Parental problem drinking and children's adjustment: family conflict and parental depression as mediators and moderators of risk

Does It Matter Who You Provide Care for? Mental Health and Life Satisfaction in Young Adult Carers Associated with Type of Relationship and Illness Category-A National Student Survey

There is limited knowledge on how caring contexts impact young adults providing informal care for persons with chronic conditions. This study examines associations between outcomes in young adult carers (YACs) and type of relationship (e.g., close or distant family member, partner, or someone outside the family) and type of illness in the care-receiver (e.g., mental, physical illness/disability, or substance abuse). A total of 37,731 students (age 18-25, mean 22.3 years, 68% females) in higher education in Norway completed a national survey on care responsibilities, hours of daily caring, relationship and type of illness, mental health problems (Hopkins Symptoms Checklist-25) and life satisfaction (Satisfaction With Life Scale). More mental health problems and lower life satisfaction were found among YACs compared to students without care responsibilities. The poorest outcomes were reported by YACs caring for a partner, followed by YACs caring for a close relative. Hours spent on daily caring was highest when caring for a partner. Poorer outcomes were reported by YACs caring for someone affected by substance abuse, followed by mental health problems and physical illness/disability. At-risk groups among YACs should be acknowledged and offered support. Future studies are needed to investigate the potential mechanism for the associations between care context variables and YAC outcomes.

Biological sensitivity to context as a dyadic construct: An investigation of child-parent RSA synchrony among low-SES youth

Parenting behaviors are significantly linked to youths' behavioral adjustment, an association that is moderated by youths' and parents' self-regulation. The biological sensitivity to context theory suggests that respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA) indexes youths' varying susceptibility to rearing contexts. However, self-regulation in the family context is increasingly viewed as a process of "coregulation" that is biologically embedded and involves dynamic Parent×Child interactions. No research thus far has examined physiological synchrony as a dyadic biological context that may moderate associations between parenting behaviors and preadolescent adjustment. Using a two-wave sample of 101 low-socioeconomic status (SES) families (children and caretakers; mean age 10.28 years), we employed multilevel modeling to examine dyadic coregulation during a conflict task, indicated by RSA synchrony, as a moderator of the linkages between observed parenting behaviors and preadolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. Results showed that high dyadic RSA synchrony resulted in a multiplicative association between parenting and youth adjustment. High dyadic synchrony intensified the relations between parenting behaviors and youth behavior problems, such that in the context of high dyadic synchrony, positive and negative parenting behaviors were associated with decreased and increased behavioral problems, respectively. Parent-child dyadic RSA synchrony is discussed as a potential biomarker of biological sensitivity in youth.

Parents' drinking, childhood hangover? Parental alcohol use, subjective health complaints and perceived stress among Swedish adolescents aged 10-18 years

BACKGROUND

Alcohol abuse is not only harmful to the consumer but may also negatively impact individuals in the drinker's social environment. Alcohol's harm to others is vital to consider when calculating the true societal cost of alcohol use. Children of parents who have alcohol use disorder tend to have an elevated risk of negative outcomes regarding, e.g., health, education, and social relationships. Research on the general youth population has established a link between parental drinking and offspring alcohol use. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding other outcomes, such as health. The current study aimed to investigate the associations between parental drinking and children's psychological and somatic complaints, and perceived stress.

METHODS

Data were derived from a nationally representative sample, obtained from the 2010 Swedish Level-of-Living survey (LNU). Parents and adolescents (ages 10-18) living in the same households were interviewed independently. The final study sample included 909 adolescents from 629 households. The three outcomes, psychological and somatic complaints and perceived stress, were derived from adolescents' self-reports. Parents' self-reports of alcohol use, both frequency and quantity, were used to categorise adolescents as having abstaining, low-consuming, moderate-drinking, or heavy-drinking parents. Control variables included adolescents' gender, age, family structure, and household socioeconomic status. Linear and binary logistic regression analyses were performed.

RESULTS

Parental heavy drinking was more common among adolescents living in more socioeconomically advantaged households and among adolescents living with two custodial parents or in reconstituted families. Adolescents with heavy-drinking parents reported higher levels of psychological and somatic complaints and had an increased likelihood of reporting stress, compared with those having moderate-drinking parents. These associations remained statistically significant when adjusting for all control variables.

CONCLUSION

The current study's results show that parental alcohol consumption is associated with poorer offspring adolescent health. Public health policies that aim to reduce parental drinking or provide support to these adolescents may be beneficial. Further studies investigating the health-related outcomes among young people living with heavy-drinking parents in the general population are needed to gain more knowledge about these individuals and to implement adequate public health measures.

Problematic alcohol use in Mexican students: Transmission from parents to children

Introduction. Studies in various countries have shown that adolescents with a history of parental use of alcohol have a greater risk of presenting alcohol problems of their own, including binge drinking, driving under the influence of alcohol, and alcohol dependence. A few studies in Mexico have also found this association, but these have been carried out with non-representative populations. Objective. To examine the association between a history of parental alcohol use and binge drinking, and parental use and possible dependence on alcohol, in a national sample of junior high and high school students in Mexico. Method. A descriptive correlational study was carried out based on a secondary analysis of the National Survey of Student Drug Use (Encuesta Nacional de Consumo de Drogas en Estudiantes, ENCODE), which questioned 114,364 respondents. The association was evaluated with an estimate of prevalence ratios (PR). Results. Students whose mothers or both parents used alcohol had a greater risk for binge drinking (PR [mother] = 2.12, p #abr# .001; PR [both parents] = 2.18, p #abr# .001) and possible alcohol dependence (PR [mother] = 5.43, p #abr# .001; PR [both parents] = 5.14, p #abr# .001). Those whose fathers alone used alcohol had a lower risk for binge drinking (PR = 1.35, p #abr# .001) and for possible dependence (PR = 1.83, p #abr# .001). Discussion and conclusion. This study shows differences in the effects of problematic alcohol use by parents: use by the mother or by both parents implies a greater risk of binge drinking and possible dependence for their children. This finding should be considered in the design of interventions to prevent binge drinking.

The Association Between Adverse Child Health, Psychological, Educational and Social Outcomes, and Nondependent Parental Substance: A Rapid Evidence Assessment

BACKGROUND

Between 5% and 30% of children in high-income countries live with a substance misusing parent, the majority of which is below dependent levels. However, little is understood about the impact of nondependent parental substance misuse upon children.

