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Rossignoli D, Manzi F, Gaggioli A, Marchetti A, Massaro D, Riva G, Maggioni MA. The Importance of Being Consistent: Attribution of Mental States in Strategic Human-Robot Interactions. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY, BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2024; 27:498-506. [PMID: 38770627 DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2023.0353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
This article investigates the attribution of mental state (AMS) to an anthropomorphic robot by humans in a strategic interaction. We conducted an experiment in which human subjects are paired with either a human or an anthropomorphic robot to play an iterated Prisoner's Dilemma game, and we tested whether AMS is dependent on the robot "consistency," that is, the correspondence between the robot's verbal reaction and its behavior after a nonoptimal social outcome of the game is obtained. We find that human partners are attributed a higher mental state level than robotic partners, regardless of the partner's consistency between words and actions. Conversely, the level of AMS assigned to the robot is significantly higher when the robot is consistent in its words and actions. This finding is robust to the inclusion of psychological factors such as risk attitude and trust, and it holds regardless of subjects' initial beliefs about the adaptability of the robot. Finally, we find that when the robot apologizes for its behavior and defects in the following stage, the epistemic component of the AMS significantly increases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Domenico Rossignoli
- DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication research Center, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- HuRoLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- HuRoLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- UniToM, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Andrea Gaggioli
- Research Center of Communication Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- ATN-P Lab, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milano, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- HuRoLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- UniToM, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- HuRoLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Riva
- Research Center of Communication Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Mario A Maggioni
- DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication research Center, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- HuRoLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
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Goldman EJ, Poulin-Dubois D. Children's anthropomorphism of inanimate agents. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2024; 15:e1676. [PMID: 38659105 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1676] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 10/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
This review article examines the extant literature on animism and anthropomorphism in infants and young children. A substantial body of work indicates that both infants and young children have a broad concept of what constitutes a sentient agent and react to inanimate objects as they do to people in the same context. The literature has also revealed a developmental pattern in which anthropomorphism decreases with age, but social robots appear to be an exception to this pattern. Additionally, the review shows that children attribute psychological properties to social robots less so than people but still anthropomorphize them. Importantly, some research suggests that anthropomorphism of social robots is dependent upon their morphology and human-like behaviors. The extent to which children anthropomorphize robots is dependent on their exposure to them and the presence of human-like features. Based on the existing literature, we conclude that in infancy, a large range of inanimate objects (e.g., boxes, geometric figures) that display animate motion patterns trigger the same behaviors observed in child-adult interactions, suggesting some implicit form of anthropomorphism. The review concludes that additional research is needed to understand what infants and children judge as social agents and how the perception of inanimate agents changes over the lifespan. As exposure to robots and virtual assistants increases, future research must focus on better understanding the full impact that regular interactions with such partners will have on children's anthropomorphizing. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Learning Cognitive Biology > Cognitive Development Computer Science and Robotics > Robotics.
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Figliano G, Manzi F, Tacci AL, Marchetti A, Massaro D. Ageing society and the challenge for social robotics: A systematic review of Socially Assistive Robotics for MCI patients. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0293324. [PMID: 38033146 PMCID: PMC10688856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The aging population in Western countries has led to a rise in predementia conditions like Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI). Social Assistive Robotics (SAR) interventions, among novel technological tools, offer a promising interdisciplinary approach to mitigate cognitive and social symptoms' progression in this clinical group. This systematic review aims to identify existing clinical protocols employing social robots for treating cognitive and social cognition skills in individuals with MCI. The review protocol adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. From six databases, we retrieved and analyzed 193 articles, of which 19 met the inclusion criteria, featuring samples diagnosed with MCI and subjected to cognitive and/or social interventions through SAR. The review encompasses both qualitative and quantitative studies, with a focus on assessing bias risk. Articles were categorized into four primary areas: study participants' samples, types of robots and programming used, assessment of cognitive abilities, and the nature of interventions (i.e., cognitive and and social cognition skills). While the findings highlight the potential benefits of using SAR for MCI interventions in both cognitive and social cognition domains, the studies primarily emphasized robot acceptability rather than intervention outcomes. Methodological limitations such as clinical heterogeneity, absence of control groups, and non-standardized assessments restrict the generalizability of these findings. This review underscores the promising role of Social Assistive Robotics in MCI interventions, emphasizing the importance of social cognition skills interventions and advocating for increased collaboration between clinicians and robotic researchers to overcome current limitations and enhance future outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giusi Figliano
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Luna Tacci
