In vitro permeability through caco-2 cells is not quantitatively predictive of in vivo absorption for peptide-like drugs absorbed via the dipeptide transporter system

Improving the Accuracy of Permeability Data to Gain Predictive Power: Assessing Sources of Variability in Assays Using Cell Monolayers

The ability to predict the rate of permeation of new compounds across biological membranes is of high importance for their success as drugs, as it determines their efficacy, pharmacokinetics, and safety profile. In vitro permeability assays using Caco-2 monolayers are commonly employed to assess permeability across the intestinal epithelium, with an extensive number of apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) values available in the literature and a significant fraction collected in databases. The compilation of these Papp values for large datasets allows for the application of artificial intelligence tools for establishing quantitative structure-permeability relationships (QSPRs) to predict the permeability of new compounds from their structural properties. One of the main challenges that hinders the development of accurate predictions is the existence of multiple Papp values for the same compound, mostly caused by differences in the experimental protocols employed. This review addresses the magnitude of the variability within and between laboratories to interpret its impact on QSPR modelling, systematically and quantitatively assessing the most common sources of variability. This review emphasizes the importance of compiling consistent Papp data and suggests strategies that may be used to obtain such data, contributing to the establishment of robust QSPRs with enhanced predictive power.

Validation of a Caco-2 microfluidic Chip model for predicting intestinal absorption of BCS Class I-IV drugs

Oral delivery is considered the most patient preferred route of drug administration, however, the drug must be sufficiently soluble and permeable to successfully formulate an oral formulation. There have been advancements in the development of more predictive solubility and dissolution tools, but the tools that has been developed for permeability assays have not been validated as extensively as the gold-standard Caco-2 Transwell assay. Here, we evaluated Caco-2 intestinal permeability assay in Transwells and a commercially available microfluidic Chip using 19 representative Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) Class I-IV compounds. For each selected compound, we performed a comprehensive viability test, quantified its apparent permeability (Papp), and established an in vitro in vivo correlation (IVIVC) to the human fraction absorbed (fa) in both culture conditions. Permeability differences were observed across the models as demonstrated by antipyrine (Transwell Papp: 38.5 ± 6.1 × 10-8 cm/s vs Chip Papp: 32.9 ± 11.3 × 10-8 cm/s) and nadolol (Transwell Papp: 0.6 ± 0.1 × 10-7 cm/s vs Chip Papp: 3 ± 1.2 × 10-7 cm/s). The in vitro in vivo correlation (IVIVC; Papp vs. fa) of the Transwell model (r2 = 0.59-0.83) was similar to the Chip model (r2 = 0.41-0.79), highlighting similar levels of predictivity. Comparing to historical data, our Chip Papp data was more closely aligned to native tissues assessed in Ussing chambers. This is the first study to comprehensively validate a commercial Gut-on-a-Chip model as a predictive tool for assessing oral absorption to further reduce our reliance on animal models.

Experimental and computational models to investigate intestinal drug permeability and metabolism

Oral administration is the preferred route for drug administration that leads to better therapy compliance. The intestine plays a key role in the absorption and metabolism of oral drugs, therefore, new intestinal models are being continuously proposed, which contribute to the study of intestinal physiology, drug screening, drug side effects, and drug-drug interactions.Advances in pharmaceutical processes have produced more drug formulations, causing challenges for intestinal models. To adapt to the rapid evolution of pharmaceuticals, more intestinal models have been created. However, because of the complexity of the intestine, few models can take all aspects of the intestine into account, and some functions must be sacrificed to investigate other areas. Therefore, investigators need to choose appropriate models according to the experimental stage and other requirements to obtain the desired results.To help researchers achieve this goal, this review summarised the advantages and disadvantages of current commonly used intestinal models and discusses possible future directions, providing a better understanding of intestinal models.

Drug Penetration into the Central Nervous System: Pharmacokinetic Concepts and In Vitro Model Systems

Delivery of most drugs into the central nervous system (CNS) is restricted by the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which remains a significant bottleneck for development of novel CNS-targeted therapeutics or molecular tracers for neuroimaging. Consistent failure to reliably predict drug efficiency based on single measures for the rate or extent of brain penetration has led to the emergence of a more holistic framework that integrates data from various in vivo, in situ and in vitro assays to obtain a comprehensive description of drug delivery to and distribution within the brain. Coupled with ongoing development of suitable in vitro BBB models, this integrated approach promises to reduce the incidence of costly late-stage failures in CNS drug development, and could help to overcome some of the technical, economic and ethical issues associated with in vivo studies in animal models. Here, we provide an overview of BBB structure and function in vivo, and a summary of the pharmacokinetic parameters that can be used to determine and predict the rate and extent of drug penetration into the brain. We also review different in vitro models with regard to their inherent shortcomings and potential usefulness for development of fast-acting drugs or neurotracers labeled with short-lived radionuclides. In this regard, a special focus has been set on those systems that are sufficiently well established to be used in laboratories without significant bioengineering expertise.

Physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling of lisinopril in children: A case story of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors

AIMS

Lisinopril is an angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor to treat hypertension. It shows complex pharmacokinetics (PK), and its PK behaviour in paediatric populations is not well characterized. The aim of this study was to develop a physiologically based PK (PBPK) model for lisinopril to describe the drug's PK in children.

METHODS

The PBPK model development was performed in a step-wise manner. An adult model was initially developed to characterize lisinopril's disposition and absorption and verified using literature data. Subsequently, the adult PBPK model was extrapolated to the paediatric population (0.5-18 years old) by accounting for age-dependent physiological and anatomical changes. Model performance was evaluated by comparing the PK profiles and drug exposures of observed vs predicted data.

RESULTS

The disposition of lisinopril was well described by a minimal PBPK model-an effective strategy to capture the biphasic elimination of the drug. The absorption of lisinopril was described by the intestinal peptide transporter-mediated uptake. The adult model adequately described the literature data with predictions within a twofold range of clinical observations. Good model predictivity was also observed in children older than 6 years of age. The model overpredicted the drug exposure in children under 6 years, probably due to not incorporating the actual, unknown ontogeny of the intestinal peptide transporter.

CONCLUSIONS

The PBPK model predicted the PK of lisinopril in adults and children above 6 years of age well. Model refinement in children under 6 years warrants future informative ontogeny data of the intestinal peptide transporter.