METHODS

We searched the international literature using rigorous systematic methods to identify studies examining parental substance misuse and adverse outcomes in children. The inclusion criteria were cross-sectional, longitudinal, case-control, and cohort studies; of children aged 0-18 years whose parents are high-risk substance misusers; reporting on their health, psychological, substance use, educational, and social outcomes.

RESULTS

We identified 36 papers (from 33 unique studies), most of which were assessed as being of medium to high methodological quality (N= 28). Parental nondependent substance misuse was found to be associated with adversity in children, with strong evidence of an association with externalizing difficulties (N = 7 papers, all finding an association) and substance use (N = 23 papers, all finding an association) in adolescents and some evidence of adverse health outcomes in early childhood (N = 6/8 papers finding an association). There is less evidence of an association between parental substance misuse and adverse educational and social outcomes. The body of evidence was largest for parental alcohol misuse, with research examining the impact of parental illicit drug use being limited.

CONCLUSION

Methodological limitations restrict our ability to make causal inference. Nonetheless, the prevalence of adverse outcomes in children whose parents are nondependent substance misusers highlights the need for practitioners to intervene with this population before a parent has developed substance dependency.

A Latent Class Analysis of Parental Alcohol and Drug Use: Findings from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children

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We identified four parental substance use classes using quantity-frequency measures.

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Heavy use of alcohol formed a class which also included a large proportion of drug users.

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Mothers’ and their partner’s tended to have similar patterns of substance use behaviours.

Previous measures of parental substance use have often paid limited attention to the co-occurrence of alcohol and drugs, or to the between-parent dynamics in the use of substances. These shortcomings may have important implications for our understandings of the relationship between parental substance use and child wellbeing. Using data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, a UK community-based cohort study from 1990 onwards (n = 9,451), we identified groups of parental substance use using latent class analysis. The 4-class solution offered the best fit, balancing statistical criteria and theoretical judgement. The results show distinct classes across the range of parental substance use, including very low users, low users, moderate users and heavy users. These classes suggest that substance use patterns among mothers are somewhat mirrored by those of their partners, while heavy use of alcohol by mothers and their partners is related to increased mothers drug use. We suggest that studies that investigate the effects of parental substance use on child wellbeing should pay greater attention to the dynamics of substance use by parental figures.

The prognosis of out-patient alcohol treatment among parents with childcare responsibility

BACKGROUND

Despite expansive knowledge on the detrimental effects of growing up with parents with alcohol use disorders (AUDs), little is known about the prognosis of alcohol treatment among parents with childcare responsibility.

AIMS

This observational cohort study aimed to examine the prognosis of patients with and without childcare responsibility, in a conventional out-patient alcohol treatment clinic.

METHOD

A consecutive AUD sample (N = 2201), based on ICD-10 Diagnostic Criteria for Research, was assessed with the European Addiction Severity Index during the clinical routine, at treatment entry and conclusion. Data on addiction severity, treatment course and drinking outcomes were derived, and adjusted odds ratios (AORs) were calculated with logistic-regression models. Drinking outcomes were compared in an intention-to-treat analysis, including all patients in a logistic regression with inverse probability weighting.

RESULTS

Patients with childcare responsibility (aged <18 years) had a less severe addiction profile and lower drop-out rate compared with patients without children or with children living out-of-home. They were also more likely to improve on all drinking-related outcomes, including abstinence (AOR 2.68, 95% CI 1.82-3.95), number of drinking days (AOR 2.45, 95% CI 1.50-4.03) and excessive drinking days (AOR 4.66, 95% CI 2.36-9.17); and those with children living out-of-home had better outcomes on abstinence (AOR 1.59, 95% CI 1.08-2.34) than patients without children.

CONCLUSIONS

Childcare responsibility among out-patients was associated with better treatment course and outcomes than those without or not living with their children. This knowledge can help guide clinical practice, effectuate interventions and inform social authorities.

Parents' concordant and discordant alcohol use and subsequent child behavioral outcomes

Alcohol problems have variable outcomes for marital relationships depending on whether drinking patterns are concordant or discordant among the members of the dyad; however, it is unclear what impact these variations in drinking patterns have on children. The current study was designed to explore several gaps and limitations in the parent heavy drinking literature. In particular, the prospective associations over 3years between parent heavy drinking, parenting, and child externalizing behavior were investigated in an integrated model to examine the influence of concordant and discordant drinking within couples on subsequent outcomes for their children. The study consisted of 180 couples recruited by mailings with children primarily between the ages of 4 and 11years old (52% male children). Parent-report of marital conflict, parenting, alcohol use, and child externalizing behavior were measured in a longitudinal study. Actor-Partner Interdependence Model analyses were conducted. Higher levels of maladaptive parenting were associated with higher externalizing for children of concordant drinking couples as opposed to discordant drinking couples. Implications for research and practice are discussed, including investigating mediators and moderators of the current findings such as quality of the parent-child relationship.

Assessment of culture and environment in the Adolescent Brain and Cognitive Development Study: Rationale, description of measures, and early data

Neurodevelopmental maturation takes place in a social environment in addition to a neurobiological one. Characterization of social environmental factors that influence this process is therefore an essential component in developing an accurate model of adolescent brain and neurocognitive development, as well as susceptibility to change with the use of marijuana and other drugs. The creation of the Culture and Environment (CE) measurement component of the ABCD protocol was guided by this understanding. Three areas were identified by the CE Work Group as central to this process: influences relating to CE Group membership, influences created by the proximal social environment, influences stemming from social interactions. Eleven measures assess these influences, and by time of publication, will have been administered to well over 7,000 9-10 year-old children and one of their parents. Our report presents baseline data on psychometric characteristics (mean, standard deviation, range, skewness, coefficient alpha) of all measures within the battery. Effectiveness of the battery in differentiating 9-10 year olds who were classified as at higher and lower risk for marijuana use in adolescence was also evaluated. Psychometric characteristics on all measures were good to excellent; higher vs. lower risk contrasts were significant in areas where risk differentiation would be anticipated.

