Course, Co-Occurrence, and Longitudinal Associations of Emotional Disturbance and Delinquency from Adolescence to Young Adulthood: A Six-Year Three-Wave Study

Moderating Effects of Emotional Recognition Competency in Rejective Parenting and Adolescent Depression and Aggression

Rejective parenting is a major antecedent of emotional instability and aggressive behavioral problems. Previous studies have reported that emotional problems, such as depression, anxiety, aggression, and conduct problems in children and adolescents, improve through interventions that enhance emotional recognition competency. In this study, we explored whether the emotional recognition ability levels of individual adolescents moderated the pathway of negative parenting on aggression mediated by depression The moderated mediating effect of emotional recognition competency was investigated through examining 2265 first-year high school students using the 2021 data from the Korean Children and Youth Panel Survey 2018. There was no significant moderating effect on the direct pathway from rejective parenting to aggression. The moderating effect of emotional recognition competency on the indirect pathway leading to aggression through depression in rejective parenting was significant. These results suggest that the ability to correctly understand signals related to the emotions of others can play an important role in reducing depression and aggressive behavior by reducing conflict with people around them and experiencing more support.

Longitudinal Association and Mediating Mechanism Between Externalizing and Internalizing Problems Among Children: A Within-Person Analysis

OBJECTIVE

In this multi-informant, 3-year longitudinal study, the bidirectional relations between externalizing and internalizing problems were investigated, along with whether peer victimization and academic achievement mediated their relations after separating between-person effects from within-person effects.

METHOD

A sample of 3238 Chinese children (55.02% boys; Mage T1 = 9.89 years) reported semiannually on peer victimization and both externalizing and internalizing problems, and parents reported on their children's externalizing and internalizing problems. Students' objective academic achievement data (i.e. final exam scores) were obtained from school records.

RESULTS

Random intercepts cross-lagged panel modeling (RI-CLPM) revealed that neither academic achievement nor peer victimization mediated the relations between externalizing and internalizing problems in both self and parent reports at the within-person level. The cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) results supported that peer victimization (but not academic achievement) mediated the relations from internalizing to externalizing problems or externalizing to internalizing problems, whether self-reported or parent-reported. This study also identified meaningful sex differences in focal relations among children.

CONCLUSIONS

Findings illustrate the importance of distinguishing within-person and between- person associations, with within- person findings failing to support the hypothesized mediating pathways of the Dual Failure or Acting Out Models among children.

Longer-Term Outcomes of the Incredible Years Parenting Intervention

Conduct problems can develop into behavior disorders and put children at risk for other mental health problems. Parenting interventions have been shown to successfully reduce conduct problems and are often expected to prevent the development of broader mental health problems. Few studies have evaluated the longer-term and broader effects of these interventions. To what extent are parenting intervention effects sustained in the years after the intervention? And do effects pertain to conduct problems specifically, or do they also affect broader aspects of children's mental health? We used a randomized controlled trial to assess the longer-term (2.5 years) effects of the Incredible Years parenting intervention on children's conduct problems in an indicated prevention setting (N = 387; 79% retention rate). Using a multi-method (survey and computerized tasks) and multi-informant (parents, teachers, and children) approach, we tested whether initial effects on conduct problems were sustained, and whether Incredible Years had broader effects on children's peer problems, emotional problems, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms, attention and inhibition deficits, and service use. Incredible Years, relative to control (no intervention), led to sustained reductions in parent-reported conduct problems (Cohen's d = 0.31), but not teacher- and child-reported conduct problems. There were no broader benefits: Incredible Years did not reduce children's peer problems, emotional problems, ADHD-symptoms, attention and inhibition deficits, or their service use. Improvements in parents' perceptions of child conduct problems sustained until 2.5 years later. Our findings do not show benefits of Incredible Years as a preventive intervention for children's broader mental health.

