Relationship between the tertiary structures of mastoparan B and its analogs and their lytic activities studied by NMR spectroscopy

Unwrapping the structural and functional features of antimicrobial peptides from wasp venoms

The study of wasp venoms has captured attention due to the presence of a wide variety of active compounds, revealing a diverse array of biological effects. Among these compounds, certain antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as mastoparans and chemotactic peptides have emerged as significant players, characterized by their unique amphipathic short linear alpha-helical structure. These peptides exhibit not only antibiotic properties but also a range of other biological activities, which are related to their ability to interact with biological membranes to varying degrees. This review article aims to provide updated insights into the structure/function relationships of AMPs derived from wasp venoms, linking this knowledge to the potential development of innovative treatments against infections.

Chemical approaches in the development of natural nontoxic peptide Polybia-MP1 as a potential dual antimicrobial and antitumor agent

Polybia-MP1 is a well-known natural antimicrobial peptide that has been intensively studied recently due to its therapeutic potential. MP1 exhibited not only potent antibacterial activity but also antifungal and anticancer properties. More importantly, MP1 shows relatively low hemolytic activity compared to other antimicrobial peptides having a similar origin. Thus, besides investigating possible mechanisms of action, great efforts have been invested to develop this peptide to become more "druggable". In this review, we summarized all the chemical approaches, both success and failure, that using MP1 as a lead compound to create modified analogs with better pharmacological properties. As there have been thousands of natural AMPs found and deposited in numerous databases, such useful information in both the success and failure will provide insight into the research and development of antimicrobial peptides and guiding for the next steps.

Efficacy of Mastoparan-AF alone and in combination with clinically used antibiotics on nosocomial multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii

Emergence of multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (MDRAB) has become a critical clinical problem worldwide and limited therapeutic options for infectious diseases caused by MDRAB. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the development of new antimicrobial agents or alternative therapy to combat MDRAB infection. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of Mastoparan-AF (MP-AF), an amphipathic peptide isolated from the hornet venom of Vespa affinis with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, on MDRAB. As compared with clinical used antibiotics, MP-AF exhibited potent antimicrobial activity at 2–16 μg/ml against the reference strain A. baumannii ATCC 15151 and seven MDRAB clinical isolates, especially the colistin-resistant MDRAB, E0158. The synergistic antimicrobial combination study revealed that MP-AF acted synergistically with specific antibiotics, e.g., ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (SXT) or colistin against some isolates of the MDRAB. It was noteworthy when MP-AF combined with SXT exhibited synergistic activity against all SXT-resistant MDRAB isolates. The synergistic combination of MP-AF and antibiotics could reduce the dosage recommended of each antimicrobial agent and improve the safety of medications with ignorable adverse effects, such as colistin with nephrotoxicity in therapeutic dose. Furthermore, MP-AF combined with antibiotics with different antimicrobial mechanisms could reduce selective pressure of antibiotics on bacteria and prevent the emergence of antimicrobial-resistant strains. Importantly, we are the first finding that MP-AF could make MDRAB from the original non-susceptibility to SXT become sensitivity. In conclusion, MP-AF alone or in combination with other antibiotics, especially SXT, is a potential candidate against MDRAB infection in clinical medicine.

Role of phenylalanine and valine10 residues in the antimicrobial activity and cytotoxicity of piscidin-1

Piscidin-1 (Pis-1) is a linear antibacterial peptide derived from mast cells of aquacultured hybrid striped bass that comprises 22 amino acids with a phenylalanine-rich amino-terminus. Pis-1 exhibits potent antibacterial activity against pathogens but is not selective for distinguishing between bacterial and mammalian cells. To determine the key residues for its antibacterial activity and those for its cytotoxicity, we investigated the role of each Phe residue near the N-terminus as well as the Val¹⁰ residue located near the boundary of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic sectors of the helical wheel diagram. Fluorescence dye leakage and tryptophan fluorescence experiments were used to study peptide-lipid interactions, showing comparable depths of insertion of substituted peptides in different membranes. Phe² was found to be the most deeply inserted phenylalanine in both bacterial- and mammalian-mimic membranes. Each Phe was substituted with Ala or Lys to investigate its functional role. Phe² plays key roles in the cytotoxicity as well as the antibacterial activities of Pis-1, and Phe⁶ is essential for the antibacterial activities of Pis-1. We also designed and synthesized a piscidin analog, Pis-V10K, in which Lys was substituted for Val¹⁰, resulting in an elevated amphipathic α-helical structure. Pis-V10K showed similar antibacterial activity (average minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC)  = 1.6 µM) to Pis-1 (average MIC  = 1.5 µM). However, it exhibited much lower cytotoxicity than Pis-1. Lys¹⁰-substituted analogs, Pis-F1K/V10K, Pis-F2K/V10K, and Pis-F6K/V10K in which Lys was substituted for Phe retained antibacterial activity toward standard and drug-resistant bacterial strains with novel bacterial cell selectivity. They exert anti-inflammatory activities via inhibition of nitric oxide production, TNF-α secretion, and MIP-1 and MIP-2 production. They may disrupt the binding of LPS to toll-like receptors, eventually suppressing MAPKs-mediated signaling pathways. These peptides may be good candidates for the development of peptide antibiotics with potent antibacterial activity but without cytotoxicity.

