, o-coumaric acid, artepillin C, caffeic acid, methyl caffeate, 2-methylcinnamic acid, ferulic acid, drupanin, p-coumaric acid, cinnamic acid, and sinapinic acid, to the MMP3 catalytic cleft, was assessed utilizing AutoDock 4.0. Molecular dynamics simulation was then employed to analyze the stability of backbone atoms in free MMP3, MMP3-positive control inhibitor, and MMP3 complexed with the top-ranked cinnamic acid over a 100 ns computer simulation. Results: Four cinnamic acids demonstrated ΔG binding scores below -10 kcal/mol, with cynarin emerging as the most potent MMP3 inhibitor, featuring a ΔG binding score and inhibition constant value of -15.57 kcal/mol and 3.83 pM, respectively. The MMP3-cynarin complex exhibited stability after a 50 ns computer simulation, showing a root-mean-square deviation of 8 Å. Conclusions: The inhibition of MMP3 by cynarin, chlorogenic acid, rosmarinic acid, and cinnamyl caffeate holds promise as a potential preventive strategy for dental caries.

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors in restorative dentistry

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been identified as agents that disintegrate the collagen structures of dental hybrid layers, resulting in reduced restorative bond strength. Multiple MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) are known to counteract this degenerative mechanism, thereby preserving bond strength and promoting the longevity of resin-based restorations. Additionally, literature suggests that certain MMPI materials possess antimicrobial/anticariogenic properties, potentially reducing the risk of secondary caries development. Therefore, this review article aims to narrate on the integration of matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors into adhesive systems and their impact on bond strength.

Tooth ultrastructure changes induced by a nonsense mutation in the FAM83H gene: insights into the diversity of amelogenesis imperfecta

OBJECTIVES

The current research on single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) mutation sites at different positions of the FAM83H gene and their phenotypic changes leading to amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) is inconsistent. We identified a previously reported heterozygous nonsense mutation c.1192C>T (p.Q398*) in the FAM83H gene and conducted a comprehensive analysis of the dental ultrastructure and chemical composition changes induced by this mutation. Additionally, we predicted the protein feature affected by this mutation site. The aim was to further deepen our understanding of the diversity of AI caused by different mutation sites in the FAM83H gene.

METHODS

Whole-exome sequencing (WES) and Sanger sequencing were used to confirm the mutation sites. Physical features of the patient's teeth were investigated using various methods including cone beam computer tomography (CBCT), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), contact profilometry (roughness measurement), and a nanomechanical tester (nanoindentation measurement). The protein features of wild-type and mutant FAM83H were predicted using bioinformatics methods.

RESULTS

One previously discovered FAM83H heterozygous nonsense mutation c.1192C>T (p.Q398*) was detected in the patient. SEM revealed inconsistent dentinal tubules, and EDS showed that calcium and phosphorus were lower in the patient's dentin but higher in the enamel compared to the control tooth. Roughness measurements showed that AI patients' teeth had rougher occlusal surfaces than those of the control tooth. Nanoindentation measurements showed that the enamel and dentin hardness values of the AI patients' teeth were both significantly reduced compared to those of the control tooth. Compared to the wild-type FAM83H protein, the mutant FAM83H protein shows alterations in stability, hydrophobicity, secondary structure, and tertiary structure. These changes could underlie functional differences and AI phenotype variations caused by this mutation site.

CONCLUSIONS

This study expands the understanding of the effects of FAM83H mutations on tooth structure.

CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Our study enhances our understanding of the genetic basis of AI and may contribute to improved diagnostics and personalized treatment strategies for patients with FAM83H-related AI.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinase-3 and -10 is up-regulated in the periodontal tissues of aged mice

Objective

The present study was designed to investigate the whole transcriptome of periodontal tissues of both young and aged mice to identify the characteristic up‐regulation of protease genes with aging and to localize their translated protein products in the periodontal tissues.

Background

The metzincin protease superfamily is composed of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), a disintegrin and metalloproteinases, and a disintegrin and metalloproteinases with thrombospondin motifs. Up‐regulation of these extracellular matrix‐degrading proteases has been implicated in senescence of tissues and organs, including the skin. However, few studies have investigated the expression profiles of these proteases and potential involvement in aging of periodontal tissues.

Methods

Periodontal tissues with the surrounding mandibular bones were collected from 50‐ and 10‐week‐old mice. Total RNA was extracted from the periodontal tissue and analyzed by cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE) to identify differentially expressed genes encoding the metzincin proteases. Furthermore, quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR) was performed to validate the CAGE results, and the phenotypic expression of proteases involved in aging was localized via immunohistochemical analysis.

Results

The CAGE results showed that the expression levels of MMP‐3, ‐10, and ‐12 were up‐regulated at 50 weeks. Subsequent qRT‐PCR analysis showed that the gene expression levels of MMP‐3 and ‐10 were significantly increased with age. MMP‐10 immunoreactivity was localized exclusively in the cementum and alveolar bone adjacent to the periodontal ligament and was stronger and broader in aged mice than young mice. MMP‐3 immunoreactivity was localized in the periodontal ligaments at both 10 and 50 weeks.

Conclusion

In the present study, we demonstrated that the expression of MMP‐3 and ‐10 increased with aging and identified their characteristic localizations in aged periodontal tissues.

A Potential Role for MMPs during the Formation of Non-Neurogenic Placodes

The formation of non-neurogenic placodes is critical prior to the development of several epithelial derivatives (e.g., feathers, teeth, etc.) and their development frequently involves morphogenetic proteins (or morphogens). Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important enzymes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling, and recent research has shown that the extracellular matrix (ECM) can modulate morphogen diffusion and cell behaviors. This review summarizes the known roles of MMPs during the development of non-neurogenic structures that involve a placodal stage. Specifically, we discuss feather, hair, tooth, mammary gland and lens development. This review highlights the potential critical role MMPs may play during placode formation in these systems.

DENTAL ENAMEL FORMATION AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ORAL HEALTH AND DISEASE

Dental enamel is the hardest and most mineralized tissue in extinct and extant vertebrate species and provides maximum durability that allows teeth to function as weapons and/or tools as well as for food processing. Enamel development and mineralization is an intricate process tightly regulated by cells of the enamel organ called ameloblasts. These heavily polarized cells form a monolayer around the developing enamel tissue and move as a single forming front in specified directions as they lay down a proteinaceous matrix that serves as a template for crystal growth. Ameloblasts maintain intercellular connections creating a semi-permeable barrier that at one end (basal/proximal) receives nutrients and ions from blood vessels, and at the opposite end (secretory/apical/distal) forms extracellular crystals within specified pH conditions. In this unique environment, ameloblasts orchestrate crystal growth via multiple cellular activities including modulating the transport of minerals and ions, pH regulation, proteolysis, and endocytosis. In many vertebrates, the bulk of the enamel tissue volume is first formed and subsequently mineralized by these same cells as they retransform their morphology and function. Cell death by apoptosis and regression are the fates of many ameloblasts following enamel maturation, and what cells remain of the enamel organ are shed during tooth eruption, or are incorporated into the tooth's epithelial attachment to the oral gingiva. In this review, we examine key aspects of dental enamel formation, from its developmental genesis to the ever-increasing wealth of data on the mechanisms mediating ionic transport, as well as the clinical outcomes resulting from abnormal ameloblast function.