Co‐occurrence of depression and delinquency in personality types

Although the co‐occurrence between adolescent depression and delinquency has been well‐studied, the nature of the longitudinal associations is not yet clear. To clarify this we examined whether personality type is a moderator in the longitudinal co‐occurrence of depression and delinquency. A total of 338 young and middle adolescents completed questionnaires about depression, delinquency and personality in 3 yearly waves of the CONflict And Management Of RElationships (CONAMORE). We found that the stable overcontrollers showed the highest mean level on depression and that the stable undercontrollers showed the highest mean level on delinquency. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the longitudinal co‐occurrence between depression and delinquency was best described by means of a stability model, in which personality type membership proved to be an important moderator. The three personality types differed significantly on the rank‐order stability of both depression and delinquency. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Bidirectional Association Between Bullying Perpetration and Internalizing Problems Among Youth

PURPOSE

Identification of the temporal pattern of associations between bullying perpetration and mental health problems among youth is needed for the optimal targeting of intervention and prevention. We examined the bidirectional association between bullying perpetration and internalizing problems among youth in the U.S.

METHODS

We used data from the prospective cohort study of the Population Assessment of Tobacco and Health waves 1 (September 12, 2013, to December 14, 2014) and 2 (October 23, 2014, to October 30, 2015), a nationally representative sample of youth. We analyzed the associations of bullying perpetration with internalizing problems using binary and multinomial logistic regressions. The 13,200 youths aged 12-17 years were included in the analytic sample.

RESULTS

There was a cross-sectional association between bullying perpetration and moderate/high lifetime internalizing problems (OR_{moderate vs. no/low} = 3.13, 95% CI 2.67-3.65; and OR_{high vs. no/low} = 8.77, 95% CI 7.53-10.20). In the prospective analyses, bullying perpetration was associated with increased likelihood of moderate/high internalizing problems at follow-up (OR_{moderate vs. no/low} = 1.49, 95% CI 1.15-1.94; and OR_{high vs. no/low} = 1.71, 95% CI 1.23-2.38), and youth with moderate/high internalizing problems had higher odds of bullying perpetration at follow-up (OR_moderate = 1.95, 95% CI 1.65-2.31; and OR_high = 3.21, 95% CI 2.74-3.76).

CONCLUSIONS

The association between bullying perpetration and internalizing problems appears to be bidirectional. Bullying behaviors prevention and intervention strategies among youth should consider how to take into account and handle negative feelings and mental health problems.

Paternal and Maternal Influence on Delinquency among Early Adolescents in Hong Kong

Objective: The aim was to examine the effects of parental behaviors and the parent-child relationship on delinquency levels as well as growth rates among early adolescents, and to explore the cross-sectional and longitudinal influence of fathers and mothers. Method: The study used and analyzed data collected at Waves 1–3 (N = 2669, age 12.56 ± 0.71 years at Wave 1) in a six-year research project. Results: While both parents’ behavioral control significantly predicted a lower initial level of delinquency, only higher behavioral control of fathers predicted a fast increase in delinquency. In contrast, parental psychological control did not serve as significant predictors in the individual growth curve model. Besides, relationships of father-child and mother-child dyads negatively predicted the initial level of delinquency but not the rate of change in adolescent delinquency. When all factors were investigated simultaneously, fathers’ behavioral control and the relationship between mother and child were robust cross-sectional predictors, whereas only the latter was a stable longitudinal predictor of adolescent delinquency. Conclusions: Parenting and the parent-child relationship are predictors of adolescent delinquency. It is necessary to differentiate between: (1) adolescent delinquency level and its change rate over time; (2) different aspects of parent-child dyadic factors; and (3) paternal and maternal factors.