Gender differences in the transmission of risk for antisocial behavior problems across generations

Previous studies have shown that children of alcohol use disorder (AUD) parents are more likely to develop alcohol problems as well as antisocial and other behavior problems. The purpose of this study was to examine gender discordance in the effect of early maternal and paternal influences on antisocial behaviors of boys and girls, as well as the environmental factors that moderate the parental effects. Specifically, we examined the effects of childhood and adulthood antisocial behavior of the parents on offspring antisocial behavior as young adults. We also examined whether mothers' and fathers' drinking problems when offspring were young children (6-8 years) affected offspring antisocial behavior as young adults (18-21 years). We evaluated 655 children from 339 families in the Michigan Longitudinal Study (MLS), a prospective study of AUD and non-AUD families. Path models were constructed in order to test for the parental contributions to offspring outcomes. We found that both mothers' and fathers' antisocial behavior contributed to the children's young adult antisocial behavior. Only mothers' drinking problems while their children were little had a significant effect on their sons' later drinking, but not on their daughters'. These different parental effects suggest that maternal and paternal influences may be mediated by different mechanisms.

Modeling Trajectories of Adolescent-Perceived Family Conflict: Effects of Marital Dissatisfaction and Parental Alcoholism

We evaluated the effects of marital dissatisfaction on adolescent-perceived conflict in 435 families with and without a parental history of alcoholism. On average, family conflict decreased linearly as adolescents aged. Families with an alcoholic parent demonstrated higher adolescent-reported family conflict and this effect was partially mediated by higher mother- and father-reported marital dissatisfaction. Families with higher marital dissatisfaction had greater conflict when adolescents were young (based on fathers' marital dissatisfaction) and as they aged (based on mother's marital dissatisfaction). Years in which mothers reported higher marital dissatisfaction than usual coincided with years in which adolescents reported greater family conflict. Results indicate that marital dissatisfaction has both within and between-family effects on adolescent perceptions of conflict.

Changes in alcohol use following the transition to motherhood: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions

BACKGROUND

Little is known about the impact of motherhood on alcohol use beyond the acute reductions observed in pregnancy. This study characterizes changes in alcohol use for women who did and did not become mothers over three years.

METHODS

Data are from the National Epidemiologic Survey of Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC). Participants were female respondents aged 18-44 years who did not have children and were not pregnant at wave 1, and who reported having at least one drink in the year prior to wave 1 (n=2118). Women were classified as mothers (n=325) if they reported having a child between waves 1 and 2, and non-mothers if they did not (n=1793). At each wave, participants provided information on past-year frequency of alcohol use and heavy episodic drinking, and usual number of alcoholic beverages consumed per occasion.

RESULTS

At baseline, women who did and did not become mothers reported similar levels of alcohol use. Women who became mothers reported significant reductions in alcohol use indicators from wave 1 to wave 2 (i.e., 22 fewer drinking days, 15 fewer heavy drinking days, 1 less drink per occasion), whereas women who did not become mothers showed a modest increase in alcohol use frequency (i.e., 7 more drinking days). Motherhood remained significantly associated with reductions in alcohol use after adjusting for sociodemographic variables and baseline alcohol use.

CONCLUSIONS

The transition to motherhood is associated with marked reductions in alcohol consumption. Similar reductions were not observed for women who did not become mothers.

Parental Substance Abuse As an Early Traumatic Event. Preliminary Findings on Neuropsychological and Personality Functioning in Young Drug Addicts Exposed to Drugs Early

Parental substance use is a major risk factor for child development, heightening the risk of drug problems in adolescence and young adulthood, and exposing offspring to several types of traumatic events. First, prenatal drug exposure can be considered a form of trauma itself, with subtle but long-lasting sequelae at the neuro-behavioral level. Second, parents' addiction often entails a childrearing environment characterized by poor parenting skills, disadvantaged contexts and adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), leading to dysfunctional outcomes. Young adults born from/raised by parents with drug problems and diagnosed with a Substance Used Disorder (SUD) themselves might display a particularly severe condition in terms of cognitive deficits and impaired personality function. This preliminary study aims to investigate the role of early exposure to drugs as a traumatic event, capable of affecting the psychological status of young drug addicts. In particular, it intends to examine the neuropsychological functioning and personality profile of young adults with severe SUDs who were exposed to drugs early in their family context. The research involved three groups, each consisting of 15 young adults (aged 18–24): a group of inpatients diagnosed with SUDs and exposed to drugs early, a comparison group of non-exposed inpatients and a group of non-exposed youth without SUDs. A neuropsychological battery (Esame Neuropsicologico Breve-2), an assessment procedure for personality disorders (Shedler-Westen Assessment Procedure-200) and the Symptom CheckList-90-Revised were administered. According to present preliminary results, young drug addicts exposed to drugs during their developmental age were characterized by elevated rates of neuropsychological impairments, especially at the expense of attentive and executive functions (EF); personality disorders were also common but did not differentiate them from non-exposed youth with SUDs. Alternative multi-focused prevention and intervention programs are needed for children of drug-misusing parents, addressing EF and adopting a trauma-focused approach.

Neighborhood Collective Efficacy Moderates the Association between Maternal Adverse Childhood Experiences and Marital Conflict

In a socio-demographically diverse sample of 501 caregivers participating in a longitudinal birth cohort study during the childbearing years, we examined whether neighborhood collective efficacy moderated the association between maternal adverse childhood experience (ACEs) and marital conflict. Maternal ACEs were assessed via retrospective reports. Neighborhood collective efficacy was measured via maternal and paternal reports at 2 months, and maternal reports of marital conflict were collected at infant age 2 and 18 months. Multiple linear regression analyses revealed that maternal ACEs were associated with increased marital conflict. Neighborhood collective efficacy moderated the association between early maternal ACEs and marital conflict, such that mothers experiencing ACEs had lower levels of marital conflict when exposed to high levels of neighborhood collective efficacy. Results suggest that extra-familial sources of social support and control, such as feelings of security, trust, order, and connectedness with others, may buffer the effects of early adversity on marital discord.

Unintended Effects of an Intervention Supporting Mexican-Heritage Youth: Decreased Parent Heavy Drinking

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of a parenting intervention, Familias: Preparando la Nueva Generación (FPNG), intended to support children, on parents heavy drinking. We hypothesized that parent participants of FPNG would reduce their heavy drinking at 1-year follow-up.

METHODS

Parents (N = 281) of middle school children from a large, low-income metropolitan area in the Southwest United States participated in a randomized control trial over 2 years.

RESULTS

A logistic regression analysis using the maximum likelihood test determined that at Wave 3, parents receiving FPNG reduced heavy drinking behaviors compared to parents in the youth-only condition (odds ratio = .86, p < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

Participating in the parenting program can effectively curb heavy drinking behaviors in parents-an important mechanism through which one may expect changes in youth risk behavior. The practice, policy, and research implications of these unintended findings are promising to the overall effectiveness of a parenting intervention for Mexican-heritage families.