[Progress on matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors]

Continuing advances in dentin bonding technology and adhesives revolutionized bonding of resin-based composite restorations. However, hybrid layers created by contemporary dentin adhesives present imperfect durability, and degradation of collagen matrix by endogenous enzymes is a significant factor causing destruction of hybrid layers. Bond durability can be improved by using enzyme inhibitors to prevent collagen degradation and to preserve integrity of collagen matrix. This review summarizes progress on matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors (including chlorhexidine, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, quaternary ammonium salt, tetracycline and its derivatives, hydroxamic acid inhibitors, bisphosphonate derivative, and cross-linking agents) and suggests prospects for these compounds.

Genetic Association of MMP10, MMP14, and MMP16 with Dental Caries

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), which degrade extracellular proteins as part of a variety of physiological processes, and their inhibitors have been implicated in the dental caries process. Here we investigated 28 genetic variants spanning the MMP10, MMP14, and MMP16 genes to detect association with dental caries experience in 13 age- and race-stratified (n = 3,587) samples from 6 parent studies. Analyses were performed separately for each sample, and results were combined across samples by meta-analysis. Two SNPs (rs2046315 and rs10429371) upstream of MMP16 were significantly associated with caries in an individual sample of white adults and via meta-analysis across 8 adult samples after gene-wise adjustment for multiple comparisons. Noteworthy is SNP rs2046315 (p = 8.14 × 10⁻⁸) association with caries in white adults. This SNP was originally nominated in a genome-wide-association study (GWAS) of dental caries in a sample of white adults and yielded associations in a subsequent GWAS of surface level caries in white adults as well. Therefore, in our study, we were able to recapture the association between rs2046315 and dental caries in white adults. Although we did not strengthen evidence that MMPs 10, 14, and 16 influence caries risk, MMP16 is still a likely candidate gene to pursue.

The Role of Matrix Metalloproteinases (MMPs) in Human Caries

The objective of this review is to summarize our understanding of the role of host matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the caries process and to discuss new therapeutic avenues. MMPs hydrolyze components of the extracellular matrix and play a central role in many biological and pathological processes. MMPs have been suggested to play an important role in the destruction of dentin organic matrix following demineralization by bacterial acids and, therefore, in the control or progression of carious decay. Host-derived MMPs can originate both from saliva and from dentin. They may be activated by an acidic pH brought about by lactate release from cariogenic bacteria. Once activated, they are able to digest demineralized dentin matrix after pH neutralization by salivary buffers. Furthermore, the degradation of SIBLINGs (Small Integrin-binding Ligand N-linked Glycoproteins) by the caries process may potentially enhance the release of MMPs and their activation. This review also explores the different available MMP inhibitors, natural or synthetic, and suggests that MMP inhibition by several inhibitors, particularly by natural substances, could provide a potential therapeutic pathway to limit caries progression in dentin.

Traditional Chinese Medicine Formula "Xiaofeng granules" suppressed gouty arthritis animal models and inhibited the proteoglycan degradation on chondrocytes induced by monosodium urate

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Xiaofeng Granules (XF) is a kind of granules prepared by the famous traditional Chinese medicine formula for its efficiency in treating gouty diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

We investigated the relevance between XF that made from Modified simiaowan (MSW) as the anti-gouty arthritis drugs and protective mechanisms for cartilage matrix in order to provide the evidence for new drug application.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In the present study, we evaluated the anti-gouty arthritis activity of XF in rats and rabbits models induced by MSU together with chondrocytes focusing on the link to proteoglycan degradation in vitro studies.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that XF significantly reduced the swelling rate and attenuated the pathological changes in joints. The XF-containing serum were used medicated serum in cellular experiments. The in vitro data were in accordance with the in vivo results, showing that the constituents in XF-containing serum had obvious inhibitory effects on the activation of pro-inflammatory mediators in chondrocytes. Moreover, XF-containing serum substantially inhibited MSU-induced expression of glycosaminoglycans(GAG) and hydroxyproline(Hyp), and up regulated proteoglycan, which might be associated with the regulation of the balance of MMP-3/TIMP-1and ADAMTS-4/TIMP-3 inchondrocytes.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, XF that made from MSW showed obvious effects on acute gouty arthritis, which also provided an effective protection on cartilage matrix degradation.

Immunolocalization of Enamelysin (Matrix Metalloproteinase-20) in the Forming Rat Incisor

In the rat model, we used the continuously growing incisor to study the expression pattern of matrix metalloproteinase-20 (MMP-20) during the formation of mineralized dental tissues. Casein zymography analysis of extracts of the forming part of the incisor revealed lysis bands corresponding to both the latent form at 57 kD and the active 46- and 41-kD forms, whereas omission of proteinase inhibitors during protein extraction resulted in a single band at 21 kD. A higher molecular weight form of 78 kD was also stained with MMP-20 and TIMP-2 antibodies in Western blotting, and was therefore believed to correspond to an MMP-20/TIMP-2 complex. Immunohistochemical and immunogold electron microscopic results demonstrated strong MMP-20 staining in the forming outer enamel, which diminished near the dentino-enamel junction, but dentin and predentin were unstained. A strong concentration of MMP-20 was seen in the stratum intermedium (SI), particularly at the earlier stages of enamel development. Our results confirm the presence of MMP-20 protein in ameloblasts and odontoblasts of rat incisor and show it to be localized in the same sites of the forming enamel as amelogenin. Their expression is transient in odontoblasts but persists in ameloblasts, and in both cases the expression of amelogenin preceded that of MMP-20 suggesting a developmentally controlled regulation.