Pharmacokinetic functions of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived small intestinal epithelial cells

To develop a novel intestinal drug absorption system using intestinal epithelial cells derived from human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, the cells must possess sufficient pharmacokinetic functions. However, the CYP3A4/5 activities of human iPS cell-derived small intestinal epithelial cells prepared using conventional differentiation methods is low. Further, studies of the CYP3A4/5 activities of human iPS-derived and primary small intestinal cells are not available. To fill this gap in our knowledge, here we used forskolin to develop a new differentiation protocol that activates adenosine monophosphate signaling. mRNA expressions of human iPS cell-derived small intestinal epithelial cells, such as small intestine markers, drug-metabolizing enzymes, and drug transporters, were comparable to or greater than those of the adult small intestine. The activities of CYP3A4/5 in the differentiated cells were equal to those of human primary small intestinal cells. The differentiated cells had P-glycoprotein and PEPT1 activities equivalent to those of Caco-2 cells. Differentiated cells were superior to Caco-2 cells for predicting the membrane permeability of drugs that were absorbed through a paracellular pathway and via drug transporters. In summary, here we produced human iPS cell-derived small intestinal epithelial cells with CYP3A4/5 activities equivalent to those of human primary small intestinal cells.

A Glycoconjugated SIRT2 Inhibitor with Aqueous Solubility Allows Structure-Based Design of SIRT2 Inhibitors

Small molecule inhibitors for SIRT2, a member of the sirtuin family of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-dependent protein lysine deacylases, have shown promise in treating cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. Developing SIRT2-selective inhibitors with better pharmacological properties is key to further realize the therapeutic potential of targeting SIRT2. One of the best SIRT2-selective inhibitors reported is a thiomyristoyl lysine compound called TM, which showed promising anticancer activity in mouse models without much toxicity to normal cells. The main limitations of TM, however, are the low aqueous solubility and lack of X-ray crystal structures to aid future drug design. Here, we designed and synthesized a glucose-conjugated TM (glucose-TM) analog with superior aqueous solubility. Although glucose-TM is not cell permeable, the excellent aqueous solubility allowed us to obtain a crystal structure of SIRT2 in complex with it. The structure enabled us to design several new TM analogs, one of which, NH4-6, showed superior water solubility and better anticancer activity in cell culture. The results of these studies provided important insights that will further fuel the future development of improved SIRT2 inhibitors as promising therapeutics for treating cancer and neurodegeneration.

An Openable Artificial Intestinal Tract System Enables the Evaluation of Drug Absorption in Caco-2 Cells through the Reduction in Thickness of the Unstirred Water Layer

In drug absorption and permeability experiments, an unstirred water layer (UWL) is known to cause differences in the estimated permeability of drugs between in vitro and in vivo experiments. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a new method to allow for accurate measurements of in vitro drug absorption through the reduction of the UWL effect. Previously, we have developed an artificial intestinal tract that mimics the tubular structure of the human intestine and enables study of drug absorption under flow conditions. In order to determine whether our artificial intestinal tract has the potential to reduce the effect of a UWL on drug absorption, the present study evaluated drug absorption in Caco-2 cells using this artificial system. The viability and tight junction structure of Caco-2 cells on the artificial intestinal tract were intact during perfusion. The cumulative amount of the highly lipophilic drugs imipramine and chlorpromazine accumulated in Caco-2 cells cultured on the cell culture plate was 1.5 times higher under mechanical agitation, whereas that of cells on the artificial intestinal tract was 6.5 times higher when internal flow was applied. In addition, the cumulative amounts of 5-aminosalicylic acid and clonidine, drugs with low lipophilicity, accumulated in Caco-2 cells on the artificial intestinal tract were unchanged by internal flow. These results indicate that the artificial intestinal tract enables effective reduction of the UWL thickness at the Caco-2 cell-surface, and allows evaluation of in vitro drug absorption under conditions similar to those found in vivo.

iPSC-Derived Enterocyte-like Cells for Drug Absorption and Metabolism Studies

Intestinal cell models have been widely studied and used to evaluate absorption and metabolism of drugs in the small intestine, constituting valuable tools as a first approach to evaluate the behavior of new drugs. However, such cell models might not be able to fully predict the absorption mechanisms and metabolic pathways of the tested compounds. In recent years, induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) differentiated into enterocyte-like cells have been proposed as more biorelevant intestinal models. In this review, we describe mechanisms underlying the differentiation of iPSCs into enterocyte-like cells, appraise the usefulness of these cells in tridimensional intestinal models, and discuss their suitability to be used in the future for drug screening.

Intestinal Stem Cells to Advance Drug Development, Precision, and Regenerative Medicine: A Paradigm Shift in Translational Research

Recent advances in our understanding of the intestinal stem cell niche and the role of key signaling pathways on cell growth and maintenance have allowed the development of fully differentiated epithelial cells in 3D organoids. Stem cell-derived organoids carry significant levels of proteins that are natively expressed in the gut and have important roles in drug transport and metabolism. They are, therefore, particularly relevant to study the gastrointestinal (GI) absorption of oral medications. In addition, organoids have the potential to serve as a robust preclinical model for demonstrating the effectiveness of new drugs more rapidly, with more certainty, and at lower costs compared with live animal studies. Importantly, because they are derived from individuals with different genotypes, environmental risk factors and drug sensitivity profiles, organoids are a highly relevant screening system for personalized therapy in both human and veterinary medicine. Lastly, and in the context of patient-specific congenital diseases, orthotopic transplantation of engineered organoids could repair and/or replace damaged epithelial tissues reported in various GI diseases, such as inflammatory bowel disease, cystic fibrosis, and tuft enteropathy. Ongoing translational research on organoids derived from dogs with naturally occurring digestive disorders has the potential to improve the predictability of preclinical models used for optimizing the therapeutic management of severe chronic enteropathies in human patients.

Carrier-Mediated Prodrug Uptake to Improve the Oral Bioavailability of Polar Drugs: An Application to an Oseltamivir Analogue

The goal of this study was to improve the intestinal mucosal cell membrane permeability of the poorly absorbed guanidino analogue of a neuraminidase inhibitor, oseltamivir carboxylate (GOC) using a carrier-mediated strategy. Valyl amino acid prodrug of GOC with isopropyl-methylene-dioxy linker (GOC-ISP-Val) was evaluated as the potential substrate for intestinal oligopeptide transporter, hPEPT1 in Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologously expressing hPEPT1, and an intestinal mouse perfusion system. The diastereomers of GOC-ISP-Val were assessed for chemical and metabolic stability. Permeability of GOC-ISP-Val was determined in Caco-2 cells and mice. Diastereomer 2 was about 2 times more stable than diastereomer 1 in simulated intestinal fluid and rapidly hydrolyzed to the parent drug in cell homogenates. The prodrug had a 9 times-enhanced apparent permeability (P(app)) in Caco-2 cells compared with the parent drug. Both diastereomer exhibited high effective permeability (P(eff)) in mice, 6.32 ± 3.12 and 5.20 ± 2.81 × 10(-5) cm/s for diastereomer 1 and 2, respectively. GOC-ISP-Val was found to be a substrate of hPEPT1. Overall, this study indicates that the prodrug, GOC-ISP-Val, seems to be a promising oral anti-influenza agent that has sufficient stability at physiologically relevant pHs before absorption, significantly improved permeability via hPEPT1 and potentially rapid activation in the intestinal cells.