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Di Dio C, Manzi F, Miraglia L, Gummerum M, Bigozzi S, Davide M, Marchetti A. Virtual agents and risk-taking behavior in adolescence: the twofold nature of nudging. Sci Rep 2023; 13:11242. [PMID: 37433842 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-38399-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Peer pressure can influence risk-taking behavior and it is particularly felt during adolescence. With artificial intelligence (AI) increasingly present in a range of everyday human contexts, including virtual environments, it is important to examine whether AI can have an impact on human's decision making processes and behavior. By using the balloon analogue risk task (BART) evaluating propensity to take risk, in this study 113 adolescents' risk-taking behavior was measured when playing alone and in the presence of either a robot avatar or human avatar. In the avatar conditions, participants performed the BART while the avatars either (1) verbally incited risk-taking or (2) discouraged risk-taking (experimental tasks). Risk-taking behavior in the BART was assessed in terms of total number of pumps, gain and explosions. Tendency to impulsivity was also evaluated, as well as the effects of age and gender on risky behavior. The main finding showed a significant effect of both avatars on risk-taking tendency, with riskier behavior during incitement than discouragement conditions, the latter being also substantially different from the playing-alone condition. The results of this study open up new questions in a very sensitive and timely topic and offer various insights into the effect of nudging on adolescents' behavior in virtual contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Miraglia
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | - Massaro Davide
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit On Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Research Unit On Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Goldman EJ, Baumann AE, Poulin-Dubois D. Preschoolers' anthropomorphizing of robots: Do human-like properties matter? Front Psychol 2023; 13:1102370. [PMID: 36814889 PMCID: PMC9940712 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1102370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Prior work has yielded contradicting evidence regarding the age at which children consistently and correctly categorize things as living or non-living. The present study tested children's animacy judgments about robots with a Naïve Biology task. In the Naïve Biology task, 3- and 5-year-olds were asked if robots, animals, or artifacts possessed mechanical or biological internal parts. To gauge how much children anthropomorphize robots in comparison to animals and artifacts, children also responded to a set of interview questions. To examine the role of morphology, two robots were used: a humanoid robot (Nao) and a non-humanoid robot (Dash). To investigate the role of dynamic characteristics, children saw one robot behave in a goal-directed manner (i.e., moving towards a ball) and one robot exhibit non-goal-directed behavior (i.e., moving away from a ball). Children of both age groups correctly attributed biological insides to the animal and mechanical insides to the artifact. However, 3-year-olds seemed confused about what belonged inside both robots and assigned biological and mechanical insides equally. In contrast, 5-year-olds correctly assigned mechanical insides to both robots, regardless of the robot's morphology or goal-directedness. Regarding the Animacy Interview, 3-year-olds performed at chance level when asked about the animacy of robots, animals, and artifacts. In contrast, 5-year-olds correctly attributed animacy to animals and accurately refrained from anthropomorphizing artifacts and the non-humanoid robot Dash. However, 5-year-olds performed at chance for Nao, suggesting they may be confused about the psychological properties of a human-looking robot. Taken together, these findings reveal a developmental transition during the preschool years in the attribution of biological and psychological properties to social robot.
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Sobel BM, Sims VK. Using the Frith-Happé animations to compare attributions of mental qualities in nonhuman agents. JOURNAL OF COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/20445911.2023.2166053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Briana M. Sobel
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
| | - Valerie K. Sims
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
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Peretti G, Manzi F, Di Dio C, Cangelosi A, Harris PL, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Can a robot lie? Young children's understanding of intentionality beneath false statements. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Peretti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | | | - Paul L. Harris
- Graduate School of Education Harvard University Cambridge Massachusetts USA
| | - Davide Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore Milan Italy
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Miraglia L, Peretti G, Manzi F, Di Dio C, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Development and validation of the Attribution of Mental States Questionnaire (AMS-Q): A reference tool for assessing anthropomorphism. Front Psychol 2023; 14:999921. [PMID: 36895742 PMCID: PMC9989770 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.999921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Attributing mental states to others, such as feelings, beliefs, goals, desires, and attitudes, is an important interpersonal ability, necessary for adaptive relationships, which underlies the ability to mentalize. To evaluate the attribution of mental and sensory states, a new 23-item measure, the Attribution of Mental States Questionnaire (AMS-Q), has been developed. The present study aimed to investigate the dimensionality of the AMS-Q and its psychometric proprieties in two studies. Study 1 focused on the development of the questionnaire and its factorial structure in a sample of Italian adults (N = 378). Study 2 aimed to confirm the findings in a new sample (N = 271). Besides the AMS-Q, Study 2 included assessments of Theory of Mind (ToM), mentalization, and alexithymia. A Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and a Parallel Analysis (PA) of the data from Study 1 yielded three factors assessing mental states with positive or neutral valence (AMS-NP), mental states with negative valence (AMS-N), and sensory states (AMS-S). These showed satisfactory reliability indexes. AMS-Q's whole-scale internal consistency was excellent. Multigroup Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) further confirmed the three-factor structure. The AMS-Q subscales also showed a consistent pattern of correlation with associated constructs in the theoretically predicted ways, relating positively to ToM and mentalization and negatively to alexithymia. Thus, the questionnaire is considered suitable to be easily administered and sensitive for assessing the attribution of mental and sensory states to humans. The AMS-Q can also be administered with stimuli of nonhuman agents (e.g., animals, inanimate things, and even God); this allows the level of mental anthropomorphization of other agents to be assessed using the human as a term of comparison, providing important hints in the perception of nonhuman entities as more or less mentalistic compared to human beings, and identifying what factors are required for the attribution of human mental traits to nonhuman agents, further helping to delineate the perception of others' minds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Miraglia