Maternal heavy alcohol use and toddler behavior problems: a fixed effects regression analysis

Using data from the longitudinal Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study, the aims of the current study were to examine associations between postnatal maternal heavy alcohol use and toddler behavior problems, taking both observed and unobserved confounding factors into account by employing fixed effects regression models. Postnatal maternal heavy alcohol use (defined as drinking alcohol 4 or more times a week, or drinking 7 units or more per alcohol use episode) and toddler internalizing and externalizing behavior problems were assessed when the toddlers were aged 18 and 36 months. Maternal psychopathology, civil status and negative life events last year were included as time-variant covariates. Maternal heavy alcohol use was associated with toddler internalizing and externalizing behavior problems (p < 0.001) in the population when examined with generalized estimating equation models. The associations disappeared when observed and unobserved sources of confounding were taken into account in the fixed effects models [(p = 0.909 for externalizing behaviors (b = 0.002, SE = 0.021), p = 0.928 for internalizing behaviors (b = 0.002, SE = 0.023)], with an even further reduction of the estimates with the inclusion of time-variant confounders. No causal effect was found between postnatal maternal heavy alcohol use and toddler behavior problems. Increased levels of behavior problems among toddlers of heavy drinking mothers should therefore be attributed to other adverse characteristics associated with these mothers, toddlers and families. This should be taken into account when interventions aimed at at-risk families identified by maternal heavy alcohol use are planned and conducted.

Interparental Aggression and Adolescent Adjustment: The Role of Emotional Insecurity and Adrenocortical Activity

Adolescents exposed to interparental aggression are at increased risk for developing adjustment problems. The present study explored intervening variables in these pathways in a community sample that included 266 adolescents between 12 and 16 years old (M = 13.82; 52.5% boys, 47.5% girls). A moderated mediation model examined the moderating role of adrenocortical reactivity on the meditational capacity of their emotional insecurity in this context. Information from multiple reporters and adolescents' adrenocortical response to conflict were obtained during laboratory sessions attended by mothers, fathers and their adolescent child. A direct relationship was found between marital aggression and adolescents' internalizing behavior problems. Adolescents' emotional insecurity mediated the relationship between marital aggression and adolescents' depression and anxiety. Adrenocortical reactivity moderated the pathway between emotional insecurity and adolescent adjustment. The implications for further understanding the psychological and physiological effects of adolescents' exposure to interparental aggression and violence are discussed.

Family history of alcohol and drug abuse, childhood trauma, and age of first drug injection

BACKGROUND

Childhood maltreatment may lead to development of future substance use; however the contributions of a family history of substance use is unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To better understand the relationship between childhood abuse, family history of alcohol and drug abuse, and injecting drug use initiation in a cohort of chronic opioid users.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey of long-term and difficult to treat intravenous opiate users of the North American Opiate Medication Initiative (NAOMI) cohort was conducted in two Canadian cities (Vancouver and Montreal). For the analysis, we selected a subsample (n = 87) of the population reported experiencing childhood abuse and completed a 12-month follow up. The sample was 41.4% female and 14.9% First Nations, with a mean age of 38 years. This sample then completed the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ) and the Addiction Severity Index (ASI) beside others.

RESULTS

Maternal alcohol and drug use was significantly associated with childhood sexual abuse, emotional abuse, and physical neglect. Paternal alcohol and drug use was significantly associated with childhood physical abuse. Increased severity of all types of childhood trauma was related to an earlier age of first injection. CONCLUSIONS/IMPORTANCE: Family history of drug and alcohol use is strongly associated with childhood trauma, which may, in turn, lead to an earlier initiation to the dangerous routes of drug injection.

The ecology of early childhood risk: a canonical correlation analysis of children's adjustment, family, and community context in a high-risk sample

The ecology of the emergence of psychopathology in early childhood is often approached by the analysis of a limited number of contextual risk factors. In the present study, we provide a comprehensive analysis of ecological risk by conducting a canonical correlation analysis of 13 risk factors at child age 2 and seven narrow-band scales of internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors at child age 4, using a sample of 364 geographically and ethnically diverse, disadvantaged primary caregivers, alternative caregivers, and preschool-age children. Participants were recruited from Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children sites and were screened for family risk. Canonical correlation analysis revealed that (1) a first latent combination of family and individual risks of caregivers predicted combinations of child emotional and behavioral problems, and that (2) a second latent combination of contextual and structural risks predicted child somatic complaints. Specifically, (1) the combination of chaotic home, conflict with child, parental depression, and parenting hassles predicted a co-occurrence of internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and (2) the combination of father absence, perceived discrimination, neighborhood danger, and fewer children living in the home predicted child somatic complaints. The research findings are discussed in terms of the development of psychopathology, as well as the potential prevention needs of families in high-risk contexts.

Opioid dependence and intimate partner violence: associations with the current parenting behavior of fathers

Purpose

– Because the concurrent nature of chronic drug abuse (DA) and intimate partner violence (IPV) is frequently ignored in research examining the correlates of the two conditions, the purpose of this paper is designed to document differences in parenting behavior associated with a history of DA vs a history of IPV in fathers.

Design/methodology/approach

– An ethnically diverse sample of 91 opioid-dependent fathers receiving methadone maintenance treatment and a demographically similar group of 111 fathers living in the same community with no history of alcohol or DA since the birth of their first child were interviewed using a set of standard research measures.

Findings

– Multivariate analysis of covariance revealed that, after allowance for demographic covariates, a history of either minor or severe IPV, but not a history of DA, was associated with a report of more negative parenting behavior. A history of minor IPV was associated primarily with a lack of warmth and affection in parenting behavior. A history of severe IPV was associated with more aggressive and more neglectful parenting behavior.

Originality/value

– Within a statistical model that allowed for the extent to which DA and IPV can co-occur during the family career of men, the results of this study suggested that IPV, more so than DA, was associated with parenting behavior representing risk for abuse and neglect of children. Clinical intervention with high-risk fathers need to be grounded in a better understanding of the potential influence of DA and IPV on the parenting behavior of men at risk for child abuse and neglect.