Development of In Vitro Pharmacokinetic Screens Using Caco-2, Human Hepatocyte, and Caco-2/Human Hepatocyte Hybrid Systems for the Prediction of Oral Bioavailability in Humans

In this study, in vitro systems were used to build 2 pharmacokinetic models that predict human oral bioavailability: the Caco-2/hepatocyte combination model and the Caco-2/hepatocyte hybrid model. Data obtained in vitro on Caco-2 cell permeability and hepatocyte clearance are routinely used to predict the fraction of absorption after oral administration and the extent of first-pass metabolism, respectively. In the Caco-2/hepatocyte combination model, results from a Caco-2 cell permeability assay and a hepatocyte clearance assay were combined to project oral bioavailability. Comparison of oral bioavailabilities predicted by the combination model and reported oral bioavailabilities in humans for 30 marketed compounds resulted in a modest correlation ( r2 = 0.66). The Caco-2/hepatocyte hybrid model, as previously reported, joins the Caco-2 and hepatocyte clearance systems into 1 assay. Improvements to the previous model were made by incorporating an elimination phase into the Caco-2/hepatocyte hybrid model. In the new hybrid model, the compound was added to a Caco-2-containing donor compartment and allowed to permeate for 2 h to a hepatocyte-containing receiver compartment. Subsequently, to mimic an elimination phase, the donor compartment was removed, and permeated compound was incubated with hepatocytes alone for an additional 3 h. The area under the concentration versus time curve (AUC) was determined for each of the same 30 marketed compounds assessed by the combination model. A linear regression analysis comparing the in vitro AUCs and reported oral bioavailabilities in humans showed a reasonable correlation ( r 2 = 0.73). This study demonstrates that the Caco-2/hepatocyte hybrid model is more favorable and further proves the potential and feasibility of using in vitro screenings for the prediction of in vivo pharmacokinetics in humans. ( Journal of Biomolecular Screening 2007:1084-1091)

Predicting the extent of metabolism using in vitro permeability rate measurements and in silico permeability rate predictions

The Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) can be utilized to predict drug disposition, including interactions with other drugs and transporter or metabolizing enzyme effects based on the extent of metabolism and solubility of a drug. However, defining the extent of metabolism relies upon clinical data. Drugs exhibiting high passive intestinal permeability rates are extensively metabolized. Therefore, we aimed to determine if in vitro measures of permeability rate or in silico permeability rate predictions could predict the extent of metabolism, to determine a reference compound representing the permeability rate above which compounds would be expected to be extensively metabolized, and to predict the major route of elimination of compounds in a two-tier approach utilizing permeability rate and a previously published model predicting the major route of elimination of parent drug. Twenty-two in vitro permeability rate measurement data sets in Caco-2 and MDCK cell lines and PAMPA were collected from the literature, while in silico permeability rate predictions were calculated using ADMET Predictor or VolSurf+. The potential for permeability rate to differentiate between extensively and poorly metabolized compounds was analyzed with receiver operating characteristic curves. Compounds that yielded the highest sensitivity-specificity average were selected as permeability rate reference standards. The major route of elimination of poorly permeable drugs was predicted by our previously published model, and the accuracies and predictive values were calculated. The areas under the receiver operating curves were >0.90 for in vitro measures of permeability rate and >0.80 for the VolSurf+ model of permeability rate, indicating they were able to predict the extent of metabolism of compounds. Labetalol and zidovudine predicted greater than 80% of extensively metabolized drugs correctly and greater than 80% of poorly metabolized drugs correctly in Caco-2 and MDCK, respectively, while theophylline predicted greater than 80% of extensively and poorly metabolized drugs correctly in PAMPA. A two-tier approach predicting elimination route predicts 72 ± 9%, 49 ± 10%, and 66 ± 7% of extensively metabolized, biliarily eliminated, and renally eliminated parent drugs correctly when the permeability rate is predicted in silico and 74 ± 7%, 85 ± 2%, and 73 ± 8% of extensively metabolized, biliarily eliminated, and renally eliminated parent drugs correctly when the permeability rate is determined in vitro.

Application of Caco-2 cell line in herb-drug interaction studies: current approaches and challenges

The Caco-2 model is employed in pre-clinical investigations to predict the likely gastrointestinal permeability of drugs because it expresses cytochrome P450 enzymes, transporters, microvilli and enterocytes of identical characteristics to the human small intestine. The FDA recommends this model as integral component of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS). Most dedicated laboratories use the Caco-2 cell line to screen new chemical entities through prediction of its solubility, bioavailability and the possibility of drug-drug or herb-drug interactions in the gut lumen. However, challenges in the inherent characteristics of Caco-2 cell and inter-laboratory protocol variations have resulted to generation of irreproducible data. These limitations affect the extrapolation of data from pre-clinical research to clinical studies involving drug-drug and herb-drug interactions. This review addresses some of these caveats and enumerates the plausible current and future approaches to reduce the anomalies associated with Caco-2 cell line investigations focusing on its application in herb-drug interactions.

The use of low molecular weight protamine chemical chimera to enhance monomeric insulin intestinal absorption

Although oral delivery of insulin offers a number of unmatched advantages, it nevertheless is beset by the poor permeability of insulin molecules through the epithelial cell membranes of the intestinal mucosal layer. We previously reported the development of low molecular weight protamine (LMWP) as a non-toxic yet potent cell-penetrating peptide, of which via covalent linkage was capable of translocating protein cargos through the membranes of almost all cell types. It is therefore hypothesized that LMWP could be practically employed as a safe and effective tool to deliver insulin across the intestinal mucosal membrane, thereby augmenting its absorption through the GI tract. However, formulating 1:1 monomeric insulin/LMWP conjugate presents a tall order of challenge, as the acidic insulin and basic LMWP would automatically form tight aggregates through electrostatic interactions. In this paper, we developed an innovative conjugation strategy to solve this problem, by using succinimidyl-[(N-maleimidopropionamido)-polyethyleneglycol] ester (NHS-PEG-MAL) as an intermediate cross-linker during the coupling process. Both SDS-PAGE and MALDI-TOF mass spectroscopy confirmed the formation of a homogenous, monomeric (1:1 ratio) insulin/LMWP conjugate without encountering the conventional problem of substrate aggregation. Cell culture studies demonstrated that transport of the Insulin-PEG-LMWP conjugate across the intestinal mucosal monolayer was augmented by almost five-folds compared to native insulin. Furthermore, results from the in situ loop absorption tests in rats showed that systemic pharmacological bioavailability of insulin was significantly enhanced after its conjugation with LMWP. Overall, the presented chemical conjugation with LMWP could offer a reliable and safe means to improve the intestinal permeability of therapeutic peptides/proteins, shedding light of the possibility for their effective oral delivery.