Suppressive effect of Sanmiao formula on experimental gouty arthritis by inhibiting cartilage matrix degradation: An in vivo and in vitro study

Sanmiao formula (SM) is a compound prescription, which has been used in traditional Chinese medicine since the Ming Dynasty for gouty and rheumatoid arthritis treatments. However, no evidence has been unfolded to show the relationship between SM and gouty arthritis (GA), particularly inhibiting cartilage matrix degradation. In the present study, we undertook a characterization of anti-GA activity of SM using an in vivo rat model induced by potassium oxonate and cold bath together with in vitro studies with chondrocytes for further molecular characterization. Potassium oxonate and cold bath rats were treated with SM at doses of 7.2g/kg per day for 5days. SM treatments significantly suppressed the swelling rate and the severe pathologic changes in the joints of the animals in gout model. Inflammatory factors count by ELISA analysis, SM exhibited inhibition on IL-1β and TNF-α. Moreover, histological analysis of the joints and SM-serum substantially interfered with the MSU-induced expression of glycosaminoglycans (GAG), up-regulated the content of proteoglycan. Importantly, SM interfered with GA-augmented expression of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) -3 and aggrecanases (ADAMTS)-4, which are considered to be key enzymes in cartilage matrix degradation, and simultaneously augmented GA-reduced tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) -1 and -3 expression in the joints and chondrocytes. Therefore, SM is looking forward to be a potential novel agent that could prevent cartilage matrix degradation effectively in gouty arthritis, and this provides a new target for development of new medicines.

Grape seed extracts inhibit dentin matrix degradation by MMP-3

Since Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been suggested to contribute to dentin caries progression, the hypothesis that MMP inhibition would affect the progression of dentin caries is clinically relevant. Grape seed extracts (GSE) have been previously reported to be natural inhibitors of MMPs.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the capacity of a GSE mouthrinse to prevent the degradation of demineralized dentin matrix by MMP-3 (stromelysin-1).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Standardized blocks of dentin obtained from sound permanent teeth extracted for orthodontic reasons were demineralized with Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and pretreated either with (A) GSE (0.2% w/v), (B) amine fluoride (AmF) (20% w/v), (C) a mouthrinse which contains both, (D) placebo, (E) sodium fluoride (0.15 mg.ml(-1)), (F) PBS, (G) Chlorhexidine digluconate (CHX), or (H) zinc chloride (ZnCl2). The dentin blocks were then incubated with activated recombinant MMP-3. The supernatants were analyzed by Western Blot for several dentin matrix proteins known to be MMP-3 substrate. In parallel, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was performed on resin replica of the dentin blocks.

RESULTS

Western blot analysis of the supernatants revealed that MMP-3 released from the dentin matrix small proteoglycans (decorin and biglycan) and dentin sialoprotein (DSP) in the AmF, sodium fluoride, PBS and placebo pretreated groups, but not in the GSE and mouthrinse pretreated groups. SEM examination of resin replica showed that the mouthrinse and its active components not only had an anti-MMP action but also modified the dentin surface accessibility.

CONCLUSION

This study shows that GSE either alone or combined with AmF as in the evaluated mouthrinse limits dentin matrix degradation. This association may be promising to prevent the progression of caries within dentin. However, the procedure should be adapted to clinically relevant durations.

Ultrastructural analysis of the teeth affected by amelogenesis imperfecta resulting from FAM83H mutations and review of the literature

OBJECTIVE

To analyze the ultrastructure and chemical compositions of two teeth affected by amelogenesis imperfecta (AI) with specific FAM83H mutations.

STUDY DESIGN

Mutation analysis was performed by sequencing the candidate FAM83H gene. Two extracted teeth were collected: one from a new family and the other from a previously reported family with FAM83H mutation (Q452X). The specimens were prepared for ultrastructure detection using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and elemental analysis by energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (EDX).

RESULTS

An FAM83H mutation R325X was identified in the new family. In the two specimens, the affected enamel showed irregular, broken, and collapsing enamel rods with decreased numbers and widened interrod spaces; the affected dentine exhibited thickened peritubular dentine and irregular, narrowed, or partially obliterated dentinal tubules. EDX analysis showed the affected enamel with a higher carbon content, nitrogen content, and carbon/oxygen ratio.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates that FAM83H mutations could influence enamel biomineralization and dentine formation.

Dentin matrix degradation by host matrix metalloproteinases: inhibition and clinical perspectives toward regeneration

Bacterial enzymes have long been considered solely accountable for the degradation of the dentin matrix during the carious process. However, the emerging literature suggests that host-derived enzymes, and in particular the matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) contained in dentin and saliva can play a major role in this process by their ability to degrade the dentin matrix from within. These findings are important since they open new therapeutic options for caries prevention and treatment. The possibility of using MMP inhibitors to interfere with dentin caries progression is discussed. Furthermore, the potential release of bioactive peptides by the enzymatic cleavage of dentin matrix proteins by MMPs during the carious process is discussed. These peptides, once identified, may constitute promising therapeutical tools for tooth and bone regeneration.

Dental enamel development: proteinases and their enamel matrix substrates

This review focuses on recent discoveries and delves in detail about what is known about each of the proteins (amelogenin, ameloblastin, and enamelin) and proteinases (matrix metalloproteinase-20 and kallikrein-related peptidase-4) that are secreted into the enamel matrix. After an overview of enamel development, this review focuses on these enamel proteins by describing their nomenclature, tissue expression, functions, proteinase activation, and proteinase substrate specificity. These proteins and their respective null mice and human mutations are also evaluated to shed light on the mechanisms that cause nonsyndromic enamel malformations termed amelogenesis imperfecta. Pertinent controversies are addressed. For example, do any of these proteins have a critical function in addition to their role in enamel development? Does amelogenin initiate crystallite growth, does it inhibit crystallite growth in width and thickness, or does it do neither? Detailed examination of the null mouse literature provides unmistakable clues and/or answers to these questions, and this data is thoroughly analyzed. Striking conclusions from this analysis reveal that widely held paradigms of enamel formation are inadequate. The final section of this review weaves the recent data into a plausible new mechanism by which these enamel matrix proteins support and promote enamel development.

The role of matrix metalloproteinases in dental erosion

This review discusses the role of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) in the development of dentin erosion and the protective effects of MMP inhibitors, based on recent evidence from in vitro and in situ studies. MMPs are present in both dentin and saliva and play an important role in dentin erosion progression. Enzymatic removal of the organic matrix by MMPs increases the demineralization process, since the demineralized organic matrix has been shown to hamper ionic diffusion after an acidic challenge. Recent evidence from in vitro and in situ studies has shown a protective role of MMP inhibitors against dentin erosion and erosion plus abrasion. The inhibitors tested were green tea and its active epigallocatechin-gallate (EGCG), ferrous sulfate, and chlorhexidine. They have been tested in dentifrices, solutions, and gels. The latter led to a more pronounced protective effect against dentin erosion and erosion plus abrasion. The protection was long-lasting and could be observed after up to 10 days of severe erosive and erosive-plus-abrasive challenges in situ. Thus, the use of MMP inhibitors has emerged as an important preventive tool against dentin erosion. Clinical studies should be conducted to confirm the results obtained and to give support to the establishment of clinical protocols of use.