Maternal pre-pregnancy risk drinking and toddler behavior problems: the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study

Maternal risk drinking may be a risk factor for child behavior problems even if the mother has discontinued this behavior. Whether pre-pregnancy risk drinking is an independent predictor of child behavior problems, or whether a potential effect may be explained by maternal alcohol use during and after pregnancy or other adverse maternal characteristics, is not known. Employing data from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), longitudinal associations between maternal pre-pregnancy risk drinking and behavior problems in toddlers aged 18 and 36 months were examined. Included in the study was mothers answering MoBa questionnaires when the child was 18 (N = 56,682) and 36 months (N = 46,756), and who had responded to questions regarding pre-pregnancy risk drinking at gestation week 17/18, using the screening instrument T-ACE. Toddler behavior problems were measured with items from Child Behavior Checklist. Associations were analyzed with multivariate logistic regression, controlling for pre and postnatal alcohol use, as well as other relevant covariates. Pre-pregnancy risk drinking was associated with child behavior problems at 18 and 36 months, even after controlling for pre and postnatal alcohol use. Maternal ADHD and anxiety and depression were the only covariates that had any substantial impact on the associations. When all covariates were included in the model, the associations were weak for internalizing behavior problems and non-significant for externalizing behavior problems. Pre-pregnancy risk drinking may predict early development of behavior problems in the offspring. This increased risk may be due to other adverse maternal characteristics associated with risk drinking, in particular co-occurring maternal psychopathology.

Parental alcohol misuse and hazardous drinking among offspring in a general teenage population: gender-specific findings from the Young-HUNT 3 study

Background

Parental alcohol misuse may negatively affect drinking behaviours among offspring, but it is unclear to what extent influences are gender-specific and dependent upon the actual drinking behaviour measured. The aim of this study was to investigate whether hazardous drinking among Norwegian teenage boys (N = 2538) and girls (N = 2494) was associated with paternal and maternal alcohol misuse (CAGE).

Methods

Definitions of hazardous drinking among offspring were based on self-reported alcohol consumption (in litres a year), frequency of drinking, and frequency of drunkenness. Based on this information, two composite measures of hazardous drinking were also constructed. Cross-sectional data from the Norwegian Young-HUNT 3 survey (2006–2008) were linked to information from biological parents who participated in the adult part of the HUNT study.

Results

Logistic regression analyses showed that both boys and girls with alcohol misusing fathers were more likely to report high levels of alcohol intake compared to others of the same age and gender. This was contrary to boys with misusing mothers, who reported less alcohol consumption than other boys. Among girls, but not boys, high frequency of drunkenness was associated with maternal as well as paternal misuse.

Conclusions

This study suggests that adolescent hazardous drinking is more prevalent among boys and girls with alcohol misusing parents versus those whose parents do not misuse alcohol. However, findings were gender specific and varied depending on the drinking outcomes under investigation. More evidence-based knowledge in this field is of great importance for better understanding the possible role paternal and maternal alcohol misuse may play in the development of hazardous alcohol drinking patterns among adolescent boys and girls.

Parenting of men with co-occurring intimate partner violence and substance abuse

No studies to date have compared parenting behaviors of men with co-occurring intimate partner violence (IPV) and substance abuse (SA) with community controls. This study was designed to document mediators of differences in parenting behavior of fathers and the emotional-behavioral problems of their children for men with co-occurring SA and IPV. The self-reported parenting (negative, positive and coparenting behaviors) and the child emotional-behavioral problems of 43 fathers with children aged 2 to 6 years with a recent history of SA + IPV were compared to a sample of 43 community control fathers with the same socioeconomic and cultural backgrounds. Fathers completed measures on their parenting behavior with a target child, coparenting behavior with the child's mother, emotion regulation, romantic attachment, psychiatric symptoms, and the behavior of the target child. Men with co-occurring SA + IPV had significantly less positive coparenting and more negative parenting behaviors than community control fathers. Negative parenting and coparenting were mediated by the fathers' avoidant attachment problems. SA + IPV fathers also reported more emotional and behavioral problems in their children. These poor child outcome differences between groups were mediated by the negative parenting behaviors of the fathers. These results suggest areas of potential focus in interventions with fathers who have co-occurring SA + IPV issues. Focus on attachment difficulties with his coparent, which may include affect regulation, coping with emotions, and communication skills training related to coparenting, may yield significant changes in parenting behaviors and ultimately child functioning.

Integration of parenting skills education and interventions in addiction treatment

OBJECTIVES

Children of parents with substance use disorders are at risk for various adverse outcomes, and maladaptive parenting behaviors seem to be an important mediator of this risk. Although numerous research studies have highlighted the promise of parenting interventions in modifying parenting behavior, very little is known about the integration of parenting skills education and interventions into addiction treatment programs.

METHODS

In this study, a convenience sample of 125 addiction treatment programs in the United States was drawn. A key staff member was interviewed to gather basic information about the extent and nature of parenting skills education and interventions offered at their program. In addition, respondents were asked to rate the importance of parenting skills relative to other addiction treatment priorities.

RESULTS

Descriptive analyses revealed that 43% reported some form of parenting classes, but few used a structured curriculum.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the known beneficial influence of effective parenting practices on reducing adverse childhood outcomes, it is surprising that relatively few substance abuse treatment programs have adopted structured parenting skills interventions as part of their standard service offerings. More research is warranted on the extent to which parenting skills interventions are integrated into the continuum of services available to parents with a substance use disorder.

Relations between parent psychopathology, family functioning, and adolescent problems in substance-abusing families: disaggregating the effects of parent gender

The present study: (1) examined relations between parent psychopathology and adolescent internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and substance use in substance-abusing families; and (2) tested family functioning problems as mediators of these relations. Structural equation modeling was used to estimate the independent effects of parent psychopathology and family functioning problems by parent gender. Participants included 242 parents in treatment for substance abuse and/or dependence and 59 of their coparents (16.9% in treatment for substance-abuse/dependence) from middle income households (SES: M = 4.7; SD = 2.1). Ratings were obtained for 325 adolescents (48% female; 27.8% non-Caucasian) between the ages of 10 and 18 years (M = 13.5 years; SD = 2.5 years). Parent psychopathology, family functioning problems, and adolescent problems were assessed with parent and coparent ratings on the Symptom Checklist (SCL-90)/Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI), the Family Relationship Measure, and the Child Behavior Checklist, respectively. Results indicated that maternal psychopathology was directly related to adolescent internalizing problems and substance use, but maternal perceptions of family functioning problems failed to mediate relations between maternal psychopathology and adolescent problems. By contrast, paternal perceptions of family functioning problems uniquely mediated relations between paternal psychopathology and adolescent externalizing problems. Findings underscore the importance of examining how mothers and fathers may differentially impact adolescent problems in substance-abusing families.