Hollow fiber culture accelerates differentiation of Caco-2 cells

Caco-2 cells usually require 21 days of culture for developing sufficient differentiation in traditional two-dimensional Transwell culture, deviating far away from the quick differentiation of enterocytes in vivo. The recently proposed three-dimensional cultures of Caco-2 cells, though imitating the villi/crypt-like microstructure of intestinal epithelium, showed no effect on accelerating the differentiation of Caco-2 cells. In this study, a novel culture of Caco-2 cells on hollow fiber bioreactor was applied to morphologically mimic the human small intestine lumen for accelerating the expression of intestine functions. The porous hollow fibers of polyethersulfone (PES), a suitable membrane material for Caco-2 cell culture, successfully promoted cells to form confluent monolayer on the inner surface. The differentiated functions of Caco-2 cells, represented by alkaline phosphatase, γ-glutamyltransferase, and P-glycoprotein activity, were greatly higher in a 10-day hollow fiber culture than in a 21-day Transwell culture. Moreover, the Caco-2 cells on PES hollow fibers expressed higher F-actin and zonula occludens-1 protein than those on Transwell culture, indicative of an increased mechanical stress in Caco-2 cells on PES hollow fibers. The accelerated differentiation of Caco-2 cells on PES hollow fibers was unassociated with membrane chemical composition and surface roughness, but could be stimulated by hollow fiber configuration, since PES flat membranes with either rough or smooth surface failed to enhance the differentiation of Caco-2. Therefore, the accelerated expression of Caco-2 cell function on hollow fiber culture might show great values in simulation of the tissue microenvironment in vivo and guide the construction of intestinal tissue engineering apparatus.

Intestinal absorption mechanism of mirabegron, a potent and selective β₃-adrenoceptor agonist: involvement of human efflux and/or influx transport systems

Mirabegron, a weak-basic compound, is a potent and selective β3-adrenoceptor agonist for the treatment of overactive bladder. Mirabegron extended release formulation shows dose-dependent oral bioavailability in humans, which is likely attributable to saturation of intestinal efflux abilities leading to higher absorption with higher doses. This study evaluated the membrane permeability of mirabegron and investigated the involvement of human intestinal transport proteins in the membrane permeation of mirabegron. Transcellular transport and cellular/vesicular uptake assays were performed using Caco-2 cells and/or human intestinal efflux (P-glycoprotein [P-gp], breast cancer resistance protein [BCRP], and multidrug resistance associated protein 2 [MRP2]) and influx (peptide transporter 1 [PEPT1], OATP1A2, and OATP2B1) transporter-expressing cells, vesicles, or Xenopus laevis oocytes. The absorptive permeability coefficients of mirabegron in Caco-2 cells (1.68-1.83 × 10(-6) cm/s) at the apical and basal pH of 6.5 and 7.4, respectively, were slightly higher than those of nadolol (0.97-1.41 × 10(-6) cm/s), a low permeability reference standard, but lower than those of metoprolol and propranolol (both ranged from 8.49 to 11.6 × 10(-6) cm/s), low/high permeability boundary reference standards. Increasing buffer pH at the apical side from 5.5 to 8.0 gradually increased the absorptive permeation of mirabegron from 0.226 to 1.66 × 10(-6) cm/s, but was still less than the value in the opposite direction (11.0-14.2 × 10(-6) cm/s). The time- and concentration-dependent transport of mirabegron was observed in P-gp-expressing cells and OATP1A2-expressing oocytes with apparent Km values of 294 and 8.59 μM, respectively. In contrast, no clear BCRP-, MRP2-, PEPT1-, or OATP2B1-mediated uptake of mirabegron was observed in their expressing vesicles or cells. These findings suggest that mirabegron has low-to-moderate membrane permeability and P-gp is likely to be involved in its efflux into the lumen in the intestinal absorption process. The results also suggest that mirabegron could possibly be transported by intestinal influx transporters as well as simple diffusion.

Drug discovery and regulatory considerations for improving in silico and in vitro predictions that use Caco-2 as a surrogate for human intestinal permeability measurements

There is a growing need for highly accurate in silico and in vitro predictive models to facilitate drug discovery and development. Results from in vitro permeation studies across the Caco-2 cell monolayer are commonly used for drug permeability screening in industry and are also accepted as a surrogate for human intestinal permeability measurements by the US FDA to support new drug applications. Countless studies carried out in this cell line with published permeability measurements have enabled the development of many in silico prediction models. We identify several common cases that illustrate how using Caco-2 permeability measurements in these in silico and in vitro predictive models will not correlate with human intestinal permeability and will further lead to inaccuracies in these models. We provide guidelines and recommendations for improving these models to more accurately predict clinically relevant information, thereby enhancing the drug discovery, development, and regulatory approval processes.

Bioavailability of hop-derived iso-α-acids and reduced derivatives

Iso-α-acids (IAA) and their reduced derivatives (dihydro-iso-α-acids (DHIAA) and tetrahydro-iso-α-acids (THIAA)) have been administered to Caco-2 cell monolayers (30, 60, and 120 μM) to investigate epithelial transport, in both absorptive and secretive directions. In addition, 25 mg kg(-1) IAA, DHIAA, and THIAA were applied to New Zealand white rabbits (±3-3.5 kg) in a single intravenous and oral dose. The most important pharmacokinetic parameters (C(max), t(max), half life, clearance, and AUC(0-∞)) and the absolute bioavailability were determined for each class of hop acid. The results from the in vitro Caco-2 study of IAA, DHIAA, and THIAA, showed a higher membrane permeability for IAA and THIAA, both in absorptive (P(appAB) range 1.6-5.6 × 10(-6) cm s(-1)) and secretive directions (P(appBA) range 5.7-16.3 × 10(-6) cm s(-1)), when compared to DHIAA. Factors limiting transport of DHIAA could include phase II metabolism. After oral and i.v. dosing to New Zealand white rabbits, the absolute bioavailability for IAA was determined to be 13.0%. The reduced derivatives reached higher bioavailabilities with 28.0% for DHIAA and 23.0% for THIAA. The area under curve AUC(0-∞) upon oral gavage for DHIAA and THIAA was 70.7 ± 48.4 μg h ml(-1) and 57.4 ± 9.0 μg h ml(-1), respectively, while that for IAA was 10.6 ± 5.3 μg h ml(-1). Phase I metabolism was indicated as the main factor limiting the bioavailability of IAA. Bioavailability of DHIAA is mostly influenced by phase-II metabolism as shown by enzymatic hydrolysis of plasma samples upon administration of DHIAA.