A latent transition analysis of the longitudinal stability of dual-factor mental health in adolescence

Dual-factor models of mental health are increasingly supported but little is known about longitudinal trends in dual-factor mental health. The current study used latent profile analysis (LPA) to empirically identify dual-factor mental health classes at each of Grades 9 through 12 and latent transition analysis (LTA) to examine stability of classes over four academic years. A sample of 875 adolescents from two cohorts reported on their social-emotional strengths and psychological distress. Cross-sectional LPAs for each grade year resulted in four mental health classes: complete mental health, moderately mentally healthy, symptomatic but content, and troubled. An LTA model indicated that the complete mental health class exhibited the most stability, followed by moderately mentally healthy and symptomatic but content classes. The troubled class exhibited the least stability. Less than 24% of participants remained in the same mental health class across all years. Findings support regular monitoring of students' dual-factor mental health to accurately inform mental health promotion, prevention, and intervention efforts.

The Effects of a Family Systems Intervention on Co-Occurring Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviors of Children with Substance Abusing Mothers: A Latent Transition Analysis

Children of substance abusing parents are at heightened risk to develop problem behaviors, yet little is known about the co-occurring patterns of internalizing and externalizing behaviors among this population. With 183 children (M age = 11.54 years, SD = 2.55, range 8-16) whose mothers were diagnosed with a substance use disorder, the current study identified subgroups/classes of children that were clinically distinct in their co-occurring patterns of internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and examined how children in different clinical subgroups responded to a family systems intervention. Latent class analyses identified four classes of internalizing and externalizing behaviors: internalizing only, externalizing only, comorbid, and normative. Latent transition analyses showed that participation in family systems therapy resulted in an increased likelihood of transitioning from the externalizing class at baseline to the normative class at 18 months post-baseline, and from the comorbid class at baseline to the internalizing class at 18 months post-baseline as well. The findings support the effectiveness of family systems therapy in interrupting the stability of children's problem behaviors and improving children's behavioral outcomes.

Gender Differences in the Relationship Between Offending, Self-harm and Depression in Adolescence and Young Adulthood

Criminal offending and poor mental health are both recognised as important social problems warranting prevention and intervention efforts. Although there is some evidence for comorbidity between these problems, little research has examined the causal relationship between offending and mental health, particularly for young people. The present investigation addresses these issues by using data from the Sibling Study, a longitudinal investigation of delinquency as self-reported by 731 adolescents and young adults in south-east Queensland, Australia. The results suggest that for young women, but not men, offending behaviours (including the use of illicit drugs) lead to increases in self-harm and depression. Conversely, poor mental health, as indicated by having low self-esteem, a poor future outlook, and a belief that life is very confusing, does not influence subsequent levels of offending for either sex. The implications for prevention and intervention are discussed, with emphasis on the need for the criminal justice system to provide mental health services to young female offenders.

Longitudinal associations between conduct problems and depressive symptoms among girls and boys with early conduct problems

Youth with conduct problems (CP) may experience high rates of depressive symptoms (DS). However, little is known about the direction of the longitudinal associations between CP and DS in this specific population. Although girls with CP appear at greater risk than boys for presenting comorbid depression, empirical research on gender differences in these associations is even sparser. The current study used autoregressive latent trajectory models to compare four perspectives with hypotheses regarding the longitudinal associations between CP and DS, while taking into account the evolution of both problems. We also examined gender differences in the longitudinal associations. A total of 345 children (40.6 % female) presenting with a high level of CP in early elementary school (mean age at study inception = 8.52; SD = .94) were evaluated annually over a four-year period (5 measurement time points). The results revealed that CP and DS were quite stable over time. Moreover, CP and DS showed strong covariation at each measurement time point, but only one significant positive cross-lagged association between the two processes, indicating that higher levels of DS at time 3 were associated with higher levels of CP 1 year later. No differences were observed in the longitudinal associations between CP and DS in boys and girls. Given the comorbidity and stability of CP and DS, these findings suggest that DS should be systematically evaluated among children with early clinically significant CP, and treatment plans should include interventions aimed at both CP and DS among children who present with both types of problems.