A mastoparan-derived peptide has broad-spectrum antiviral activity against enveloped viruses

Broad-spectrum antiviral drugs are urgently needed to treat individuals infected with new and re-emerging viruses, or with viruses that have developed resistance to antiviral therapies. Mammalian natural host defense peptides (mNHP) are short, usually cationic, peptides that have direct antimicrobial activity, and which in some instances activate cell-mediated antiviral immune responses. Although mNHP have potent activity in vitro, efficacy trials in vivo of exogenously provided mNHP have been largely disappointing, and no mNHP are currently licensed for human use. Mastoparan is an invertebrate host defense peptide that penetrates lipid bilayers, and we reasoned that a mastoparan analog might interact with the lipid component of virus membranes and thereby reduce infectivity of enveloped viruses. Our objective was to determine whether mastoparan-derived peptide MP7-NH2 could inactivate viruses of multiple types, and whether it could stimulate cell-mediated antiviral activity. We found that MP7-NH2 potently inactivated a range of enveloped viruses. Consistent with our proposed mechanism of action, MP7-NH2 was not efficacious against a non-enveloped virus. Pre-treatment of cells with MP7-NH2 did not reduce the amount of virus recovered after infection, which suggested that the primary mechanism of action in vitro was direct inactivation of virus by MP7-NH2. These results demonstrate for the first time that a mastoparan derivative has broad-spectrum antiviral activity in vitro and suggest that further investigation of the antiviral properties of mastoparan peptides in vivo is warranted.

In vitro activity of mastoparan-AF alone and in combination with clinically used antibiotics against multiple-antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli isolates from animals

The in vitro activity of mastoparan-AF, an amphipathic antimicrobial peptide isolated from the hornet venom of Vespa affinis, alone and in combination with various clinically used antibiotics, was investigated against 21 Escherichia coli isolates/strains. Most E. coli isolates tested were detected containing multiple-antimicrobial resistance genes. Antimicrobial activity of mastoparan-AF was measured by MIC, MBC, time-kill kinetic assay and chequerboard titration method. Mastoparan-AF exhibited potent antimicrobial activity against most multiple-antibiotic-resistant E. coli isolates at the concentrations ranging from 4 to 16 μg/ml. Combination studies showed that mastoparan-AF acts synergistically with certain antibiotics, i.e., cephalothin or gentamicin, against some multiple-antibiotic-resistant E. coli isolates. In conclusion, mastoparan-AF alone or in combination with other antibiotics could be promising as alternatives for combating multiple-antibiotic-resistant E. coli in future clinical applications.

Structure and function of papiliocin with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities isolated from the swallowtail butterfly, Papilio xuthus

Papiliocin is a novel 37-residue cecropin-like peptide isolated recently from the swallowtail butterfly, Papilio xuthus. With the aim of identifying a potent antimicrobial peptide, we tested papiliocin in a variety of biological and biophysical assays, demonstrating that the peptide possesses very low cytotoxicity against mammalian cells and high bacterial cell selectivity, particularly against Gram-negative bacteria as well as high anti-inflammatory activity. Using LPS-stimulated macrophage RAW264.7 cells, we found that papiliocin exerted its anti-inflammatory activities by inhibiting nitric oxide (NO) production and secretion of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-2, producing effects comparable with those of the antimicrobial peptide LL-37. We also showed that the innate defense response mechanisms engaged by papiliocin involve Toll-like receptor pathways that culminate in the nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Fluorescent dye leakage experiments showed that papiliocin targets the bacterial cell membrane. To understand structure-activity relationships, we determined the three-dimensional structure of papiliocin in 300 mm dodecylphosphocholine micelles by NMR spectroscopy, showing that papiliocin has an α-helical structure from Lys(3) to Lys(21) and from Ala(25) to Val(36), linked by a hinge region. Interactions between the papiliocin and LPS studied using tryptophan blue-shift data, and saturation transfer difference-NMR experiments revealed that Trp(2) and Phe(5) at the N-terminal helix play an important role in attracting papiliocin to the cell membrane of Gram-negative bacteria. In conclusion, we have demonstrated that papiliocin is a potent peptide antibiotic with both anti-inflammatory and antibacterial activities, and we have laid the groundwork for future studies of its mechanism of action.