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Peretti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Robopsychology in the Lifespan, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Chin JH, Haring KS, Kim P. Understanding the neural mechanisms of empathy toward robots to shape future applications. Front Neurorobot 2023; 17:1145989. [PMID: 37125225 PMCID: PMC10130423 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2023.1145989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
This article provides an overview on how modern neuroscience evaluations link to robot empathy. It evaluates the brain correlates of empathy and caregiving, and how they may be related to the higher functions with an emphasis on women. We discuss that the understanding of the brain correlates can inform the development of social robots with enhanced empathy and caregiving abilities. We propose that the availability of these robots will benefit many aspects of the society including transition to parenthood and parenting, in which women are deeply involved in real life and scientific research. We conclude with some of the barriers for women in the field and how robotics and robot empathy research benefits from a broad representation of researchers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenna H. Chin
- Family and Child Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychology, Brain, Artificial Intelligence, and Child (BAIC) Center, University of Denver, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Kerstin S. Haring
- Humane Robot Technology (HuRoT) Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Ritchie School of Engineering and Computer Science, University of Denver, Denver, CO, United States
- *Correspondence: Kerstin S. Haring
| | - Pilyoung Kim
- Family and Child Neuroscience Lab, Department of Psychology, Brain, Artificial Intelligence, and Child (BAIC) Center, University of Denver, Denver, CO, United States
- Department of Psychology, Ewha Womans University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Fortuna P. Positive cyberpsychology as a field of study of the well-being of people interacting with and via technology. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1053482. [PMID: 36910766 PMCID: PMC9997032 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1053482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 01/25/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the article is to postulate introducing and developing positive cyberpsychology (PCyb) as a subdiscipline of cyberpsychology, which emerges at the intersection of cyberpsychology, positive psychology, and well-being informed design, and focuses on studying determinants of human well-being through interactions with and via technology. The article presents the rationale for considering the emergence of PCyb based on the importance of research on the positive transformation of people in the era of progressive digitalization and cyborgization, and the growing partnership of cyberpsychology, positive psychology, and well-being informed design in the form of paradigms and ongoing research. Moreover, it highlights the need to reframe cyberpsychology dominated by the study of the "dark side" of technology and the need to integrate and increase the "visibility" of research results on the beneficial effects of technology. The article also accentuates the opening perspective of a more in-depth analysis of the positive transformation process than the one existing within the well-being informed design and underlines a broader plan of innovation use than is taken into account in cyberpsychology and positive psychology. Lastly, it discusses the use of the results of research conducted within PCyb in the design of new technologies, consulting, and education, as well as the possibility of strengthening the voice of psychologists in the debate about the future of humans functioning in the constantly changing technosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Fortuna
- Department of Experimental Psychology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
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11
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Hostettler D, Mayer S, Hildebrand C. Human-Like Movements of Industrial Robots Positively Impact Observer Perception. Int J Soc Robot 2022; 15:1-19. [PMID: 36570426 PMCID: PMC9763088 DOI: 10.1007/s12369-022-00954-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The number of industrial robots and collaborative robots on manufacturing shopfloors has been rapidly increasing over the past decades. However, research on industrial robot perception and attributions toward them is scarce as related work has predominantly explored the effect of robot appearance, movement patterns, or human-likeness of humanoid robots. The current research specifically examines attributions and perceptions of industrial robots-specifically, articulated collaborative robots-and how the type of movements of such robots impact human perception and preference. We developed and empirically tested a novel model of robot movement behavior and demonstrate how altering the movement behavior of a robotic arm leads to differing attributions of the robot's human-likeness. These findings have important implications for emerging research on the impact of robot movement on worker perception, preferences, and behavior in industrial settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damian Hostettler
- Institute of Computer Science, University of St. Gallen, Rosenbergstrasse 30, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Simon Mayer
- Institute of Computer Science, University of St. Gallen, Rosenbergstrasse 30, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Christian Hildebrand
- Institute of Behavioral Science and Technology, University of St. Gallen, Torstrasse 25, 9000 St. Gallen, Switzerland
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12
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Manzi F, Ishikawa M, Di Dio C, Itakura S, Kanda T, Ishiguro H, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Infants’ Prediction of Humanoid Robot’s Goal-Directed Action. Int J Soc Robot 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s12369-022-00941-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSeveral studies have shown that infants anticipate human goal-directed actions, but not robot’s ones. However, the studies focusing on the robot goal-directed actions have mainly analyzed the effect of mechanical arms on infant’s attention. To date, the prediction of goal-directed actions in infants has not yet been studied when the agent is a humanoid robot. Given this lack of evidence in infancy research, the present study aims at analyzing infants’ action anticipation of both a human’s and a humanoid robot’s goal-directed action. Data were acquired on thirty 17-month-old infants, watching four video clips, where either a human or a humanoid robot performed a goal-directed action, i.e. reaching a target. Infants looking behavior was measured through the eye-tracking technique. The results showed that infants anticipated the goal-directed action of both the human and the robot and there were no differences in the anticipatory gaze behavior between the two agents. Furthermore, the findings indicated different attentional patterns for the human and the robot, showing a greater attention paid to the robot's face than the human’s face. Overall, the results suggest that 17-month-old infants may infer also humanoid robot’ underlying action goals.