Syl611, a novel semisynthetic taxane derivative, reverses multidrug resistance by p-glycoprotein inhibition and facilitating inward transmembrane action

PURPOSE

To investigate the reversal mechanisms of a novel semisynthetic taxane derivative, Syl611. Syl611 is a structurally modified compound from Sinenxan A, and the chemical structure is entirely new. It was found to significantly increase paclitaxel-induced cytotoxicity in drug-resistant cells, while presenting a low level of cytotoxicity.

METHODS

The in vitro cytotoxic and MDR-reversing activities of the Syl611 were determined by MTT assays. The cytotoxicity enhancement of paclitaxel was performed using the acridine orange/ethidium bromide double staining. Rhodamine 123 accumulation and retention assay in KB/V cells, Caco-2 monolayer model were used to find mechanism of action.

RESULTS

The cytotoxicity of Syl611 was wondrously lower in all tested cell lines than that of paclitaxel. Cytotoxicity enhancement from Syl611 was dramatically higher than that of verapamil of the same concentration (10 muM): the reversal fold index for A549/Paclitaxel, KB/V, and Bel7402/5-FU were 45.95, 73.56, and 107.13 (Syl611) and 11.36, 23.92, and 70.42 (verapamil). AO/EB double staining assay equally showed that Syl611 could enhance the cytotoxicity induced by paclitaxel. Furthermore, Syl611 could also increase the intracellular accumulation of Rhodamine 123 in KB/V cells without affecting P-gp's expression, and this accumulation was reversible. In bidirectional permeability assay, Syl611 increased the permeability of paclitaxel but decreased the net secretory of paclitaxel.

CONCLUSIONS

Syl611 is an effective and potential agent in reversing multidrug resistance (MDR) by multiple actions, which attributed to p-glycoprotein inhibition and drug permeability enhancement.

Oral absorption of ampicillin: role of paracellular route vs. PepT1 transporter

The beta-lactam antibiotic ampicillin has a relatively poor oral bioavailability in animals and man (30-40%), and its widespread agricultural use in livestock may be contributing to the emergence of antibiotic resistance in the environment. The aim of this study was to define the absorption mechanism by which ampicillin crosses the small intestinal epithelium. The improved rat everted gut sac system was used, with an emphasis on the role of the PepT1 transporter. The absorption kinetics, effects of pH and the use of competitive substrates failed to provide any substantive evidence that the transporter played a major role in ampicillin absorption. Ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid enhanced the absorption, and tissue levels remained low, suggesting that paracellular transport was predominant. pH and competition studies with glycylsarcosine, the widely used PepT1 substrate, also failed to show any transporter activity. Despite evidence from studies with Caco-2 cells that beta-lactam antibiotics are transported by the PepT1 transporter in rat small intestine, the results rather suggest that paracellular diffusion is the major mechanism of absorption, at least for beta-lactam antibiotics with poor bioavailability, such as ampicillin. We suggest that the use of Caco-2 cells underestimates the role of the paracellular route in the absorption of hydrophilic drugs in vivo, and may exaggerate the role of influx transporters.

Quantitative prediction of oral absorption of PEPT1 substrates based on in vitro uptake into Caco-2 cells

The method for predicting the fraction absorbed (Fa) of the PEPT1 substrates was established based on the in vitro uptake into Caco-2 cells. Uptake of a drug into Caco-2 cells was measured, and the carrier-mediated initial uptake clearance (DeltaCL uptake) was calculated as the difference between the uptake clearance in the absence of glycyl-sarcosine (Gly-Sar) and that in the presence of 30 mM Gly-Sar. The DeltaCL uptake of each drug was then divided by that of cephradine to obtain DeltaCL*uptake, which was a normalized parameter to correct for inter-day and/or inter-cell variability. Then, cephradine (CED), cefixime (CFIX), and cefotiam (CTM) were selected as marker compounds having excellent, medium and poor absorption, respectively. The DeltaCL*uptake and Fa values for CED, CFIX and CTM were fitted to the equation derived from the complete radial mixing (CRM) model, and the scaling factor (A') was obtained. Using the A' value, Fa was predicted from the DeltaCL*uptake value of each drug. Good correlation was observed between the predicted and reported Fa values, which demonstrated that Fa of PEPT1 substrates can be predicted based on the in vitro uptake in Caco-2 cells.

Correlation between PAMPA permeability and cellular activities of hepatitis C virus protease inhibitors

Parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) and Caco-2 cells have been frequently used for the evaluation of in vitro permeability of new chemical entities. In this study we evaluated the correlation between permeability, assessed by both methods, and the cellular potency of 34 novel hepatitis C virus (HCV) protease inhibitors. Two types of assays were used to determine the potency of HCV protease inhibitors: a cell-free assay that evaluates the intrinsic affinity (K(i)) between the protease and the inhibitor and a cell-based replicon assay that determines the inhibitors' IC90. When the K(i)/IC90 ratios were compared with the PAMPA permeability and the Caco-2 permeability by linear regression analysis, a reasonable correlation was found between the K(i)/IC90 ratio and PAMPA permeability (r2=0.76) but not with Caco-2 permeability (r2=0.29). Correlations were also assessed between K(i)/IC90 ratios and the following physico-chemical properties: logP (r2=0.41), logD (r2=0.58), clogP (r2=0.13), and mlogP (r2=0.30). These results suggest that passive permeability may play a role in the uptake and cellular activity of these HCV protease inhibitors, and that PAMPA was more predictive of cellular activity than physico-chemical properties or Caco-2 permeability.