Methamphetamine-using parents: the relationship between parental role strain and depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVE

The methamphetamine epidemic in the United States involves a large number of men and women with dependent-age children. However, we know little about the parenting strains experienced by methamphetamine-using mothers and fathers and the relationship of these parenting strains to mental health outcomes, specifically depressive symptoms.

METHOD

The primary goal of this study was to examine five dimensions of parental role strain in relation to depressive symptoms in a sample of 180 methamphetamine-using parents of dependent-age children in San Diego, CA. Dimensions of parental role strain included child emotional and behavioral problems, child physical health problems, child-related financial strain, interpersonal conflict involving children, and intrapsychic strain related to children.

RESULTS

Methamphetamineusing mothers reported significantly more child-related emotional and behavioral problems compared with methamphetamine-using fathers (7.9 vs. 6.8; t = 2.5, p < .05). In multiple regression analysis, higher Beck depression scores were associated with being a mother (β = .186, p < .05), having more children younger than 18 years old (β = .165, p < .05), less emotional support (β = -.230, p < .01), and higher scores on intrapsychic parental role strain related to children (β = .288, p < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest the importance of considering the multidimensional nature of parenting strain in the development of drug treatment and counseling programs for methamphetamine-using parents.

Fathers entering substance abuse treatment: An examination of substance abuse, trauma symptoms and parenting behaviors

OBJECTIVE

The relationship between fatherhood and both psychiatric distress and severity of substance abuse (SA) among men entering SA treatment has not been well explored. This study was designed to (a) examine differences in symptoms of men presenting for SA assessment based on fatherhood status and (b) determine how posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and severity of SA were associated with parenting for men who were fathers.

METHODS

PTSD symptoms, severity of SA, and parenting data reported on structured questionnaires were collected from 126 men presenting for an SA evaluation at a forensic drug diversion clinic.

RESULTS

There were no differences in severity of alcohol or drug use between fathers and nonfathers; however, fathers with more PTSD symptoms reported greater severity of alcohol and drug use. Among the fathers, PTSD symptoms correlated significantly and positively with negative parenting behaviors, whereas SA did not. Fathers with more significant PTSD symptoms were more likely to want help with parenting.

CONCLUSIONS

Further exploration of the impact of trauma-related symptoms on the parenting behaviors of substance-abusing men is warranted.

Parental problem drinking, marital aggression, and child emotional insecurity: a longitudinal investigation

OBJECTIVE

Marital aggression plays an important role in relations between parental problem drinking and child maladjustment. The purpose of the current study was to apply emotional security theory as a framework for understanding the role of marital aggression.

METHOD

A community sample of 235 children in kindergarten participated once a year for 3 years. Parents completed measures of parental problem drinking and marital aggression, and children were interviewed about their emotional security reactions to marital conflict vignettes.

RESULTS

Greater parental problem drinking was directly associated with children's more negative emotional reactions to conflict. Maternal problem drinking predicted increased sad reactions and negative expectations for the future. Paternal problem drinking predicted increases in child anger reactions and negative expectations for the future. Parental problem drinking was also indirectly associated with child reactions via marital aggression.

CONCLUSIONS

Results confirmed hypotheses that parental problem drinking would be related to child emotional insecurity and that associations would be indirect via greater marital conflict. Findings are interpreted in terms of emotional security theory as a framework for understanding the effects of parental problem drinking on marital aggression and child development.

Parental substance use impairment, parenting and substance use disorder risk

Using data from a nationally representative sample, this study investigated substance use disorder (SUD) among respondents with ages 15-54 years as a function of their parents' substance-related impairment and parents' treatment history. In addition, associations among maternal and paternal substance-related impairment, specific parenting behaviors, and risk for SUD in the proband were examined. As expected, parental substance-related impairment was associated with SUD. Paternal treatment history was associated with a decreased risk for SUD in the proband but did not appear to be associated with positive parenting practices. Results of post hoc analyses suggested that parenting behaviors might operate differently to influence SUD risk in children where parents are affected by substance use problems compared with nonaffected families. Future research is warranted to better understand the complex relationships among parental substance use, treatment, parenting behaviors, and SUD risk in offspring. Opportunities might exist within treatment settings to improve parenting skills.

Maternal and paternal alcoholism and depressive mood in college students: parental relationships as mediators of ACOA-depressive mood link

The present study examined whether suspecting one's mother versus father of alcohol abuse was associated with parent-offspring relationships, and the degree to which parent-child relationships were associated with depressive symptoms. As compared to non-ACOAs (n=288), ACOAs (n=100) reported more negative parent-child relationships (i.e., greater alienation, poorer communication, less trust, greater emotional longing, and more negative attitudes toward the parent) and increased depressive symptoms on the POMS (McNair, Lorr, & Droppleman, 1992). A closer look revealed that suspected maternal alcohol abuse was associated with more negative mother-child relationships, whereas suspected paternal alcohol abuse was associated with more negative father-child relationships. Both maternal alcohol abuse and paternal alcohol abuse predicted depressive symptoms.

Mediators of aggression among young adult offspring of depressed mothers

The current article explores the connection between maternal depression and offspring aggression during the transition to adulthood, expanding the scope of prior research on this topic. Both family-level factors (including parent-child relationship quality and maternal romantic relationship quality) and youth factors (including depression history and social functioning in midadolescence) were tested as potential mediators in a longitudinal community sample of 710 youth at ages 15 and 20. The results suggest that maternal depression confers a risk for higher levels of aggressive behavior by offspring at age 20. Structural equation models suggested that the association between maternal depression and youth aggression is fully mediated by youth history of depression by midadolescence, even when accounting for the stability of aggression between ages 15 and 20. Parent-child relationship quality, youth social functioning, and maternal relationship quality were not unique mediators of this association. Limitations and implications are discussed.

Familial loading for alcoholism and offspring behavior: mediating and moderating influences

BACKGROUND

Familial loading for alcoholism is an important marker of risk for early-onset alcohol problems, but the early expression of this risk in community samples of children is understudied.

METHODS

This study tested, for 452 8- and 10-year-old children, whether the density of alcohol problems in their biological relatives was associated with externalizing behaviors that are risk factors for later alcohol problems.