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Matarese M, Rea F, Sciutti A. Perception is Only Real When Shared: A Mathematical Model for Collaborative Shared Perception in Human-Robot Interaction. Front Robot AI 2022; 9:733954. [PMID: 35783020 PMCID: PMC9240641 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2022.733954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Partners have to build a shared understanding of their environment in everyday collaborative tasks by aligning their perceptions and establishing a common ground. This is one of the aims of shared perception: revealing characteristics of the individual perception to others with whom we share the same environment. In this regard, social cognitive processes, such as joint attention and perspective-taking, form a shared perception. From a Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) perspective, robots would benefit from the ability to establish shared perception with humans and a common understanding of the environment with their partners. In this work, we wanted to assess whether a robot, considering the differences in perception between itself and its partner, could be more effective in its helping role and to what extent this improves task completion and the interaction experience. For this purpose, we designed a mathematical model for a collaborative shared perception that aims to maximise the collaborators’ knowledge of the environment when there are asymmetries in perception. Moreover, we instantiated and tested our model via a real HRI scenario. The experiment consisted of a cooperative game in which participants had to build towers of Lego bricks, while the robot took the role of a suggester. In particular, we conducted experiments using two different robot behaviours. In one condition, based on shared perception, the robot gave suggestions by considering the partners’ point of view and using its inference about their common ground to select the most informative hint. In the other condition, the robot just indicated the brick that would have yielded a higher score from its individual perspective. The adoption of shared perception in the selection of suggestions led to better performances in all the instances of the game where the visual information was not a priori common to both agents. However, the subjective evaluation of the robot’s behaviour did not change between conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Matarese
- DIBRIS Department, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
- RBCS Unit, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
- *Correspondence: Marco Matarese,
| | - Francesco Rea
- RBCS Unit, Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
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14
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Shaw HL, Scheel MH. Prescriptions from history: A case for replications that control for leading. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Heidi L. Shaw
- Social Sciences Department Yakima Valley College Yakima Washington USA
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15
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Expectations of how machines use individuating information and base-rates. JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 2022. [DOI: 10.1017/s1930297500003600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractMachines are increasingly used to make decisions. We investigated people’s beliefs about how they do so. In six experiments, participants (total N = 2664) predicted how computer and human judges would decide legal cases on the basis of limited evidence — either individuating information from witness testimony or base-rate information. In Experiments 1 to 4, participants predicted that computer judges would be more likely than human ones to reach a guilty verdict, regardless of which kind of evidence was available. Besides asking about punishment, Experiment 5 also included conditions where the judge had to decide whether to reward suspected helpful behavior. Participants again predicted that computer judges would be more likely than human judges to decide based on the available evidence, but also predicted that computer judges would be relatively more punitive than human ones. Also, whereas participants predicted the human judge would give more weight to individuating than base-rate evidence, they expected the computer judge to be insensitive to the distinction between these kinds of evidence. Finally, Experiment 6 replicated the finding that people expect greater sensitivity to the distinction between individuating and base-rate information from humans than computers, but found that the use of cartoon images, as in the first four studies, prevented this effect. Overall, the findings suggest people expect machines to differ from humans in how they weigh different kinds of information when deciding.
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16
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Thellman S, de Graaf M, Ziemke T. Mental State Attribution to Robots: A Systematic Review of Conceptions, Methods, and Findings. ACM TRANSACTIONS ON HUMAN-ROBOT INTERACTION 2022. [DOI: 10.1145/3526112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The topic of mental state attribution to robots has been approached by researchers from a variety of disciplines, including psychology, neuroscience, computer science, and philosophy. As a consequence, the empirical studies that have been conducted so far exhibit considerable diversity in terms of how the phenomenon is described and how it is approached from a theoretical and methodological standpoint. This literature review addresses the need for a shared scientific understanding of mental state attribution to robots by systematically and comprehensively collating conceptions, methods, and findings from 155 empirical studies across multiple disciplines. The findings of the review include that: (1) the terminology used to describe mental state attribution to robots is diverse but largely homogenous in usage; (2) the tendency to attribute mental states to robots is determined by factors such as the age and motivation of the human as well as the behavior, appearance, and identity of the robot; (3) there is a
computer < robot < human
pattern in the tendency to attribute mental states that appears to be moderated by the presence of socially interactive behavior; (4) there are conflicting findings in the empirical literature that stem from different sources of evidence, including self-report and non-verbal behavioral or neurological data. The review contributes toward more cumulative research on the topic and opens up for a transdisciplinary discussion about the nature of the phenomenon and what types of research methods are appropriate for investigation.