Evaluation of the contribution of the nasal cavity and gastrointestinal tract to drug absorption following nasal application to rats

Drugs applied to the nose in in vivo physiologic condition undergo absorption from the nasal cavity and the gastrointestinal (GI) tract because drug solution in the nasal cavity, together with mucus layer, is cleared to pharynx and then to the GI tract by coordinated beat of the cilia on nasal epithelial cells. The purpose of this study was to develop evaluate the contribution of the nasal cavity and the GI tract to drug absorption following nasal application and to clarify the relation to the transepithelial permeability of the drug (the permeability to Caco-2 monolayer, P(Caco-2)). Male Wistar rats received intravenous, nasal, and oral drug administration and drug concentration-time profiles in plasma were determined. Fractional absorption after nasal application (Fn) and oral administration (Fpo) were calculated from the area under the curve following intravenous injection (AUCiv), nasal application (AUCn), and oral administration (AUCpo) as AUCn/AUCiv and AUCpo/AUCiv, respectively. Fractional absorption from the nasal cavity (F(NC)) and the GI tract (F(GI)) following nasal application was calculated as (Fn-Fpo)/(1-Fpo) and Fpo(1-F(NC)), respectively. The shape of the curve between F(NC) and P(Caco-2) was similar with the one observed in the case of oral bioavailability except the curve shifted right. It is noteworthy that the relation between F(GI) and P(Caco-2) showed a bell-shaped curve with peak at 10(-6) cm/s of P(Caco-2). Highly permeable drug is primarily absorbed through the nasal mucosa before it is cleared to the GI tract. With the decrease in P(Caco-2), the larger amount of the drug is cleared to the GI tract and absorption from the GI tract is increased. Poorly permeable drug, on the other hand, was absorbed neither from the nasal was nor the GI tract. These findings suggest that the primary absorption site of drug after nasal application is decided by mucociliary clearance and absorption through the nasal mucosa.

Peptide transporter substrate identification during permeability screening in drug discovery: comparison of transfected MDCK-hPepT1 cells to Caco-2 cells

The purpose of this study was to investigate the utility of stably transfected MDCK-hPepT1 cells for identifying peptide transporter substrates in early drug discovery and compare the characteristics of this cell line with Caco-2 cells. MDCK-hPepT1, MDCK-mock, and Caco-2 cells grown to confluence on 24-well Transwell were used for this study. Expression levels of different transporter proteins (PepT1, PepT2, P-gp) in these cell lines were assessed by qRT-PCR. Permeability studies were conducted in parallel in all the cells with a diverse set of peptide substrates using the optimized experimental condition: 100 microM, apical pH 6.0, basolateral pH 7.4, 2 hr incubation at 37 degrees C. Permeability studies were also conducted with classical P-gp substrates (tested in bi-directional mode) and paracellularly absorbed probes to investigate the differences between the cell lines. As expected, MDCK-hPepT1 cells express significantly higher level of PepT1 mRNA compared to both Caco-2 and MDCK-mock cells. Efflux transporter, P-gp, was expressed adequately in all the cell lines. Permeability studies demonstrated that classical peptide substrates had significantly higher permeability in stably transfected MDCK-hPepT1 cells compared to MDCK-mock and Caco-2 cells. The transfected MDCK-hPepT1 cells were qualitatively similar to Caco-2 cells with respect to functional P-gp efflux activity and paracellular pore activity. Stably transfected MDCK-hPepT1 cells have been demonstrated as a viable alternative to Caco-2 cells for estimating the human absorption potential of peptide transporter substrates. These cells behave similar to Caco-2 cells with regards to P-gp efflux and paracellular pore activity but demonstrate greater predictability of absorption values for classical peptide substrates (for which Caco-2 cells under-estimate oral absorption).

Human oral drugs absorption is correlated to their in vitro uptake by brush border membrane vesicles

Brush border membrane vesicles (BBMV) were prepared from the rabbit small intestine for testing drug absorption potency through the enterocyte's apical membrane, which is an important compartment for drug oral absorption. Some modifications have been made to the traditional vesicle assay for adapting it to the 96-well plate format. The accumulation of 23 reference drugs was measured, and the data showed a good correlation with human oral absorption with a correlation coefficient R=0.853 (P<0.001), with the exception of a few false positive results. As the measured drug absorption may contain a membrane/protein binding component as well as drug uptake into vesicles, these two fractions can be discriminated by changing extravesicular osmolarity using different mannitol concentrations. This model can be applied for evaluating drug absorption rate/mechanisms, and helping drug selection in early drug research and development.

Current industrial practices of assessing permeability and P-glycoprotein interaction

Combination of the in vitro models that are high throughput but less predictive and the in vivo models that are low throughput but more predictive is used effectively to evaluate the intestinal permeability and transport characteristics of a large number of drug candidates during lead selection and lead optimization processes. Parallel artificial membrane permeability assay and Caco-2 cells are the most frequently used in vitro models to assess intestinal permeability. The popularity of these models stems from their potential for high throughput, cost effectiveness, and adequate predictability of absorption potential in humans. However, several caveats associated with these models (eg, poor predictability for transporter-mediated and paracellularly absorbed compounds, significant nonspecific binding to cells/devices leading to poor recovery, variability associated with experimental factors) need to be considered carefully to realize their full potential. P-glycoprotein, among other pharmaceutically relevant transporters, has been well demonstrated to be the major determinant of drug disposition. The review article presents an objective analysis of the permeability and transporter models currently being used in the pharmaceutical industry and could help guide the discovery scientists in implementing these models in an optimal fashion.

A combined cell based approach to identify P-glycoprotein substrates and inhibitors in a single assay

The objective of this project was to develop a cell based in vitro experimental procedure that can differentiate P-glycoprotein (P-gp) substrates from inhibitors in a single assay. Caco-2 cells grown to confluency on 12-well Transwell were used for this study. The efflux permeability (B to A) of P-gp specific probe (viz., digoxin) in the presence of test compounds (e.g. substrates, inhibitors and non-substrates of P-gp) was monitored, and the influx permeability (A to B) of test compounds was evaluated after complete P-gp blockade. Radiolabelled digoxin was added on the basolateral side with buffer on the apical side. The digoxin concentration appearing on the apical side represents digoxin efflux permeability during the control phase (0-1 h period). After 1 h, a test compound (10 microM) was added on the apical side. The reduced efflux permeability of digoxin suggests that the added test compound is an inhibitor. The influx permeability of test compound is also determined during the 1-2 h study period by measuring the concentration of the test compound in the basolateral side. At the end of 2 h, a potent P-gp inhibitor (GF120918) was added. The increased influx permeability of test compound during the 2-3 h incubation period indicates that the added test compound is a substrate. Samples were taken from both sides at the end of 1-3 h and the concentrations of the test compounds and digoxin were quantitated. Digoxin efflux permeability remained unchanged when incubated with P-gp substrates (e.g., etoposide, rhodamine123, taxol). However, when a P-gp inhibitor was added to the apical side, the digoxin efflux (B to A permeability) was significantly reduced (ketoconazole=51% reduction) as expected. The influx permeability of substrates increased significantly (rhodamine123=70%, taxol=220%, digoxin=290%) after the P-gp inhibitor (GF120918) was introduced, whereas the influx permeability of P-gp inhibitor and non-substrates was not affected by GF120918. Thus, this combined assay provides an efficient cell based in vitro screening tool to simultaneously distinguish compounds that are P-gp substrates from P-gp inhibitors.