Delinquency and moral reasoning in adolescence and young adulthood

This article presents a longitudinal-sequential analysis of the developmental and reciprocal relationships between self-reported delinquency and moral reasoning (as measured with the Dutch version of the short form of the Defining Issues Test). Between 1991 and 1997 a large sample of 846 Dutch adolescents and young adults (15–23 years in 1991) was measured three times with an interval period of 3 years. Moral reasoning scores increased with age both cross-sectionally and longitudinally, while delinquency scores dropped sharply, resulting in modest negative correlations between delinquency and moral reasoning. Structural equation modelling of the data delivered a satisfactory fit, suggesting statistical reciprocal effects between delinquency and moral reasoning for the total sample. A multigroup analysis for three different age cohorts revealed a consistent negative effect of previous delinquency on moral reasoning between the ages of 21 to 23 years. Between the ages of 24 to 26 years, however, delinquency scores were, in turn, negatively affected by previous moral reasoning. Although substantial gender differences in delinquency were reported, no such differences were obtained for either moral reasoning or its relationship with delinquency. The results are discussed in view of the need for a multidimensional process approach of the relation between moral judgment and delinquency.

Co-occurrence of depressive moods and delinquency in early adolescence: The role of failure expectations, manipulativeness, and social contexts

This study examined the co-occurrence of depression and delinquency in early adolescents, focusing on longitudinal associations with failure expectations and manipulativeness, and on perceptions of relationships with parents, school and teachers, and peers. Data were used from 1,059 Swedish adolescents aged 13 to 15, who participated in 2 waves (T1–1998; T2–2000) of an ongoing longitudinal research. Results showed that depression and delinquency co-occurred in about 9% of respondents, and that depression and delinquency followed separate developments throughout early adolescence. Development of co-occurring depression and delinquency was positively linked to a later constellation of high failure expectations and manipulativeness across a 2-year period. Additionally, the development of combined failure expectations and manipulativeness was positively linked to a later co-occurrence of depression and delinquency across a 2-year period. Further, the cooccurrence of depression and delinquency was predicted by lower-quality relationships with parents and negative attitudes towards school and teachers, whereas a constellation of high failure expectations and manipulativeness was linked to earlier negative interactions with parents and feeling isolated from peers.

Exposure to Community Violence and the Trajectory of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in a Sample of Low-Income Urban Youth

This study examined trajectories of psychopathology in a sample of low-income urban youth and tested exposure to community violence as a predictor of these trajectories. Self-report and parent-report survey measures of psychological problems and exposure to community violence were collected annually over 3 years from a sample of 364 fifth- to ninth-grade low-income urban youth (64% female; 95% youth of color). Linear growth models showed that youth experienced declines in both internalizing and externalizing symptoms across adolescence. Exposure to community violence was more strongly associated with externalizing symptoms than with internalizing symptoms but predicted declines in both types of symptoms. Results also indicated that youth reported more internalizing and externalizing symptoms than their parents reported for them. Exposure to community violence may explain unique trajectories of mental health problems among low-income urban youth. In addition, youth efforts to adopt a tough façade in the face of community violence could lead to higher rates of externalizing problems relative to internalizing problems, whereas desensitization processes may better explain reductions in both types of symptoms over time. Finally, youth report may be more valid than parent report in the context of urban poverty.

Delinquent Behavior in High School Students in Hong Kong: Sociodemographic, Personal, and Family Determinants

STUDY OBJECTIVE

On the basis of longitudinal data collected over 6 years, the changes in delinquent behavior and the related sociodemographic, personal, and family determinants were examined in this study. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, INTERVENTIONS, AND MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: A 6-year longitudinal research design was used. Students responded to a questionnaire containing sociodemographic questions and validated measures of positive youth development, family functioning, and delinquent behavior.

RESULTS

There was an increasing trend of delinquent behavior with the growth rate slowing down over the high school years. Male adolescents reported higher levels of delinquent behavior and showed a greater increase of delinquent behavior relative to female adolescents. Although positive youth development and family functioning were negatively associated with the initial level of delinquent behavior, they were positively associated with the growth rate of delinquent behavior over time.

CONCLUSION

Delinquent behavior could be described by a quadratic growth curve during high school years. Gender, positive youth development, and family functioning influence the level and developmental trajectory of delinquent behavior in adolescence.