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Robotic Psychology: A PRISMA Systematic Review on Social-Robot-Based Interventions in Psychological Domains. J 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/j4040048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Current technological advancements have allowed robots to be successfully employed in the healthcare sector. However, the recently acquired ability of social robots to process social information and act according to it has potentially made them very well suited to support or conduct psychological interventions. The present paper carried out a systematic review of the available literature regarding social-robot-based interventions in psychological domains using preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The inclusion criteria were: (i) publication date until 2020; (ii) being an empirical study, master thesis, or project report; (iii) written in English or Italian languages (the two languages spoken by the authors); (iv) published in a scholarly peer-reviewed journal or conference proceedings, or were Ph.D. or master’s theses; and (v) assessed “social robot”-based intervention in psychological domains. Overall, the review showed that three main areas may benefit from social-robot-based interventions: social skills, mood, and wellbeing (e.g., stress and anxiety levels). Interestingly, social robots seemed to have a performance comparable to, and sometimes even better than, human operators. The main, but not exclusive, target of robot-based interventions in the psychological field was children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). As evidence is, however, still limited and in an embryonic state, deeper investigations are needed to assess the full potential of social robots for the purposes of psychological intervention. This is relevant, considering the role that social robots could have in overcoming barriers to access psychological assessment and therapies.
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18
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Gaggioli A, Chirico A, Di Lernia D, Maggioni MA, Malighetti C, Manzi F, Marchetti A, Massaro D, Rea F, Rossignoli D, Sandini G, Villani D, Wiederhold BK, Riva G, Sciutti A. Machines Like Us and People Like You: Toward Human-Robot Shared Experience. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2021; 24:357-361. [PMID: 34003014 DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2021.29216.aga] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
In the past years, the field of collaborative robots has been developing fast, with applications ranging from health care to search and rescue, construction, entertainment, sports, and many others. However, current social robotics is still far from the general abilities we expect in a robot collaborator. This limitation is more evident when robots are faced with real-life contexts and activities occurring over long periods. In this article, we argue that human-robot collaboration is more than just being able to work side by side on complementary tasks: collaboration is a complex relational process that entails mutual understanding and reciprocal adaptation. Drawing on this assumption, we propose to shift the focus from "human-robot interaction" to "human-robot shared experience." We hold that for enabling the emergence of such shared experiential space between humans and robots, constructs such as coadaptation, intersubjectivity, individual differences, and identity should become the central focus of modeling. Finally, we suggest that this shift in perspective would imply changing current mainstream design approaches, which are mainly focused on functional aspects of the human-robot interaction, to the development of architectural frameworks that integrate the enabling dimensions of social cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Gaggioli
- ExperienceLab, and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,ATN-P Lab, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab., and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Alice Chirico
- ExperienceLab, and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Di Lernia
- Humane Technology Lab., and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario A Maggioni
- HuroLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy.,CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication Research Center, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Clelia Malighetti
- Humane Technology Lab., and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab., and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesco Rea
- Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Sciences (RBCS) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Domenico Rossignoli
- HuroLab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy.,CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication Research Center, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Giulio Sandini
- Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Sciences (RBCS) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniela Villani
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Brenda K Wiederhold
- Virtual Reality Medical Center, La Jolla, California, USA.,Virtual Reality Medical Institute, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Giuseppe Riva
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,ATN-P Lab, IRCCS Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab., and Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Alessandra Sciutti
- Cognitive Architecture for Collaborative Technologies (CONTACT) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
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19
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Manzi F, Massaro D, Di Lernia D, Maggioni MA, Riva G, Marchetti A. Robots Are Not All the Same: Young Adults' Expectations, Attitudes, and Mental Attribution to Two Humanoid Social Robots. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2021; 24:307-314. [DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2020.0162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Federico Manzi
- UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Di Lernia
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Mario A. Maggioni
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication research Center, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Riva
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Applied Technology for NeuroPsychology Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab., Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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20
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Manzi F, Sorgente A, Massaro D, Villani D, Di Lernia D, Malighetti C, Gaggioli A, Rossignoli D, Sandini G, Sciutti A, Rea F, Maggioni MA, Marchetti A, Riva G. Emerging Adults' Expectations About the Next Generation of Robots: Exploring Robotic Needs Through a Latent Profile Analysis. CYBERPSYCHOLOGY BEHAVIOR AND SOCIAL NETWORKING 2021; 24:315-323. [DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2020.0161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Federico Manzi
- Department of Psychology, UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Angela Sorgente
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniela Villani
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Daniele Di Lernia