A novel high-throughput automated chip-based nanoelectrospray tandem mass spectrometric method for PAMPA sample analysis

Parallel artificial membrane permeability assay (PAMPA) has recently gained popularity as a novel, high-throughput assay capable of rapidly screening compounds for their permeability characteristics in early drug discovery. The analytical techniques typically used for PAMPA sample analysis are HPLC-UV, LC/MS or more recently UV-plate reader. The LC techniques, though sturdy and accurate, are often labor and time intensive and are not ideal for high-throughput. On the other hand, UV-plate reader technique is amenable to high-throughput but is not sensitive enough to detect the lower concentrations that are often encountered in early drug discovery work. This article investigates a novel analytical method, a chip-based automated nanoelectrospray mass spectrometric method for its ability to rapidly analyze PAMPA permeability samples. The utility and advantages of this novel analytical method is demonstrated by comparing PAMPA permeability values obtained from nanoelectrospray to those from conventional analytical methods. Ten marketed drugs having a broad range of structural space, physico-chemical properties and extent of intestinal absorption were selected as test compounds for this investigation. PAMPA permeability and recovery experiments were conducted with model compounds followed by analysis by UV-plate reader, UV-HPLC as well as the automated nanoelectrospray technique (nanoESI-MS/MS). There was a very good correlation (r(2) > 0.9) between the results obtained using nanoelectrospray and the other analytical techniques tested. Moreover, the nanoelectrospray approach presented several advantages over the standard techniques such as higher sensitivity and ability to detect individual compounds in cassette studies, making it an attractive high-throughput analytical technique. Thus, it has been demonstrated that nanoelectrospray analysis provides a highly efficient and accurate analytical methodology to analyze PAMPA samples generated in early drug discovery.

Absorption properties and P-glycoprotein activity of modified Caco-2 cell lines

Caco-2 cell line is extensively used as an in vitro model in studying small intestinal absorption but it lacks proper expression of efflux pumps and cytochrome P450 enzymes that are involved in absorption and first pass metabolism of drugs. We created two novel Caco-2 cell lines expressing orphan nuclear receptors pregnane X receptor and constitutive androstane receptor that regulate many genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism. We conducted a systematic study on expression of some metabolic genes, P-glycoprotein activity and absorption properties of several drugs with these new cell lines and previously described modified Caco-2 cell lines (MDR1 transfection, vincristine treatment and 1alpha,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 treatment). A short culture time medium was also included in the study. Most modified cell lines formed tight differentiated monolayers. MDR1, CYP2C9 and CYP3A4 genes were upregulated in some cell lines. Elevated P-glycoprotein activities were observed by calcein-AM uptake experiments but this did not affect significantly the permeability of selected P-glycoprotein substrates. Some cell lines had similar passive and active permeability properties to Caco/WT cells while in few cell lines these were altered. Passive transcellular permeability was modestly elevated in all modified cell lines. In addition, several compounds showed pH-dependent permeability properties.

Prediction of oral drug absorption in humans by theoretical passive absorption model

The purpose of the present study was to examine the oral drug absorption predictability of the theoretical passive absorption model (TPAM). As chemical descriptors of drugs, the octanol/buffer distribution coefficient at pH 6.0 (D(ow)), intrinsic octanol-water partition coefficient (P(ow)), pK(a), and molecular weight (MW) were calculated from the chemical structure. Total passive intestinal membrane permeation consists of transcellular, paracellular and unstirred water layer (UWL) permeation. Transcellular permeation was modeled based on the pH-partition hypothesis with correction for cationic species permeation, and the independent variables were D(ow), P(ow), and pK(a). Paracellular permeation was modeled as a size-restricted diffusion within a negative electrostatic field-of-force, and the independent variables were MW and pK(a). UWL permeation was modeled as diffusion across a water layer, and the independent variable was MW. Cationic species permeation in the transcellular permeation model and the effect of a negative electric field-of-force in the paracellular permeation model were the extensions to the previous TPAM. The coefficients of the paracellular and UWL permeation models were taken from the literature. A data set of 258 compounds with observed values of Fa% (the fraction of a dose absorbed in humans) taken from the literature was employed to optimize four fitting coefficients in the transcellular permeation model. The TPAM predicted Fa%, with root mean square errors of 15-21% and a correlation coefficient (CC) of 0.78-0.88. In addition, the TPAM predicted the effective human intestinal membrane permeability with a CC of 0.67-0.77, as well as the contribution of paracellular permeation. The TPAM was found to predict oral absorption from the chemical structure of drugs with adequate predictability for usage in drug discovery.

Cell culture-based models for intestinal permeability: a critique

The model systems that are currently used to determine the intestinal permeability characteristics of discovery compounds often represent a combination of high-throughout, but less predictive, in silico and in vitro models and low-throughput, but more predictive, in vivo models. Cell-based permeability models have been integrated into the discovery paradigm for some time and represent the "method of choice" across the industry. Here, in addition to an objective analysis of the utility of cell culture models for permeability screening, anticipated future trends in the field of cell culture models are discussed.

Validation of the 96 well Caco-2 cell culture model for high throughput permeability assessment of discovery compounds

The use of Caco-2 cells for permeability screening of discovery compounds is quite well established and serves as the "method-of-choice" across the pharmaceutical industries worldwide. The typical permeability-screening model involves growing cells on a 12 well or 24 well transwell format. In this manuscript, we report the use of Caco-2 cells grown on 96 well transwell plates for screening of discovery compounds to assess their permeability characteristics. A set of standard compounds (marketed compounds) belonging to the various class of Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) were used to assess the utility of the 96 well Caco-2 cells. Extensive validations were also performed with approximately 160 Bristol-Myers Squibb (BMS) discovery compounds by comparing the permeability values in the 96 well Caco-2 cells with the in-house 24 well Caco-2 cells. Functional Caco-2 cells with intact monolayers could be established in the 96 well format using optimized seeding and culturing conditions. The permeability of BCS compounds in the 96 well format was found to be comparable to the permeability in 24 well format. Similarly, there was very good correlation (R2=0.93) between the two formats for the extensive validation performed with in-house discovery compounds. The validated 96 well Caco-2 cell system presents a very attractive permeability screening tool that can perform much more efficiently than the conventional 12 well or 24 well systems while providing the same high quality permeability screening data.