The glycosylation profile of osteoadherin alters during endochondral bone formation

Endochondral bone formation involves the dynamic interplay between the cells and their extracellular environment to facilitate the deposition of a calcified matrix. Numerous molecules are involved within this process, including collagens and non-collagenous proteins, and their post-translational modifications have been shown to effect their biomolecular interactions. Osteoadherin (OSAD), a keratin sulfate (KS)-substituted small leucine-rich proteoglycan has been isolated from mineralized tissues and is considered to be a mineralized tissue-specific protein. However, to date, information is limited concerning the dynamic expression and role of this proteoglycan during bone formation and the biomineralization process. The current study aimed to examine the dynamic expression of this protein throughout mouse metatarsal long bone development, from the cartilage anlagen (E15) to the fully formed bone (Adult). Using quantitative gene expression analysis we observed that OSAD was produced with the onset of mineralization and the formation of the ossification center. This finding was reflected in the localization studies, using both light and electron microscopy, and showed that initial OSAD localization was restricted to the endosteal surfaces of the diaphysis and forming metaphysis. Furthermore, we analyzed protein extracts, both mineral and non-mineral associated fractions, and showed that OSAD was substituted with varying patterns of glycosylation during bone development. Sequential enzymatic digestions of the non-mineral bound protein extracts demonstrated that OSAD lacked any KS chains throughout all development stages. Whereas, in the mineral bound fractions, with long bone maturation the substitution with KS became more apparent with development. Therefore, it can be concluded that different pools of OSAD are produced during endochondral bone formation and these may have specific roles in directing the mineralization process.

Role of the NH2 -terminal fragment of dentin sialophosphoprotein in dentinogenesis

Dentin sialophosphoprotein (DSPP) is a large precursor protein that is proteolytically processed into a NH2 -terminal fragment [composed of dentin sialoprotein (DSP) and a proteoglycan form (DSP-PG)] and a COOH-terminal fragment [dentin phosphoprotein (DPP)]. In vitro studies indicate that DPP is a strong initiator and regulator of hydroxyapatite crystal formation and growth, but the role(s) of the NH2 -terminal fragment of DSPP (i.e., DSP and DSP-PG) in dentinogenesis remain unclear. This study focuses on the function of the NH2 -terminal fragment of DSPP in dentinogenesis. Here, transgenic (Tg) mouse lines expressing the NH2 -terminal fragment of DSPP driven by a 3.6-kb type I collagen promoter (Col 1a1) were generated and cross-bred with Dspp null mice to obtain mice that express the transgene but lack the endogenous Dspp (Dspp KO/DSP Tg). We found that dentin from the Dspp KO/DSP Tg mice was much thinner, more poorly mineralized, and remarkably disorganized compared with dentin from the Dspp KO mice. The fact that Dspp KO/DSP Tg mice exhibited more severe dentin defects than did the Dspp null mice indicates that the NH2 -terminal fragment of DSPP may inhibit dentin mineralization or may serve as an antagonist against the accelerating action of DPP and serve to prevent predentin from being mineralized too rapidly during dentinogenesis.

MMP-3 provokes CTGF/CCN2 production independently of protease activity and dependently on dynamin-related endocytosis, which contributes to human dental pulp cell migration

Matrix metalloproteinase-3 (MMP-3) expression is promoted after pulpotomy, and application of MMP-3 to dental pulp after pulpotomy accelerates angiogenesis and hard tissue formation. However, the mechanism by which MMP-3 promotes dental pulp wound healing is still unclear. Connective tissue growth factor/CCN family 2 (CTGF/CCN2), a protein belonging to the CCN family, is considered to participate in wound healing, angiogenesis, and cell migration. In this study, we examined the involvement of CTGF/CCN2 in MMP-3-induced cell migration in human dental pulp (fibroblast-like) cells. In human dental pulp cells, MMP-3 promoted cell migration, but this effect was clearly blocked in the presence of anti-CTGF/CCN2 antibody. MMP-3 provoked mRNA and protein expression and secretion of CTGF/CCN2 in a concentration- and time-dependent manner. The MMP-3 inhibitor NNGH failed to suppress MMP-3-induced CTGF/CCN2 protein expression. The potent dynamin inhibitor dynasore clearly inhibited MMP-3-induced CTGF/CCN2 expression. These results strongly suggest that MMP-3 induces CTGF/CCN2 production independently of the protease activity of MMP-3 and dependently on dynamin-related endocytosis, which is involved in cell migration in human dental pulp cells.

Differential effects of fibromodulin deficiency on mouse mandibular bones and teeth: a micro-CT time course study

Fibromodulin (Fmod) is a keratan sulfate small leucine-rich proteoglycan which is enriched in bones and teeth. In order to determine its functions on bone and tooth mineralization we characterized the phenotype of Fmod-deficient (Fmod-KO) mice using a new-generation microfocus computerized tomography system (micro-CT) and software allowing advanced visualization of 3-D data. Three-week-old and 10- week-old Fmod-KO mandibles and teeth were compared with those of age-matched wild-type (WT) mice. In both young and mature mice the Fmod-KO mandibles were hypomineralized, especially the posterior (proximal) part of the mandible as it appeared to be the main target of the molecule deficiency whereas less extensive alterations were found in the alveolar bone. In transverse sections, larger marrow spaces were observed in the Fmod-KO mice compared with age-matched young or mature WT mice. Quantitative evaluation of the pulp volume of the first molar and 3-D reconstructions suggested that dentinogenesis was diminished in 3-week-old Fmod-KO teeth. In contrast, increased dentin formation was found in 10-week-old Fmod-KO mice and it was accompanied by a reduced pulp volume. Thus, the differential effects of Fmod deficiency on bones and teeth appear to diverge in adult mice. This may result from the previously reported differences in the molecular weight of Fmod in the 2 tissues or from compensatory mechanisms due to the overexpression of DSP and DMP-1 in the dental pulp of Fmod-KO. It is also possible that a single molecule plays diverging roles in a tissue-specific or region-specific manner.

Immunohistochemical and biochemical assay of MMP-3 in human dentine

OBJECTIVE

The function of endogenous MMP-3 and its distribution within the human dentine is unclear. Thus, the aim of the present study was to assay the presence and distribution of MMP-3 within human sound dentine by means of biochemical and immunohistochemical assays.