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Clelia Malighetti
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Andrea Gaggioli
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Domenico Rossignoli
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, DISEIS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Cognitive Science and Communication Research Center (CSCC), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Giulio Sandini
- Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Sciences (RBCS) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alessandra Sciutti
- Cognitive Architecture for Collaborative Technologies (CONTACT) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Francesco Rea
- Robotics, Brain and Cognitive Sciences (RBCS) Unit, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Mario A. Maggioni
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, DISEIS, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
- Cognitive Science and Communication Research Center (CSCC), Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milano, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, UniToM, Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Riva
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
- Applied Technology for Neuropsychology Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
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21
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Manzi F, Di Dio C, Di Lernia D, Rossignoli D, Maggioni MA, Massaro D, Marchetti A, Riva G. Can You Activate Me? From Robots to Human Brain. Front Robot AI 2021; 8:633514. [PMID: 33681301 PMCID: PMC7933445 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2021.633514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- F Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - C Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - D Di Lernia
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - D Rossignoli
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication research Center, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - M A Maggioni
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,DISEIS, Department of International Economics, Institutions and Development, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,CSCC, Cognitive Science and Communication research Center, Universitá Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - D Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - A Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - G Riva
- Humane Technology Lab, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Applied Technology for NeuroPsychology Laboratory, Istituto Auxologico Italiano, Milan, Italy
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22
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Baratgin J, Dubois-Sage M, Jacquet B, Stilgenbauer JL, Jamet F. Pragmatics in the False-Belief Task: Let the Robot Ask the Question! Front Psychol 2020; 11:593807. [PMID: 33329255 PMCID: PMC7719623 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.593807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The poor performances of typically developing children younger than 4 in the first-order false-belief task "Maxi and the chocolate" is analyzed from the perspective of conversational pragmatics. An ambiguous question asked by an adult experimenter (perceived as a teacher) can receive different interpretations based on a search for relevance, by which children according to their age attribute different intentions to the questioner, within the limits of their own meta-cognitive knowledge. The adult experimenter tells the child the following story of object-transfer: "Maxi puts his chocolate into the green cupboard before going out to play. In his absence, his mother moves the chocolate from the green cupboard to the blue one." The child must then predict where Maxi will pick up the chocolate when he returns. To the child, the question from an adult (a knowledgeable person) may seem surprising and can be understood as a question of his own knowledge of the world, rather than on Maxi's mental representations. In our study, without any modification of the initial task, we disambiguate the context of the question by (1) replacing the adult experimenter with a humanoid robot presented as "ignorant" and "slow" but trying to learn and (2) placing the child in the role of a "mentor" (the knowledgeable person). Sixty-two typical children of 3 years-old completed the first-order false belief task "Maxi and the chocolate," either with a human or with a robot. Results revealed a significantly higher success rate in the robot condition than in the human condition. Thus, young children seem to fail because of the pragmatic difficulty of the first-order task, which causes a difference of interpretation between the young child and the experimenter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Baratgin
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Marion Dubois-Sage
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Baptiste Jacquet
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
| | - Jean-Louis Stilgenbauer
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
- Facultés Libres de Philosophie et de Psychologie (IPC), Paris, France
| | - Frank Jamet
- Laboratoire Cognition Humaine et Artificielle, Université Paris 8, Paris, France
- Probability, Assessment, Reasoning and Inferences Studies (P-A-R-I-S) Association, Paris, France
- CY Cergy-Paris Université, ESPE de Versailles, Paris, France
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23
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Differential Facial Articulacy in Robots and Humans Elicit Different Levels of Responsiveness, Empathy, and Projected Feelings. ROBOTICS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/robotics9040092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Life-like humanoid robots are on the rise, aiming at communicative purposes that resemble humanlike conversation. In human social interaction, the facial expression serves important communicative functions. We examined whether a robot’s face is similarly important in human-robot communication. Based on emotion research and neuropsychological insights on the parallel processing of emotions, we argue that greater plasticity in the robot’s face elicits higher affective responsivity, more closely resembling human-to-human responsiveness than a more static face. We conducted a between-subjects experiment of 3 (facial plasticity: human vs. facially flexible robot vs. facially static robot) × 2 (treatment: affectionate vs. maltreated). Participants (N = 265; Mage = 31.5) were measured for their emotional responsiveness, empathy, and attribution of feelings to the robot. Results showed empathically and emotionally less intensive responsivity toward the robots than toward the human but followed similar patterns. Significantly different intensities of feelings and attributions (e.g., pain upon maltreatment) followed facial articulacy. Theoretical implications for underlying processes in human-robot communication are discussed. We theorize that precedence of emotion and affect over cognitive reflection, which are processed in parallel, triggers the experience of ‘because I feel, I believe it’s real,’ despite being aware of communicating with a robot. By evoking emotional responsiveness, the cognitive awareness of ‘it is just a robot’ fades into the background and appears not relevant anymore.