What Predicts Adolescent Delinquent Behavior in Hong Kong? A Longitudinal Study of Personal and Family Factors

Using four waves of data from Secondary 1 to Secondary 4 (N = 3328 students at Wave 1), this study examined the development of delinquent behavior and its relationships with economic disadvantage, family non-intactness, family quality of life (i.e., family functioning) and personal well-being (i.e., positive youth development) among Hong Kong adolescents. Individual growth curve models revealed that delinquent behavior increased during this period, and adolescents living in non-intact families (vs. intact families) reported higher initial levels of delinquent behavior while those living in poor families (vs. non-poor families) showed a greater increase in delinquent behavior. In addition, with the demographic factors controlled, the initial levels of family quality of life and personal well-being were negatively associated with the initial level of delinquent behavior, but positively associated with the growth rate of delinquent behavior. Regression analyses showed that family quality of life and personal well-being were related to the overall delinquent behavior concurrently at Wave 4. However, Wave 1 family quality of life and personal well-being did not predict Wave 4 delinquent behavior with the initial level of delinquent behavior controlled. Lastly, we discussed the role of economic disadvantage and family non-intactness as risk factors and family functioning and positive youth development as protective well-being factors in the development of adolescent well-being indexed by delinquent behavior.

Delinquency, depression, and substance use disorder among child welfare-involved adolescent females

Although adolescents with delinquency are known to have higher-than-average rates of depression or substance use disorder (SUD), research on the topic is inconsistent. It remains unclear weather depression or SUD leads to delinquency, whether delinquency leads to depression or SUD, or whether there is bi-directionality. Utilizing the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being (Wave I: 2008-2009; Wave II: 18 months later: N=5872), we used logistic regression to predict depression from delinquency (and vice versa), and SUD from delinquency (and vice versa). After inclusion of control variables, we found that females with minor theft in Wave I were more than 4 times as likely (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]=4.34; 95% CI: 1.10-17.16) as females without minor theft to be depressed in Wave II, and those with public disorder in Wave I were almost 3 times as likely (aOR=2.74; 95% CI: 1.03-7.30) as those without public disorder to have SUD in Wave II. Overall delinquency also predicted depression or SUD, and SUD predicted delinquency. Practitioners could address risk for depression or SUD among child welfare-involved adolescent females by focusing on overall delinquency or on specific types of delinquency (minor theft for depression and public disorder for SUD) and by offering interventions (e.g., cognitive-behavioral psychotherapy) that have been shown to be effective in preventing depression or SUD. In addition, with respect to our finding that SUD predicts delinquency among adolescent females, practitioners can help prevent delinquency by offering interventions (e.g., intensive outpatient treatments) that have well documented effectiveness in addressing SUD.

Non-suicidal self-injury and firesetting: shared and unique correlates among school-based adolescents

Distinct behaviors such as non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI) and firesetting may represent functionally equivalent attempts to regulate difficult affective/cognitive or social experiences during adolescence. This study examined possible mechanisms leading to NSSI, as opposed to firesetting, as well as co-occurrence of these behaviors. Participants aged 12-18 years (N = 2,356; 67.5 % female) completed self-report questionnaires measuring NSSI and firesetting, as well as socio-demographic and psychosocial factors including personality traits related to impulsivity and anxiety, negative life events, emotion regulation, and coping. The findings indicated the presence of general risk factors (e.g., negative life events and poor coping) that increase the likelihood that adolescents will engage in any of a range of maladaptive behaviors. The probability of at-risk adolescents engaging in NSSI was increased by psychological states (i.e., rumination and poor self-esteem), whereas socio-demographic and personality traits were associated with firesetting. Implications for prevention and early intervention initiatives are discussed.