METHODS

Powdered dentine from extracted human teeth was prepared and (1) partially demineralised with 1% H(3)PO(4) for 10min or (2) untreated (control). The presence of MMP-3 was measured using a colorimetric assay system (QuantiSir™, Epigentek, USA). Additional cryo-fractured dentine fragments were processed for immunohistochemical identification of MMP-3 under FEI-SEM. Casein-zymography was used to investigate MMP-3 activity.

RESULTS

MMP-3 detected level was 2.732ng/μL in partially demineralised dentine powder, whilst it increased to 3.280ng/μL in mineralised dentine. The FEI-SEM analysis revealed positive immunolabelling patterns for MMP-3, predominantly localized on the intertubular collagen fibrillar network showing MMP-3 directly or indirectly bound to the collagen fibrils. Casein-zymograms showed positive proteolytic activity for MMP-3 in demineralised dentine powder.

CONCLUSION

The results of the study clearly revealed the presence and distribution of MMP3 in human sound dentine. Whilst the presence was verified, its role is still unclear. Future studies are needed to investigate the possible involvement of MMP-3 in physiological and pathological condition of the dentine-pulp complex.

Dentin: structure, composition and mineralization

We review firstly the specificities of the different types of dentin present in mammalian teeth. The outer layers include the mantle dentin, the Tomes' granular and the hyaline Hopewell-Smith's layers. Circumpulpal dentin forming the bulk of the tooth, comprises intertubular and peritubular dentin. In addition to physiological primary and secondary dentin formation, reactionary dentin is produced in response to pathological events. Secondly, we evaluate the role of odontoblasts in dentin formation, their implication in the synthesis and secretion of type I collagen fibrils and non-collagenous molecules. Thirdly, we study the composition and functions of dentin extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules implicated in dentinogenesis. As structural proteins they are mineralization promoters or inhibitors. They are also signaling molecules. Three different forms of dentinogenesis are identified: i) matrix vesicles are implicated in early dentin formation, ii) collagen and some proteoglycans are involved in the formation of predentin, further transformed into intertubular dentin, iii) the distal secretion of some non-collagenous ECM molecules and some serum proteins contribute to the formation of peritubular dentin.

Adhesion to chondroitinase ABC treated dentin

Dentin bonding relies on complete resin impregnation throughout the demineralised hydrophilic collagen mesh. Chondroitin sulphate-glycosaminoglycans are claimed to regulate the three-dimensional arrangement of the dentin organic matrix and its hydrophilicity. The aim of this study was to investigate bond strength of two etch-and-rinse adhesives to chondroitinase ABC treated dentin. Human extracted molars were treated with chondroitinase ABC and a double labeling immunohistochemical technique was applied to reveal type I collagen and chondroitin 4/6 sulphate distribution under field emission in-lens scanning electron microscope. The immunohistochemical technique confirmed the effective removal of chondroitin 4/6 sulphate after the enzymatic treatment. Dentin surfaces exposed to chondroitinase ABC and untreated specimens prepared on untreated acid-etched dentin were bonded with Adper Scotchbond Multi-Purpose or Prime and Bond NT. Bonded specimens were submitted to microtensile testing and nanoleakage interfacial analysis under transmission electron microscope. Increased mean values of microtensile bond strength and reduced nanoleakage expression were found for both adhesives after chondroitinase ABC treatment of the dentin surface. Adper Scotchbond Multi-Purpose increased its bond strength about 28%, while bonding made with Prime and Bond NT almost doubled (92% increase) compared to untreated specimens. This study supports the hypothesis that adhesion can be enhanced by removal of chondroitin 4/6 sulphate and dermatan sulphate, probably due to a reduced amount of water content and enlarged interfibrillar spaces. Further studies should validate this hypothesis investigating the stability of chondroitin 4/6 and dermatan sulphate-depleted dentin bonded interface over time.

The NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal fragments of dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1) localize differently in the compartments of dentin and growth plate of bone

Multiple studies have shown that dentin matrix protein 1 (DMP1) is essential for bone and dentin mineralization. After post-translational proteolytic cleavage, DMP1 exists within the extracellular matrix of bone and dentin as an NH2-terminal fragment, a COOH-terminal fragment, and the proteoglycan form of the NH2-terminal fragment (DMP1-PG). To begin to assess the biological function of each fragment, we evaluated the distribution of both fragments in the rat tooth and bone using antibodies specific to the NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal regions of DMP1 and confocal microscopy. In rat first molar organs, the NH2-terminal fragment localized to predentin, whereas the COOH-terminal fragment was mainly restricted to mineralized dentin. In the growth plate of bone, the NH2-terminal fragment appeared in the proliferation and hypertrophic zones, whereas the COOH-terminal fragment occupied the ossification zone. Forster resonance energy transfer analysis showed colocalization of both fragments of DMP1 in odontoblasts and predentin, as well as hypertrophic chondrocytes within the growth plates of bone. The biochemical analysis of bovine teeth showed that predentin is rich in DMP1-PG, whereas mineralized dentin primarily contains the COOH-terminal fragment. We conclude that the differential patterns of expression of NH2-terminal and COOH-terminal fragments of DMP1 reflect their potentially distinct roles in the biomineralization of dentin and bone matrices.

The effect of stromelysin-1 (MMP-3) on non-collagenous extracellular matrix proteins of demineralized dentin and the adhesive properties of restorative resins

Dentin non-collagenous matrix components (NCPs) are structural proteins involved in the formation, the architecture and the mineralization of the extracellular matrix (ECM). We investigated here how recombinant metalloproteinase stromelysin-1, also termed MMP-3, initiates the release of ECM molecules from artificially demineralized human dentin. Analysis of the supernatants by Western blotting reveals that MMP-3 extracts PGs (decorin, biglycan), and also a series of phosphorylated proteins: dentin sialoprotein (DSP), osteopontin (OPN), bone sialoprotein (BSP) and MEPE, but neither dentin matrix protein-1 (DMP1), another member of the SIBLING family, nor osteocalcin (OC), a non-phosphorylated matrix molecule. After treatment of dentin surfaces by MMP-3, scanning electron microscope (SEM) examination of resin replica shows an increased penetration of the resin into the dentin tubules when compared to surfaces only treated by demineralizing solutions. This preclinical investigation suggests that MMP-3 may be used to improve the adhesive properties of restorative materials.