RESULTS

Density of alcohol problems in first- and second-degree biological relatives was associated with behavioral disinhibition (BD; e.g., poor inhibitory control, attentional shifting, β = 0.10, p = 0.04) and conduct problems (CP; i.e., defiance, aggression, delinquency, β = 0.18, p = 0.00). These relations were moderated by parenting practices (parental warmth, discipline consistency, and parental monitoring). The density-behavior association lost statistical significance when at least 2 of 3 parenting practices were rated above median levels for the sample (p = 0.67 to 0.36). The density-behavior association was mediated by current demographic advantage (p = 0.00 for BD, p = 0.00 for CP), current maternal mental health (p = 0.01 for BD, p = 0.00 for CP), and current maternal deviant behavior (for CP only, p = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Findings support previously proposed but untested pathways in etiologic models of alcoholism and show the potentially important role of active parenting in reducing the expression of inherited vulnerability to alcoholism in childhood.

La paternité dans un contexte de consommation maternelle abusive d’alcool et de drogues

Malgré un nombre important d’études relatives à la thématique Parentalité alcool et drogue, le rôle du partenaire/père des mères consommatrices a été négligé. Le matériel présenté dans cet article est tiré d’une étude qualitative québécoise menée auprès de 20 pères et de 20 parturientes consommatrices abusives de SPA rencontrés à deux moments. Le but est de présenter le profil sociodémographique des parents, la consommation des mères dans les mois précédant la naissance de l’enfant, la consommation passée et actuelle des pères ainsi que certains éléments-clés de l’expérience parentale et conjugale des pères en contexte de consommation maternelle et de la trajectoire de consommation parentale.

Alcoholism, associated risk factors, and harsh parenting among fathers: Examining the role of marital aggression

This study utilized a longitudinal design to examine relations between paternal alcoholism, paternal psychopathology, marital aggression and fathers' harsh parenting behavior in a sample of children with alcoholic (n = 89) and non-alcoholic (n = 94) fathers. Structural Equation Modeling revealed that paternal alcoholism, depression, and antisocial behavior at 12 months of child age each predicted higher levels of marital aggression at 36 months. Moreover, after controlling for prior parenting, marital aggression was predictive of harsher parenting at kindergarten. Alcoholism and psychopathology were not directly predictive of harsh parenting with marital aggression included in the model, thus indicating that marital aggression is mediating the relation between paternal risk factors and parenting outcome. Results of this study suggest that one pathway linking fathers' alcohol diagnosis to harsh parenting is via marital aggression.

Paternal alcoholism, negative parenting, and the mediating role of marital satisfaction

Given the documented association between paternal alcoholism and negative parenting behaviors, the purpose of this study was to examine longitudinally whether marital satisfaction mediates this relationship. Participants consisted of 197 families (102 without an alcoholic father, 95 with an alcoholic father) who were assessed at three time points: when children were 12, 24, and 36 months old. Results indicated that paternal alcoholism at 12 months was associated with decreased marital satisfaction at 24 months for both mothers and fathers. Marital satisfaction at 24 months in turn was associated with decreases in parental warmth and sensitivity at 36 months. Furthermore, marital satisfaction mediated the association between paternal alcoholism and parental warmth and sensitivity for both mothers and fathers. The implications of these findings for interventions for alcoholic families are discussed.

A prospective study of familial conflict, psychological stress, and the development of substance use disorders in adolescence

BACKGROUND

Exposure to adverse family environments in childhood can influence the risk trajectory for developing substance use disorders in adolescence. Evidence for this is largely based on cross-sectional studies which have been unable to establish the temporality of this association and investigate underlying pathways.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 1421 adolescents from the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, a three wave longitudinal study conducted between 1994 and 2001 that followed children from ages 10 to 22. Logistic regression analyses with multiple imputation were conducted to examine the relation between familial conflict in childhood and substance use disorders in late adolescence and emerging adulthood. We conducted mediational analyses to determine if internalizing and externalizing problems explain this relationship, and we investigated whether external social support mitigates the adverse effects of familial conflict on the development of substance use disorders.

RESULTS

Familial conflict was significantly associated with the risk of substance use disorders during adolescence (odds ratio: 1.23; 95% CI: 1.02-1.47), and 30% of this effect was due to higher levels of externalizing problems (but not internalizing problems). External social support in childhood did not buffer the effects of familial conflict on substance use disorders during adolescence.

CONCLUSION

Exposure to familial conflict early in life increases the risk of substance use disorders during late adolescence and emerging adulthood, due partly to higher levels of externalizing problems, but not internalizing problems. Future research is needed to identify additional pathways underlying this association, and the extent to which these pathways are modifiable.

Association of parents' alcohol use and family interaction with the initiation of alcohol use by sixth graders: a preliminary study in Taiwan

Background

The family is the main environment where children are socialized and learn individual behavior. Although previous studies have examined predictors of preadolescent first alcohol use, few studies have analyzed factors associated with alcohol use in children in a country with low alcohol consumption. The aim of this study was to investigate the initiation of alcohol use by sixth graders and determine family factors associated with first alcohol use.

Methods

Data used in this study was collected as part of the Child and Adolescent Behaviors in Long-term Evolution (CABLE) project in 2002 (when study participants were in grade 5 and aged 10–11 years) and 2003 (when study participants were in grade 6 and aged 11–12 years). Data from a total of 1,183 participants was analyzed. Main study variables included children's alcohol use: (1) never user (never user in 2002 and 2003), or (2) first-time user (never user in 2002 but ever user in 2003); parents' alcohol use: (1) both parents ever users, (2) mother ever user and father never user, (3) father ever user and mother never user, (4) both parents never users; parental support; and family conflict. Correlates of first alcohol use were identified using logistic regression.

Results

There were 183 students (15.5%) who became first-time users of alcohol in the sixth grade. Having parents who both used alcohol, less parental support, and more family conflict were significant predictors of sixth graders' first alcohol use. Family interaction and parents' drinking were equally important predictors of preteen's first use of alcohol.

Conclusion

Family factors influence children's initiation of alcohol use. It is important to educate parents about the effects of alcohol on children and to emphasize the importance of prevention.

Major paternal depression and child consultation for developmental and behavioural problems

BACKGROUND

It is well established that maternal depression is associated with enhanced child consultation for developmental and behaviour problems, but there is a dearth of research on paternal depression and child outcome.

AIM

To assess the association of major paternal depressed mood and child consultation for developmental and behaviour problems.

DESIGN OF STUDY

Cross-sectional study.

SETTING

General practices in London and Hertfordshire, UK.