New methods to evaluate intestinal drug absorption mediated by oligopeptide transporter from in vitro study using Caco-2 cells

The aim of the present work is to develop a convenient and rapid screening system in vitro for intestinal drug absorption mediated by oligopeptide transporter (PepT1). In this study, (1) Transports of cephalexin (CEX) and L-phenylalanine (L-Phe) across Caco-2 monolayers were measured and compared with those of passively transported drugs, (2) Inhibitory effects of various drugs on the transport of [(14)C]glycylsarcosine (Gly-Sar) across Caco-2 monolayers were measured and correlated with their in vivo permeability to rat small intestine, (3) Intracellular pH-change induced by co-transport of drugs with proton into Caco-2 cells was monitored by using Fluorometric Imaging Plate Reader (FLIPR, Molecular Devices Corp.). Concentration-dependent transport was observed in Caco-2 monolayers for CEX and L-Phe, although their permeability was relatively low compared to those of passively transported drugs. Inhibitory effects of various drugs including beta-lactam antibiotics and angiotensin converting enzyme-inhibitors on the transport of Gly-Sar correlated well with their in vivo permeability to rat small intestine. It was demonstrated that CEX, but not cefazolin, induced gradual decrease in the intracellular pH of Caco-2 cells. The degree of intracellular pH-change caused by various drugs showed a sigmoidal or saturable relationship with their permeability to rat small intestine. These in vitro approaches with Caco-2 cells should be useful to evaluate in vivo intestinal permeability of drugs mediated by PepT1, suggesting a possibility of high throughput screening of drug absorption.

Utility of 96 well Caco-2 cell system for increased throughput of P-gp screening in drug discovery

The use of Caco-2 cells for screening of discovery compounds for their permeability characteristics and P-glycoprotein interactions is well established and used routinely in pharmaceutical industries world-wide. The screening model involves growing cells on 12 or 24 well transwell format. In this manuscript, we report the use of Caco-2 cells grown on 96 well transwell plates for screening compounds for their potential to interact with P-gp. Bi-directionality studies were performed with known P-gp substrates such as saquinavir, indinavir, vinblastine, vincristine, verapamil, digoxin and taxol. P-gp inhibition studies were also conducted using radiolabeled digoxin as the probe. The results demonstrated that P-gp substrates had efflux ratios (Pc (B to A)/Pc (A to B)) in the 96 well format that were comparable to the ratios seen in 12 and 24 well format. Inhibition of digoxin efflux transport in presence of the test compounds (P-gp substrates) demonstrated that 96 well cells express adequate amounts of efflux transporters and perform as well as the 12 and 24 well Caco-2 cells. Thus, the 96 well Caco-2 cell set-up presents a higher throughput permeability model capable of identifying compounds that interact with P-gp and has the potential to significantly increase the efficiency of P-gp screening in early drug discovery.

Stereoselectivity of the reduced folate carrier in Caco-2 cells

Stereoselectivity of the human reduced folate carrier (RFC1) was examined in Caco-2 cells using methotrexate (l-amethopterin or l-MTX) and its antipode (d-amethopterin or d-MTX) as model substrates. The initial uptake rate of folic acid (FA) was concentration dependent, with a K(m) value of approximately 0.6 microM. The Eadie-Hofstee plot of the RFC1-mediated FA uptake revealed a single component for FA uptake into Caco-2 cells, demonstrating that only RFC1 is involved in FA uptake. l-MTX inhibited FA uptake in a competitive manner with a K(i) value of approximately 2 microM, similar to the K(m) value of l-MTX. d-MTX also competitively inhibited FA uptake with a K(i) value being approximately 120 microM, indicating that the affinity of d-MTX is ca. 60-fold less than that of l-MTX. The stereoselectivity of human RFC1 observed in the present study was consistent not only with the stereoselectivity of rabbit RFC1 observed in rabbit intestinal brush border membrane vesicles but also with the reported differences in oral absorption of amethopterin enantiomers in humans.

Dual Angiotensin II and Endothelin A Receptor Antagonists: Synthesis of 2‘-Substituted N-3-Isoxazolyl Biphenylsulfonamides with Improved Potency and Pharmacokinetics

In a previous report we demonstrated that merging together key structural elements present in an AT(1) receptor antagonist (1, irbesartan) with key structural elements in a biphenylsulfonamide ET(A) receptor antagonist (2) followed by additional optimization provided compound 3 as a dual-action receptor antagonist (DARA), which potently blocked both AT(1) and ET(A) receptors. Described herein are our efforts directed toward improving both the pharmacokinetic profile as well as the AT(1) and ET(A) receptor potency of 3. Our efforts centered on modifying the 2'-side chain of 3 and examining the isoxazolylsulfonamide moiety in 3. This effort resulted in the discovery of 7 as a highly potent second-generation DARA. Compound 7 also showed substantially improved pharmacokinetic properties compared to 3. In rats, DARA 7 reduced blood pressure elevations caused by intravenous infusion of Ang II or big ET-1 to a greater extent and with longer duration than DARA 3 or AT(1) or ET(A) receptor antagonists alone. Compound 7 clearly demonstrated superiority over irbesartan (an AT(1) receptor antagonist) in the normal SHR model of hypertension in a dose-dependent manner, demonstrating the synergy of AT(1) and ET(A) receptor blockade in a single molecule.

Predicting the intestinal absorption potential of hits and leads

Today's pharma environment requires rapid and reliable methods of screening drug leads for intestinal permeability potential in the early stages of drug discovery. Techniques using excised tissues, Caco-2 cells, artificial membranes, 'in silico' techniques and surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based biosensors are critically examined in terms of their reliability, measurement criteria, throughput and utility in identifying potentially successful or unsuccessful drug molecules.:

Transepithelial Permeation of Tolbutamide across the Human Intestinal Cell Line, Caco-2

Sulfonylurea hypoglycemic agents have interindividual variability in the gastrointestinal absorption rate. However, the absorption mechanism at the intestinal epithelium has not yet been clarified. To elucidate contribution of the specific mechanism for transepithelial transport of sulfonylureas, the apical-to-basolateral and basolateral-to-apical transport studies of tolbutamide were carried out using Caco-2 cell monolayers cultured on the polycarbonate membrane. The transported amounts of the substrate were measured by HPLC to estimate the apparent permeability coefficients (P(app)). In the apical-to-basolateral flux, the transport activity of tolbutamide was facilitated when the pH of the apical medium was more acidic than the basolateral one. ATP-depletion decreased the P(app) of tolbutamide. The kinetic analysis of the permeation rate indicated that the saturable process largely contributed to the tolbutamide flux. The P(app) of tolbutamide was lowered by an ionophore and monocarboxylic acids, while dicarboxylic acids and the inhibitor for the anion exchanger had no effect. In addition, mutual inhibition with benzoic acid was observed in transepithelial transport of tolbutamide. On the other hand, the permeation rate of tolbutamide from the basolateral to apical side was concentration-independent and neither affected by metabolic inhibitors, probenecid nor inhibitors for P-glycoprotein. In conclusion, these results suggest that apical-to-basolateral transport of tolbutamide across the Caco-2 cell monolayers is mediated by the pH-dependent specific system, presumably shared with other organic anions such as benzoic acid.