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24
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Manzi F, Peretti G, Di Dio C, Cangelosi A, Itakura S, Kanda T, Ishiguro H, Massaro D, Marchetti A. A Robot Is Not Worth Another: Exploring Children's Mental State Attribution to Different Humanoid Robots. Front Psychol 2020; 11:2011. [PMID: 33101099 PMCID: PMC7554578 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent technological developments in robotics has driven the design and production of different humanoid robots. Several studies have highlighted that the presence of human-like physical features could lead both adults and children to anthropomorphize the robots. In the present study we aimed to compare the attribution of mental states to two humanoid robots, NAO and Robovie, which differed in the degree of anthropomorphism. Children aged 5, 7, and 9 years were required to attribute mental states to the NAO robot, which presents more human-like characteristics compared to the Robovie robot, whose physical features look more mechanical. The results on mental state attribution as a function of children's age and robot type showed that 5-year-olds have a greater tendency to anthropomorphize robots than older children, regardless of the type of robot. Moreover, the findings revealed that, although children aged 7 and 9 years attributed a certain degree of human-like mental features to both robots, they attributed greater mental states to NAO than Robovie compared to younger children. These results generally show that children tend to anthropomorphize humanoid robots that also present some mechanical characteristics, such as Robovie. Nevertheless, age-related differences showed that they should be endowed with physical characteristics closely resembling human ones to increase older children's perception of human likeness. These findings have important implications for the design of robots, which also needs to consider the user's target age, as well as for the generalizability issue of research findings that are commonly associated with the use of specific types of robots.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Peretti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Cangelosi
- School of Computer Science, University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Shoji Itakura
- Centre for Baby Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Takayuki Kanda
- Human-Robot Interaction Laboratory, Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
- Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, IRC/HIL, Keihanna Science City, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ishiguro
- Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, IRC/HIL, Keihanna Science City, Kyoto, Japan
- Department of Systems Innovation, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - Davide Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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25
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Marchetti A, Di Dio C, Massaro D, Manzi F. The Psychosocial Fuzziness of Fear in the Coronavirus (COVID-19) Era and the Role of Robots. Front Psychol 2020; 11:2245. [PMID: 33071853 PMCID: PMC7542240 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, Milan, Italy
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26
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Manzi F, Ishikawa M, Di Dio C, Itakura S, Kanda T, Ishiguro H, Massaro D, Marchetti A. The understanding of congruent and incongruent referential gaze in 17-month-old infants: an eye-tracking study comparing human and robot. Sci Rep 2020; 10:11918. [PMID: 32681110 PMCID: PMC7368080 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-69140-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Several studies have shown that the human gaze, but not the robot gaze, has significant effects on infant social cognition and facilitate social engagement. The present study investigates early understanding of the referential nature of gaze by comparing-through the eye-tracking technique-infants' response to human and robot's gaze. Data were acquired on thirty-two 17-month-old infants, watching four video clips, where either a human or a humanoid robot performed an action on a target. The agent's gaze was either turned to the target (congruent) or opposite to it (incongruent). The results generally showed that, independent of the agent, the infants attended longer at the face area compared to the hand and target. Additionally, the effect of referential gaze on infants' attention to the target was greater when infants watched the human compared to the robot's action. These results suggest the presence, in infants, of two distinct levels of gaze-following mechanisms: one recognizing the other as a potential interactive partner, the second recognizing partner's agency. In this study, infants recognized the robot as a potential interactive partner, whereas ascribed agency more readily to the human, thus suggesting that the process of generalizability of gazing behaviour to non-humans is not immediate.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.
| | - M Ishikawa
- School of Graduated Letter, Department of Psychology, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - C Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - S Itakura
- Centre for Baby Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - T Kanda
- Human-Robot Interaction Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.,Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, IRC/HIL, Keihanna Science City, Kyoto, Japan
| | - H Ishiguro
- Advanced Telecommunications Research Institute International, IRC/HIL, Keihanna Science City, Kyoto, Japan.,Department of Systems Innovation, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Japan
| | - D Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - A Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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Manzi F, Savarese G, Mollo M, Iannaccone A. Objects as Communicative Mediators in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder. Front Psychol 2020; 11:1269. [PMID: 32625148 PMCID: PMC7311758 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, the socio-material perspective has informed an important interdisciplinary debate concerning the role of the physical world (i.e., the objects) in human psychological development. Several studies in the field of developmental psychology showed positive achievements in explaining the relationship between the subject and the social context through a socio-material approach, in particular in the early development. The importance of objects was also recognized in children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), showing that these children are characterized by alterations in the use of the objects from early development. Some studies highlighted that objects could be a facilitator in the interactions between children with ASD and peers. However, the role of objects was not sufficiently investigated in interactions between children with ASD and adults. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate in children with ASD the communicative function that the activities with objects assume in the interactions with adults, highlighting the mediator role of objects in these interactions. More generally, this study also aims to highlight the relevance of adopting a socio-material perspective to explore some neglected aspects of the psychological activity of children with ASD. To test this hypothesis, we conducted an extensive exploratory study, collecting data from a sample of 3-year-old (N = 18; F = 3) and 4-year-old (N = 26; F = 3) with ASD. Children were observed in a free-play situation with an adult. They were free to choose an object from a predefined set. Through quantitative data, we have described the general characteristics of the manipulation of objects; through qualitative data, we aimed to capture and describe, in microgenetic sequences, some characteristics of children's activities, defined as socio-material. The analysis of the socio-material activities suggested the role of objects as mediator of the interactions between children with ASD and adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Savarese