Fibromodulin-deficient mice reveal dual functions for fibromodulin in regulating dental tissue and alveolar bone formation

The extracellular matrix of newborn, 7- and 21-day-old fibromodulin-deficient (Fmod KO) mice was compared with age-matched wild-type (WT) mice. Western blotting of proteins from 21-day-old WT mice revealed that the molecular weight of Fmod is smaller in dental tissues (approx. 40 kDa) compared to alveolar bone extracts (approx. 52 kDa). Dentin matrix protein1 (DMP1) was slightly increased in Fmod KO versus WT tooth extracts. After chondroitinase ABC digestion, dentin sialophosphoprotein (DSPP) appeared as 2 strong bands (approx. 150 and 70 kDa) in incisors from 21-day-old Fmod KO mice, whereas the smaller-sized species of DSPP was nearly absent in WT molars and no difference was detected between WT and KO mice in molars. Dentin mineralization was altered in newborn and 7-day-old KO mice, but seemed normal in 21-day-old KO mice. DMP1 and DSPP may be involved in compensatory mechanisms. The enamel had a twisted appearance and looked porous at day 21 in KO incisor, and the outer aprismatic layer was missing in the molar. Alveolar bone formation was enhanced in Fmod KO mice at days 0 and 7, whereas no difference was detected at day 21. We conclude that Fmod may control dental tissue formation and early maturation, where it acts mostly as an inhibitor in alveolar bone accumulation, excerpting its effects only at early developing stages. These dual functions may be related to the different forms of Fmod found in bone versus teeth.

Immunohistochemical identification of decorin and biglycan in human dentin: a correlative field emission scanning electron microscopy/transmission electron microscopy study

Decorin and biglycan, two small leucine-rich proteoglycans, have been proposed to play important roles in matrix-mediated formation of mineralized tissues, and their three-dimensional arrangement in human dentin is still not completely understood. The aim of this study was to immunohistochemically analyze the distribution of decorin and biglycan in human predentin/dentin organic matrix under a high-resolution field emission in-lens scanning electron microscope (FEI-SEM) and a transmission electron microscope (TEM). Tooth dentin specimens were submitted to either a preembedding or a postembedding immunolabeling technique using primary antibodies antidecorin and antibiglycan and gold-conjugated secondary antibodies. Correlative FEI-SEM/TEM observations showed that the two antibodies yielded a similar labeling pattern over the processes of odontoblasts and the predentin. Decorin and biglycan were mainly associated with the collagen fibers within the predentin layer, revealing a moderate immunoreaction that was significantly higher compared to the one observed on dentin. Thus, a generally weak labeling for decorin was found in dentin, which, however, was significantly higher on odontoblast processes within dentinal tubules than in intertubular dentin. On the other hand, biglycan immunolocalization on dentin revealed few gold particles rather uniformly distributed, without showing significant differences between tubular and intertubular regions. In conclusion, this study reveals distinct distribution patterns of decorin and biglycan and their relation with collagen. Decorin's and biglycan's precise roles within prematrix and mineralized matrix in human teeth should be further clarified.

Immunohistochemical identification of type I and type III collagen and chondroitin sulphate in human pre-dentine: a correlative FEI-SEM/TEM study

AIM

To identify type I- (I-CF) and type III-collagen fibrils (III-CF) and chondroitin 4/6 sulphate (CS) within human pre-dentine by means of a correlative analysis under field emission in-lens-scanning electron microscopy (FEI-SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).

METHODOLOGY

Human-extracted teeth were obtained and submitted to either a pre-embedding or a post-embedding immunolabelling procedure using monoclonal primary antibodies anti-I-CF, anti-III-CF and anti-CS. Gold-conjugated secondary antibodies were coupled to primary antibodies to visualize labelling under the electron beam. Correlative labelling patterns were obtained for I-CF and CS under both FEI-SEM and TEM.

RESULTS

Field emission in lens-SEM analysis revealed an intricate three-dimensional network of I-CF and CS clarifying the intimate relationship between the two main components of the pre-dentine organic matrix. TEM analysis revealed odontoblasts exhibiting intracellular labelling for CS, which became more intense and diffuse over the pre-dentine organic matrix. The same diffuse immunoreaction was revealed for I-CF, whereas a weak immunolocalization of III-CF was found scattered throughout the pre-dentine layer and over the collagen fibrils.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the pre- and post-embedding immunohistochemical approaches have led to the visualization of CF- and CS-labelling distribution within the pre-dentine layer, adding further knowledge on the elucidation of collagen-proteoglycans interaction in the organic matrix of human dental roots.

Zymographic analysis and characterization of MMP-2 and -9 forms in human sound dentin

The role and function of dentin matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are not well-understood, but they may play a key role in dentinal caries and the degradation of resin-bonded dentin matrices. To test the null hypothesis that MMP-9 is not found in dentin matrix, we used gelatin zymography to extract and isolate all molecular forms of gelatinolytic MMPs in demineralized mature sound dentin powder obtained from extracted human molars, characterizing and identifying the enzymes by Western blotting. Gelatinolytic MMPs were detected in extracts of demineralized dentin matrix and identified as MMP-2 and MMP-9. Acidic extracts (pH 2.3) yielded 3-8 times more MMP activity than did EDTA (pH 7.4). Their activation may contribute to dentin matrix degradation, which occurs during caries progression and following resin bonding. Inhibition of MMP-2 and -9 proteolytic activity may slow caries progression and increase the durability of resin-dentin bonds.

The role of matrix metalloproteinases in the oral environment

This review focuses specifically on matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their role in physiological and pathological extracellular matrix (ECM) remodeling and degradation processes in the oral environment. A group of enzymes capable of degrading almost all ECM proteins, MMPs contribute to both normal and pathological tissue remodeling. The expression of different MMPs may be upregulated in pathological conditions such as inflammation and tumor invasion. The balance between activated MMPs and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) controls the extent of ECM remodeling. Prior to mineralization, MMPs may participate in the organization of enamel and dentin organic matrix, or they may regulate mineralization by controlling the proteoglycan turnover. There is evidence indicating that MMPs could be involved in the etiology of enamel fluorosis and amelogenesis imperfecta. They seem to play a part in dentinal caries progression, since they have a crucial role in dentin collagen breakdown in caries lesions. MMPs have been identified in pulpal and periapical inflammation and are strongly correlated with periodontal diseases, since they are the major players in collagen breakdown during periodontal tissue destruction. The use of MMP inhibitors could help the prevention and treatment of many MMP-related oral diseases.

Matrix metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) is the major collagenase in human dentin

OBJECTIVE

Previously an unidentified collagenolytic metalloprotease together with gelatinase (matrix metalloproteinase-2, MMP-2), and enamelysin (MMP-20) have been detected in human dentin. The aim of the study was to characterize dentinal collagenolytic enzymes. Furthermore, we hypothesized that the dentinal MMPs are protected by the mineral phase, and studied the stability of dentinal MMPs.