Associations between psychosocial problems and personality disorders among Egyptian adolescents

The study investigated the relationship between psychosocial problems and personality disorders among a sample of 817 Egyptian adolescents (408 males and 409 females). Using 15 subscales from the Adolescent Psychopathology Scale (APS-long form) we assessed prevalence rates of a number of internalizing and externalizing psychosocial disorders. Additionally, we investigated whether there are gender differences in psychopathology among Egyptian adolescents and to what extent can psychosocial problems predict specific personality disorders. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed that the participants experienced higher levels of PD, AV, and BD. Gender differences were found in certain personality disorders as well as in externalizing and internalizing psychosocial problems. A number of externalizing and internalizing psychosocial problems were highly predictive of specific personality disorders.

Does the direction of effects in the association between depressive symptoms and health-risk behaviors differ by behavior? A longitudinal study across the high school years

PURPOSE

Adolescence is associated with the onset of depressive symptoms as well as significant increases in health-risk behaviors. Potential explanations for the direction of effects in the association between depressive symptoms and health-risk behaviors include the self-medication/acting out hypothesis (i.e., early depressive symptoms predict increases in risk behaviors over time) and the failure hypothesis (i.e., early participation in health-risk behaviors predicts increases in depressive symptoms over time). The purpose of the present longitudinal study was to assess these competing hypotheses across the high school years, and to examine whether the direction of effects (and therefore the self-medication/acting out and failure hypotheses) may differ depending on the type of risk behavior under consideration.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 4,412 adolescents (49% female) who were followed up from grade nine to 12. Adolescents reported on their depressive symptoms and six health-risk behaviors (frequency of alcohol use, amount of alcohol consumed per drinking episode, cigarette smoking, marijuana use, hard drug use, and delinquency). Analyses were conducted with dual trajectory growth curve modeling.

RESULTS

Adolescents who had higher depressive symptoms in grade nine reported faster increases than their peers in smoking, marijuana, and hard drug use across the high school years, supporting the self-medication hypothesis. The failure hypothesis was not supported.

CONCLUSION

The results are important because they suggest that by targeting depressive symptoms during early adolescence, treatment programs may prevent increases in the frequency of these risk behaviors later in adolescence.

Individual, family and offence characteristics of high risk childhood offenders: comparing non-offending, one-time offending and re-offending Dutch-Moroccan migrant children in the Netherlands

BACKGROUND

Childhood offenders are at an increased risk for developing mental health, social and educational problems later in life. An early onset of offending is a strong predictor for future persistent offending. Childhood offenders from ethnic minority groups are a vulnerable at-risk group. However, up until now, no studies have focused on them.

AIMS

To investigate which risk factors are associated with (re-)offending of childhood offenders from an ethnic minority.

METHOD

Dutch-Moroccan boys, who were registered by the police in the year 2006-2007, and their parents as well as a control group (n = 40) were interviewed regarding their individual and family characteristics. Two years later a follow-up analysis of police data was conducted to identify one-time offenders (n = 65) and re-offenders (n = 35).

RESULTS

All groups, including the controls, showed substantial problems. Single parenthood (OR 6.0) and financial problems (OR 3.9) distinguished one-time offenders from controls. Reading problems (OR 3.8), having an older brother (OR 5.5) and a parent having Dutch friends (OR 4.3) distinguished re-offenders from one-time offenders. First offence characteristics were not predictive for re-offending. The control group reported high levels of emotional problems (33.3%). Parents reported not needing help for their children but half of the re-offender's families were known to the Child Welfare Agency, mostly in a juridical framework.

CONCLUSION

The Moroccan subgroup of childhood offenders has substantial problems that might hamper healthy development. Interventions should focus on reaching these families tailored to their needs and expectations using a multi-system approach.