- Department of Medicine, Surgery and Dentistry, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | - Monica Mollo
- Department of Human, Philosophical, and Education Sciences, University of Salerno, Salerno, Italy
| | - Antonio Iannaccone
- Institut de Psychologie et Éducation, Université de Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland
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Di Dio C, Manzi F, Peretti G, Cangelosi A, Harris PL, Massaro D, Marchetti A. Shall I Trust You? From Child-Robot Interaction to Trusting Relationships. Front Psychol 2020; 11:469. [PMID: 32317998 PMCID: PMC7147504 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Studying trust in the context of human-robot interaction is of great importance given the increasing relevance and presence of robotic agents in the social sphere, including educational and clinical. We investigated the acquisition, loss, and restoration of trust when preschool and school-age children played with either a human or a humanoid robot in vivo. The relationship between trust and the representation of the quality of attachment relationships, Theory of Mind, and executive function skills was also investigated. Additionally, to outline children's beliefs about the mental competencies of the robot, we further evaluated the attribution of mental states to the interactive agent. In general, no substantial differences were found in children's trust in the play partner as a function of agency (human or robot). Nevertheless, 3-year-olds showed a trend toward trusting the human more than the robot, as opposed to 7-year-olds, who displayed the reverse pattern. These findings align with results showing that, for 3- and 7-year-olds, the cognitive ability to switch was significantly associated with trust restoration in the human and the robot, respectively. Additionally, supporting previous findings, we found a dichotomy between attributions of mental states to the human and robot and children's behavior: while attributing to the robot significantly lower mental states than the human, in the Trusting Game, children behaved in a similar way when they related to the human and the robot. Altogether, the results of this study highlight that similar psychological mechanisms are at play when children are to establish a novel trustful relationship with a human and robot partner. Furthermore, the findings shed light on the interplay - during development - between children's quality of attachment relationships and the development of a Theory of Mind, which act differently on trust dynamics as a function of the children's age as well as the interactive partner's nature (human vs. robot).
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Di Dio
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Federico Manzi
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Giulia Peretti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Angelo Cangelosi
- School of Computer Science, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Paul L. Harris
- Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Davide Massaro
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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29
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Wang Y, Park Y, Itakura S, Henderson AME, Kanda T, Furuhata N, Ishiguro H. Infants' perceptions of cooperation between a human and robot. INFANT AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/icd.2161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ying Wang
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of LettersKyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Yun‐Hee Park
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of LettersKyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Shoji Itakura
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of LettersKyoto University Kyoto Japan
- Center for Baby ScienceDoshisha University Kyoto Japan
| | | | - Takayuki Kanda
- Intelligent Robotics and Communication LaboratoryAdvanced Telecommunications Research Institute International (ATR) Kyoto Japan
- Department of Social InformaticsKyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Naoki Furuhata
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of LettersKyoto University Kyoto Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ishiguro
- Department of System Innovation, Graduate School of Engineering ScienceOsaka University Osaka Japan
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Di Dio C, Massaro D, Savazzi FA, Gallese V, Garau T, Gilli G, Marchetti A. Beauty in life: An eye-tracking study on young adults' aesthetic evaluation and vitality judgment of pictorial representations of sleeping and dead subjects. Psych J 2019; 9:458-471. [PMID: 31025535 DOI: 10.1002/pchj.285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2018] [Revised: 02/25/2019] [Accepted: 03/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Preferring life to death is deeply rooted in our biology. With the present study, we explored two questions: (1) Can this inclination be transposed to aesthetics, so that a living being is valued as more beautiful than a non-living being? and (2) Are there any differences in the visual exploration of portrayals of a living compared to a dead human? In particular, are there any specific facial features representing the vitality status of a living or dead subject? By answering both questions, young adults' eye gazing was analyzed while they observed, aesthetically judged, and judged the vitality status of faces extracted from paintings representing a sleeping or dead subject. The aesthetic preference for the stimuli as a function of vitality (living, dead) was assessed both during the eye-tracking study and during a follow-up priming behavioral experiment. The analysis of the responses given during the aesthetic judgment task in the eye-tracking study revealed preference for the sleeping compared to the dead subjects, supporting proclivity to attribute greater aesthetic value to living beings. This evidence was substantially confirmed by the follow-up priming behavioral study, which further showed a significant effect of explicit vitality labeling on the aesthetic evaluation of the portrayals of sleeping subjects. As far as the visual exploration of the stimuli is concerned, the main eye-tracking results revealed great attention to the eye region of both sleeping and dead subjects, which was particularly enhanced for the sleeping compared to the dead subjects. For the latter stimuli, focused attention was also found to the mouth region. These results are discussed in light of different theoretical proposals, including the "embodied" theory of aesthetic perception based on the existence of mirror systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Di Dio
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Davide Massaro
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Vittorio Gallese
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.,Department of Art History and Archaeology, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Tiziana Garau
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriella Gilli
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
| | - Antonella Marchetti
- Department of Psychology, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy.,Research Unit on Theory of Mind, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, Italy
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31
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It Does Not Matter Who You Are: Fairness in Pre-schoolers Interacting with Human and Robotic Partners. Int J Soc Robot 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/s12369-019-00528-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M. Bernstein
- Department of Psychology, Kwantlen Polytechnic University, Surrey, BC, Canada
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34
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Affiliation(s)
- Henry M. Wellman
- Department of Psychology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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