DESIGN

To characterize dentinal collagenolytic enzymes, we used Western blotting with specific antibodies against MMP collagenases (MMP-1, -8, and -13) and cathepsin K. MMP-8 immunofluorometric assay (IFMA) was also used for MMP-8 detection, and functional collagenase activity was examined with type I collagen degradation assay. The stability of dentinal MMPs was examined by autoclaving dentin blocks before protein extraction and subsequent examination of protein levels and the activities of dentin collagenase and gelatinases.

RESULTS

MMP-8 (collagenase-2) was detected in dentin both with Western blot and IFMA, and dentinal samples also cleaved the intact type I collagen into characteristic 3/4(alphaA)-cleavage products in vitro. No other collagenases or cathepsin K were detected. In autoclaved samples no MMP-8 was found, but gelatinase activity was observed in protein fractions of mineralized dentin.

CONCLUSIONS

MMP-8 represents the major collagenase in human dentin. Unlike MMP-8, dentinal gelatinases can be detected after autoclave treatment of dentin, indicating their high resistance to external sample treatment procedures.

Interleukin-1 α Alters the Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinases and Collagen Degradation by Pulp Fibroblasts

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and the tissue inhibitors of MMPs (TIMPs) have been suggested to play a role in dental pulp destruction. This study examined the effects of interleukin (IL)-1 alpha on pulp fibroblasts. The ability of these cells to degrade collagen was determined with or without IL-1 alpha utilizing a cell-mediated collagen degradation assay. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction was utilized to examine the mRNA expression of multiple MMPs and TIMPs with and without IL-1 alpha, while Western blot analyses and zymography were utilized to examine their protein expression. The collagen degradation mediated by these cells was stimulated by IL-1 alpha and inhibited by MMP inhibitors. IL-1 alpha increased the mRNA expression of MMP-1 and MMP-3, as well as induced MMP-7. Western blot analyses confirmed these results. IL-1 alpha increased the secreted protein level of TIMP-1, while only slightly affected the level of TIMP-2. These results suggest that IL-1 alpha can induce pulp destruction by differentially regulating MMPs and TIMPs.

Fibromodulin-deficient Mice Display Impaired Collagen Fibrillogenesis in Predentin as Well as Altered Dentin Mineralization and Enamel Formation

To determine the functions of fibromodulin (Fmod), a small leucine-rich keratan sulfate proteoglycan in tooth formation, we investigated the distribution of Fmod in dental tissues by immunohistochemistry and characterized the dental phenotype of 1-day-old Fmod-deficient mice using light and transmission electron microscopy. Immunohistochemistry was also used to compare the relative protein expression of dentin sialoprotein (DSP), dentin matrix protein-1 (DMP 1), bone sialoprotein (BSP), and osteopontin (OPN) between Fmod-deficient mice and wild-type mice. In normal mice and rats, Fmod immunostaining was mostly detected in the distal cell bodies of odontoblasts and in the stratum intermedium and was weaker in odontoblast processes and predentin. The absence of Fmod impaired dentin mineralization, increased the diameter of the collagen fibrils throughout the whole predentin, and delayed enamel formation. Immunohistochemistry provides evidence for compensatory mechanisms in Fmod-deficient mice. Staining for DSP and OPN was decreased in molars, whereas DMP 1 and BSP were enhanced. In the incisors, labeling for DSP, DMP 1, and BSP was strongly increased in the pulp and odontoblasts, whereas OPN staining was decreased. Positive staining was also seen for DMP 1 and BSP in secretory ameloblasts. Together these studies indicate that Fmod restricts collagen fibrillogenesis in predentin while promoting dentin mineralization and the early stages of enamel formation. (J Histochem Cytochem 54:525-537, 2006)

Matrix metalloproteinase inhibition impairs the processing, formation and mineralization of dental tissues during mouse molar development

Organotypic cultures of embryonic mouse tooth germs were used to investigate the developmental expression and roles of MMPs in the formation and mineralization of dentin and enamel matrices. The spatially and temporally regulated expression of MMP-2, MMP-9 and MMP-20 in developing mouse tooth germs in vivo was maintained in culture. The inhibition of metalloproteinases activity by marimastat altered the morphogenesis and mineralization of the tooth germs associated with an inhibition of the activation of both MMP-20 and MMP-2. MMP inhibition deregulated the molecular processing of two major dental matrix proteins, amelogenin and dentin sialoprotein (DSP). This coincided with their accumulation and the loss of their normal distribution within the extracellular matrix, resulting in a defective mineralization of dentin and enamel matrices. These findings demonstrate the critical role of MMPs in the processing and maturation of the dental matrix.

Distributions of magnesium and sulphur in defect layers of incisor dentine in magnesium-deficient rats

This study examined the mechanism governing the occurrence of defect layers of incisor dentine in Mg-deficient rats by X-ray microanalysis. Young (5 weeks of age) Wistar male rats were pair-fed semi-synthetic diets containing either control (0.05% Mg) (N = 8) or Mg-deficient (0.001% Mg) (N = 8) ingredients for 17 days. All animals were time marked with a combination of 0.1 mol nitrilotriacetato lead and 0.1 mol nitrilotriacetato zinc (2mg Pb/kg body weight) on days 0, 7 and 14 into incisor dentine. Blood samples were obtained on days 10 and 17 in order to measure Ca, Mg, P and alkaline phosphatase activity levels in serum; moreover, hypomagnesaemia and hypercalcaemia were confirmed. After the 17th day, rats were sacrificed humanely under anaesthesia and mandibular incisors were removed. Dentine formation of right mandibular incisors was assessed (time marking lines); furthermore, Ca, P, Mg and sulphur (S) concentrations as well as Ca/P molar ratio were determined in left mandibular incisors based on contiguous measurement points at 2 microm intervals from dentine pulp to dentine of the lingual aspect via X-ray analysis. Additionally, proteoglycan distribution was observed in other Mg-deficient rat dentine. These findings demonstrated decreases in body weight, incisor formation and incisor length in Mg-deficient rats. Mg and S levels increased in the defect layers, whereas proteoglycan decreased. This phenomenon was possibly attributable to condensation of Mg and S contents consequent to decreased dentine formation during Mg-deficiency and a transient increase in Mg due to transport of Mg as a result of inhibition of cell proliferation in soft tissues.