Children placed in out-of-home care: risk factors for involvement with the juvenile justice system

In previous research, child maltreatment has been associated with several negative outcomes, including delinquency. This study uses administrative data to examine risk factors, including the severity and chronicity of maltreatment, for juvenile justice involvement among children, ages 7 to 17, who were placed in out-of-home care in Florida (N = 13,212). The results of multivariate Cox regression analysis indicated that among specific types of maltreatment, sexual abuse was associated with the risk of faster placement only in a detention center. Additionally, findings from this study suggest that maltreatment chronicity but not maltreatment severity increases the chances of earlier involvement with the juvenile justice system among children who were placed in an out-of-home care. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Comorbidity between depression and antisocial behaviour in middle adolescence: the role of perceived social support

A sample of 3278 students (aged 15-16 years) were surveyed to investigate the interrelations between depression (RBDI; The Finnish modification of the 13-item Beck Depression Inventory), antisocial behaviour (YSR; Youth Self-Report) and perceived social support from family, friends and significant other (PSSS-R; the Perceived Social Support Scale-Revised). The study aimed especially to control for the effect of perceived social support in the comorbidity between depression and antisocial behaviour. The results indicate firstly that decreased perceived social support was associated with both depression and antisocial behaviour in both sexes. Similarly, antisocial behaviour was associated with depression in both sexes. Perceived social support modified comorbidity between depression and antisocial behaviour, but antisocial behaviour still remained independently associated with depression. Thus, perceived social support did not explain the found comorbidity between depression and antisocial behaviour.

Involvement in bullying and depression in a 2-year follow-up in middle adolescence

The main objective was to analyse whether involvement in bullying at school predicts depression, and whether depression predicts involvement in bullying in middle adolescence. A total of 2,070 15-year-old girls and boys in two Finnish cities were surveyed at ninth grade (age 15) at schools, and followed up 2 years later in the Adolescent Mental Health Cohort Study (AMHC). Depression was measured by a Finnish modification of the 13-item short Beck Depression Inventory. Involvement in bullying was elicited by three questions focusing on being a bully, being a victim to bullying, and being left alone by peers against one's wishes. Similar questions were posed at both time points. Statistical analyses were carried out using cross-tabulations with chi-square/Fisher's Exact Test statistics, and logistic regression. The results summarized that, both being a victim to bullying and being a bully predicted later depression among boys. Among girls, depression at T1 predicted victimisation at T2. Depression at T1 predicted experience of being left alone at T2 among both sexes. It was concluded that victimisation to bullying may be a traumatising event that results in depression. However, depression also predicts experience of victimisation and of being left alone against one's wishes. Depression may impair an adolescent's social skills and self-esteem so that the adolescent becomes victimised by peers. However, depression may also distort and adolescent's experiences of social interactions.

Changing dynamics in problematic personality: A multiwave longitudinal study of the relationship between shyness and aggressiveness from childhood to early adulthood

The present longitudinal study investigated cascade effects linking the longitudinal trajectories of shyness and aggressiveness between age 4 and 23 and individual differences in this longitudinal relationship. Results demonstrated that there were cascade effects from shyness to adjacent measures of aggressiveness at three moments in time, and that the dynamics of these relationships changed over time. Children who were shy at age 6 became less aggressive at age 7 and the same effect was found between age 8 and age 10. From adolescence to early adulthood, the direction of the relationship changed and shy adolescents at age 17 became increasingly aggressive 5 years later. Interindividual differences were found in the latter cascade effect in that shyness at age 17 only predicted an increase in aggressiveness at age 23 for adolescents receiving low levels of support from their parents and for adolescents spending little time in part-time work. Together, findings suggest the importance of examining the development of normal variations in personality and personality disorders from a developmental perspective and taking into account person–environment interactions.

Predicting juvenile delinquency: the nexus of childhood maltreatment, depression and bipolar disorder

BACKGROUND

It is important to identify and provide preventative interventions for youth who are most at risk for offending behaviour, but the connection between early childhood or adolescent experiences and later delinquency adjudication is complicated.

AIM

To test for associations between specified mental disorders or maltreatment and later delinquency adjudication.

METHOD

Participants were a random sample of youth before the juvenile courts in two Northeast Ohio counties in the USA (n = 555) over a 4-year time frame (2003 to 2006).