METHOD

Fathers of children aged 4-6 years were recruited via 13 general practices. A sample of 248 biological father and mother dyads completed measures on depressive syndrome (Patient Health Questionnaire), child consultations with health professionals for developmental and behaviour problems, fathering, couple relationship quality, alcohol misuse, other psychiatric impairment, and sociodemographic factors.

RESULTS

Eight out of 248 fathers (3%) had a major depressive syndrome. Sixty-five out of 247 (26%) fathers reported they were responsible for taking their child to see the doctor at least half the time compared with mothers. Children of fathers with a major depressive syndrome were almost nine times more likely to have consulted a health professional for speech and language problems (adjusted odds ratio [OR] = 8.67, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.99 to 37.67, P = 0.004) and seven times more likely to have consulted for externalising behaviour problems (adjusted OR = 6.98, 95% CI = 1.00 to 48.76, P = 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Children of fathers with major depression were more likely to consult for speech and language problems and externalising behaviour problems. A longitudinal study is recommended to identify causal mechanisms.

The roles of negative affect and coping motives in the relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related problems among college students

OBJECTIVE

Although studies have consistently indicated that among college students alcohol use and the likelihood of experiencing alcohol-related problems are related, it is possible that additional factors strengthen the magnitude of this relationship. The purpose of the present study was to assess the moderating effect of two such factors: negative affect and coping drinking motives.

METHOD

Data were collected on 316 college students at a midsized, public university in the upper Midwest who reported using alcohol.

RESULTS

Findings indicated that both negative affect and coping drinking motives moderated the alcohol use-alcohol problems relationship. The three-way interaction indicated that the strongest relationship between alcohol use and alcohol-related problems existed for individuals high in both negative affect and coping drinking motives.

CONCLUSIONS

This study suggests that college students high in negative affect and coping drinking motives are particularly at risk for experiencing problems as a result of their alcohol use, indicating that clinicians should consider screening for these factors when conducting alcohol-related prevention and intervention efforts.

Alcoholics Anonymous attendance following 12-step treatment participation as a link between alcohol-dependent fathers' treatment involvement and their children's externalizing problems

We investigated longitudinal associations between alcohol-dependent fathers' 12-step treatment involvement and their children's internalizing and externalizing problems (N = 125, M(age) = 9.8 +/- 3.1), testing the hypotheses that fathers' greater treatment involvement would benefit later child behavior and that this effect would be mediated by fathers' posttreatment behaviors. The initial association was established between fathers' treatment involvement and children's externalizing problems only, whereas Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) results supported mediating hypotheses. Fathers' greater treatment involvement predicted children's lower externalizing problems 12 months later, and fathers' posttreatment behaviors mediated this association: Greater treatment involvement predicted greater posttreatment Alcoholics Anonymous attendance, which in turn predicted greater abstinence. Finally, fathers' abstinence was associated with lower externalizing problems in children. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Longitudinal relations between parental drinking problems, family functioning, and child adjustment

Relations between maternal and paternal problem drinking symptoms and destructive marital conflict, parenting problems, and children's internalizing and externalizing problems were investigated. Participants were community families with a child in kindergarten who completed questionnaire measures at baseline (N=235), 1 year later (N=227), and 2 years later (N=215). Structural equation modeling revealed that paternal problem drinking at Time 1 was associated with greater destructive marital conflict 1 year later. In turn, destructive marital conflict was related to decreased parental warmth and increased parental psychological control; these parenting problems were associated with greater child internalizing and externalizing problems at the third time point. Further analyses revealed that the indirect effects of paternal drinking on children's adjustment were significant, and that relations remained even after including autoregressive effects. Findings are discussed in terms of family process models for relations between parental drinking and child adjustment problems.

Drug abuse and responsible fathering: a comparative study of men enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment

AIM

Because very little is known about the parenting of drug-abusing men, this study was designed to document ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS

Generalized linear models and data representing different dimensions of responsible fathering were used to clarify ways that the fathering of 106 men receiving methadone maintenance treatment differed from that of 118 men living in the same community with no history of alcohol or drug abuse.

MEASUREMENT

Men who enrolled in the study completed two structured interviews and a battery of five self-report measures selected to document current and historical dimensions of responsible fathering.

FINDINGS

When the opioid-dependent fathers were compared to the other fathers, there were significant differences in: (i) economic resources to support family formation; (ii) patterns of pair-bonding; (iii) patterns of procreation; and (iv) parenting behavior. When fathering of the youngest biological child was examined, the opioid-dependent fathers confirmed few differences in historical dimensions of fathering, but they reported significant differences in current dimensions reflecting: (i) constricted personal definitions of the fathering role; (ii) poorer relationships with biological mothers; (iii) less frequent residence with the child; (iv) less frequent provision of financial support; (v) less involvement in positive parenting; (vi) poorer appraisal of self as a father; and (vii) less satisfaction as a father.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings highlight ways that drug abuse contributes to compromise of responsible fathering, and they raise questions about ways that the drug abuse treatment system might better address parenting as a treatment issue for men.

Marital and family processes in the context of alcohol use and alcohol disorders

Alcohol use is often part of the fabric of marriage and family life, and although it is associated with certain positive effects, excessive drinking and alcohol disorders can exert a negative effect on the marital development and on the development of children in the context of the family. This review considers evidence that alcohol influences and is influenced by marital/family processes, including transitions into marriage and parenthood, marital satisfaction, marital violence, parenting, and child development. The review discusses the importance of antisocial behavior and the need to examine women's drinking, and the joint impact of men's and women's drinking on marital/family processes. The review highlights the lack of studies in certain key areas, including the link between discordant drinking and violence and marital satisfaction, the role of alcohol in child neglect, and the potential role of marital conflict as a mediator or moderator of the relationship between alcohol and child functioning.

Longitudinal associations between fathers' heavy drinking patterns and children's psychosocial adjustment

Psychosocial adjustment in children of alcoholics (N = 114) was examined in the year before and at three follow-ups in the 15 months after their alcoholic fathers entered alcoholism treatment, testing the hypothesis that children's adjustment problems will vary over time as a function of their fathers' heavy drinking patterns. Three unique patterns of heavy drinking in alcoholic fathers were identified through cluster analysis. The results demonstrated significant and meaningful associations between these drinking patterns in fathers and adjustment problems in children over time. Overall, children whose fathers remained mostly abstinent following their treatment showed lowest and decreasing adjustment problems, while children whose fathers continued and increased heavy drinking following their treatment showed greatest and increasing adjustment problems over time.