Modulation of collagen fibrillogenesis by dentinal proteoglycans

Studies have identified different pools of proteoglycan (PG) species present within the unmineralized matrix of the predentine, the transitional phase at the predentine-dentine interface and the mineralized dentine. These PGs alter with respect to the chemical nature of their glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains and as a result of extracellular processing of the macromolecule in the matrix. The present study has examined the influence of the PGs isolated from these phases and the influence of the attached GAG chains, upon their ability to control collagen fibrillogenesis. PGs isolated from the three phases were characterized and determined to contain a mixture of decorin and biglycan. Results have indicated that predentine PGs, which are substituted with a higher proportion of dermatan sulfate, significantly delayed fibril formation while ultimately promoting the formation of thicker fibrils. Removal of the GAG chains further delayed fibrillogenesis, leading to the formation of thinner fibrils, compared with the collagen-only control. PGs isolated from predentine-dentine, which contained a higher proportion of chondroitin sulfate, also significantly delayed fibrillogenesis, resulting in thicker collagen fibrils. GAG chains attached to the predentine-dentine interface PGs played a role in the timing of fibrillogenesis with fibril formation initiated at the same time as the collagen control, but yielding thicker fibrils. Dentine PGs significantly inhibited fibrillogenesis and fibril thickness over concentrations of 50-25 microg/mL protein. In conclusion, the PGs isolated from the distinct phases have indicated differing roles in the orchestrated organization of the extracellular matrix during dentinogenesis, with roles for both the core protein and attached GAG chains indicated.

Dentinal proteoglycans demonstrate an increasing order of affinity for hydroxyapatite crystals during the transition of predentine to dentine

The transition from an unmineralized predentine to a mineralized dentine involves a variety of molecular extracellular matrix interactions and protein degradation events. Previous studies have identified that different pools of proteoglycan (PG) species are present within the matrix of the predentine, the transitional phase at the predentine-dentine border, and the mineralized dentine. These PGs alter with respect to the chemical nature of the glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chain and as a result of extracellular processing of the macromolecule in the matrix. This study has examined the hydroxyapatite (HAP) binding affinity of the PGs isolated from these phases and the influence of the attached GAG chains upon their binding characteristics. PGs isolated from the three phases were characterized to contain a mixture of decorin and biglycan, substituted with chondroitin sulfate GAG chain(s). Maximal binding for dentine PGs onto HAP was achieved at 15.60 microg/ml protein and for predentine-dentine interface PGs at 0.125 mg/ml. A significantly increasing gradient of affinity was observed moving toward dentine, with dentine PGs exhibiting 19 times greater binding affinity for HAP than predentine PGs and 7.5 times greater affinity than predentine-dentine interface PGs. Removal of the GAG chains from dentine PGs significantly reduced binding affinity for HAP but did not influence the number of binding sites. The difference in binding ability observed for the different PG pools gives further support for the involvement of these macromolecules in regulating the transition from predentine to dentine and suggests key roles for the GAG chains in the mineralisation process.

Immunocytochemistry of keratan sulfate proteoglycan and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan in porcine tooth-germ dentin

Keratan sulfate proteoglycan and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan have been reported to inhibit collagen fibrillogenesis. We investigated their distribution in order to evaluate the role of proteoglycan in dentinogenesis. Specimens of porcine tooth-germ dentin and erupted teeth were the materials on which antibodies to keratin sulfate and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan were used. Predentin was found to be positive for both antibodies and the reaction ceased in the calcification front. Uniformly thick collagen fibrils (30-70 nm in diameter) were distributed in the predentin matrix, which would become intertubular dentin in the future. Both antibodies reacted positively along these fibrils. In contrast, along the surface layer of dentin in the tooth germ and that in erupted teeth, collagen fibrils of 10-300 nm in diameter were noted occasionally in dentinal tubules whose odontoblastic processes had disappeared and these heterogeneous fibrils were negative for both antibodies. Our findings suggest that keratan sulfate proteoglycan and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan distributed in the predentin inhibit calcification of collagen fibrils in the uncalcified matrix and disappear in the calcification front. It is further suggested that keratan sulfate proteoglycan and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan distributed along collagen fibrils in the predentin matrix maintain uniform thickness, whereas collagen fibrils in dentinal tubules varied in thickness because of the absence of involvement of both proteoglycans. Therefore, keratan sulfate proteoglycan and dermatan sulfate proteoglycan were thought to be involved in both calcification and matrix formation.

Fluoride-induced changes to proteoglycan structure synthesised within the dentine–pulp complex in vitro

Fluoride is known to influence mineralisation patterns within dentine, where alterations in the post-translational modification of proteoglycans (PG) have been proposed as an implicating factor. In light of recent studies elucidating changing PG profiles in the transition of predentine to mineralised dentine, this study investigates the influence of fluoride on the major PG populations (decorin, biglycan and versican) within the pulp, predentine and dentine. Tooth sections from rat incisors were cultured for 14 days in the presence 0, 1 and 6 mM sodium fluoride and the PG extracted from the pulp, predentine and dentine matrices. PG species and corresponding metabolites were identified by their immuno-reactivity to antibodies against decorin, biglycan and versican. Component glycosaminoglycan chains were characterised with respect to their nature, chain length and disaccharide composition. Levels of PG extracted from pulp and predentine were reduced, particularly for biglycan. Fluoride did not influence levels of decorin or versican within predentine or dentine, although the processing of these macromolecules within pulp and predentine was affected, particularly at higher fluoride concentrations. Levels of dermatan sulfate were reduced within pulp and predentine, although the effect was less pronounced for predentine. Fluoride reduced sulfation of glycosaminoglycan chains within pulp and predentine tissues, with a notable reduction in Deltadi6S evident. In all three tissues, glycosaminoglycan chain length was reduced. Considering the various roles for PG in the dentine-pulp complex, either directly or indirectly in the mineralisation process, changes in the synthesis, structure and processing of the different PG species within the pulp, predentine and dentine matrices provides a further molecular explanation for the altered mineralisation patterns witnessed during fluorosis.

Involvement of matrix metalloproteinases in the onset of dentin mineralization

In order to study the involvement of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) on dentin formation and mineralization, day 18 embryonic mouse tooth germs were cultured for 10 d in the presence or absence of Marimastat, a general MMP inhibitor, or CT(1166), a more selective inhibitor of gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and stromelysin-1 (MMP-3). With Marimastat a dose-dependent increase in thickness of the predentin layer and a decreased mineralization of dentin were observed. At the highest concentration of the inhibitor used, enamel formation had ceased. With CT(1166), these effects were already apparent at the lowest concentration used. Western blot analyses demonstrated that the two inhibitors inhibited the expression of enamelysin (MMP-20). These observations indicate that MMPs (possibly MMP-2, -3, -9 and/or -20) play a role in the onset of dentin mineralization. The lack of enamel formation was possibly due to diffusion of amelogenin from its normal site of apposition. The protein clearly was not retained at the surface of the non-mineralized dentin layer, and immunopositive amelogenin accumulated in the odontoblast compartment. The diffusion of enamel proteins and the accumulation revealed by immunolabeling of two small leucine-rich proteoglycans, decorin and biglycan, in the predentin may have contributed to impaired dentin mineralization.