RESULTS

Logistic regression analysis identified a lifetime diagnosis of depression and/or bipolar disorder to be predictive of later youth delinquency adjudication, but found that childhood maltreatment (or involvement with the child welfare system) made delinquency outcomes less likely.

IMPLICATIONS

Study implications are discussed as they relate to professionals working in the fields of child welfare, social work, mental health and juvenile justice. Awareness of risks associated with maltreatment may have led to effective interventions, while there may be less awareness of risks from depression in young people; however, studies tend not to take account of intervention variables.

Anxiety trajectories and identity development in adolescence: a five-wave longitudinal study

The aim of this five-wave longitudinal study was to investigate the relationship between anxiety and adolescent identity development. Participants were 1,313 adolescents who annually completed measures of anxiety and identity. Growth Mixture Modeling (GMM) analyses demonstrated that the adolescent population was best typified by two latent growth trajectory classes: a low anxiety class (n = 1,199) characterized by a low initial level of anxiety that decreased over time and a high anxiety class (n = 114) characterized by a higher initial level of anxiety that increased over time. To answer our research question, we tested a model in which the anxiety classes predicted initial levels and rates of change of three identity dimensions: commitment, in-depth exploration, and reconsideration of commitment. Findings indicated that the high anxiety adolescents displayed a more troublesome identity development than their low anxiety peers, since their commitments became weaker with age, and they reconsidered them intensively.

Continuity, comorbidity and longitudinal associations between depression and antisocial behaviour in middle adolescence: A 2-year prospective follow-up study

The study investigated continuity, comorbidity and longitudinal associations between depression Beck depression inventory (RBDI) and antisocial behaviour Youth self-report (YSR) in middle adolescence. Data were used from a community sample of 2070 adolescents who participated in a 2-year prospective follow-up study. The results indicate that both depression and antisocial behaviour had considerable continuity, and concurrent comorbidity between these disorders was strong. In contrast to several previous studies, antisocial behaviour did not predict subsequent depression, but conversely, depression predicted subsequent antisocial behaviour among girls. Among boys history of depression seemed to protect from subsequent antisocial behaviour. Gender differences in longitudinal associations are discussed.

Does perceived parental rejection make adolescents sad and mad? The association of perceived parental rejection with adolescent depression and aggression

PURPOSE

To research the association of perceived parental rejection to adolescent depression and aggression.

METHODS

This study focused on 1329 Dutch junior high and high school students (47.9% males and 52.1% females; age range 10-19 years) that completed depression, aggression and perceived parental rejection questionnaires. The data were analyzed by structural equation modeling that assumed a relationship between perceived parental rejection and adolescent aggression, as mediated by adolescent depression.

RESULTS

Perceived parental rejection, mediated through adolescent depression, explains aggressive behaviors of adolescents, as tested by a mediation model. Additionally, the fit of this mediation model is somewhat enhanced when direct paths from perceived parental rejection to aggression are included. Further analysis demonstrates that these effects are also somewhat dependent on the gender and the age of the adolescents, as would be expected in light of previous studies of these cohorts.

CONCLUSIONS

The study of perceived parental rejection should receive the same attention in the research of the development of both adolescent depression and aggression, as has been the case for adolescent peer rejection.

Gender differences in psychiatric disorders at juvenile probation intake

OBJECTIVE

We identified gender differences in psychiatric disorders among youths at probation intake.

METHODS

We measured disorders with the Voice Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children among 991 randomly selected youths (200 girls) at probation intake in 8 Texas counties. Logistic regression analyses predicted diagnostic clusters by gender, adjusting for demographics and offense characteristics.

RESULTS

Demographic and offense characteristics explained small but interpretable and specific variance in diagnostic profile. Girls' rates of anxiety and affective disorders were higher than boys' (odds ratios = 0.59 and 0.32, respectively). Girls with violent offenses, compared with other groups, were 3 to 5 times as likely to report anxiety disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Among youths with conduct problems, girls demonstrated an elevated risk for co-occurring anxiety or affective disorder.