Structural and biological characterization of mastoparans in the venom of Vespa species in Taiwan

Mastoparans, a family of small peptides, are isolated from the wasp venom. In this study, six mastoparans were identified in the venom of six Vespa species in Taiwan. The precursors of these mastoparans are composed of N-terminal signal sequence, prosequence, mature mastoparan, and appendix glycine at C-terminus. These mature mastoparans all have characteristic features of linear cationic peptides rich in hydrophobic and basic amino acids without disulfide bond. Therefore, these peptides could be predicted to adopt an amphipathic α-helical secondary structure. In fact, the CD (circular dichroism) spectra of these peptides show a high content α-helical conformation in the presence of 8 mM SDS or 40% 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol (TFE). All mastoparans exhibit mast cell degranulation activity, antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and -negative bacteria tested, various degree of hemolytic activity on chicken, human, and sheep erythrocytes as well as membrane permeabilization on Escherichia coli BL21. Our results also show that the hemolytic activity of mastoparans is correlated to mean hydrophobicity and mean hydrophobic moment.

Decoralin, a novel linear cationic alpha-helical peptide from the venom of the solitary eumenine wasp Oreumenes decoratus

A novel peptide, decoralin, was isolated from the venom of the solitary eumenine wasp Oreumenes decoratus. Its sequence, Ser-Leu-Leu-Ser-Leu-Ile-Arg-Lys-Leu-Ile-Thr, was determined by Edman degradation and corroborated by solid-phase synthesis. This sequence has the characteristic features of linear cationic alpha-helical peptides; rich in hydrophobic and basic amino acids with no disulfide bond, and accordingly, it can be predicted to adopt an amphipathic alpha-helix secondary structure. In fact, the CD spectra of decoralin in the presence of TFE or SDS showed a high alpha-helical conformation content. In a biological evaluation, decoralin exhibited a significant broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, and moderate mast cell degranulation and leishmanicidal activities, but showed virtually no hemolytic activity. A synthetic analog with C-terminal amidation showed a much more potent activity in all the biological assays.

Structure of tightly membrane-bound mastoparan-X, a G-protein-activating peptide, determined by solid-state NMR

The structure of mastoparan-X (MP-X), a G-protein activating peptide from wasp venom, in the state tightly bound to anionic phospholipid bilayers was determined by solid-state NMR spectroscopy. Carbon-13 and nitrogen-15 NMR signals of uniformly labeled MP-X were completely assigned by multidimensional intraresidue C-C, N-CalphaCbeta, and N-Calpha-C', and interresidue Calpha-CalphaCbeta, N-CalphaCbeta, and N-C'-Calpha correlation experiments. The backbone torsion angles were predicted from the chemical shifts of 13C', 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, and 15N signals with the aid of protein NMR database programs. In addition, two 13C-13C and three 13C-15N distances between backbone nuclei were precisely measured by rotational resonance and REDOR experiments, respectively. The backbone structure of MP-X was determined from the 26 dihedral angle restraints and five distances with an average root-mean-square deviation of 0.6 A. Peptide MP-X in the bilayer-bound state formed an amphiphilic alpha-helix for residues Trp3-Leu14 and adopted an extended conformation for Asn2. This membrane-bound conformation is discussed in relation to the peptide's activities to form pores in membranes and to activate G-proteins. This study demonstrates the power of multidimensional solid-state NMR of uniformly isotope-labeled molecules and distance measurements for determining the structures of peptides bound to lipid membranes.

Interactions between the plasma membrane and the antimicrobial peptide HP (2-20) and its analogues derived from Helicobacter pylori

HP (2-20), a 19-residue peptide derived from the N-terminus of Helicobacter pylori ribosomal protein L1, has antimicrobial activity but is not cytotoxic to human erythrocytes. We synthesized several peptide analogues to investigate the effects of substitutions on structure and antimicrobial activity. Replacement of Gln16 and Asp18 with tryptophan [anal-3 (analogue-3)] caused a dramatic increase in lytic activities against bacteria and fungi. By contrast, a decrease in amphiphilicity caused by replacement of Phe5 or Leu11 with serine was accompanied by a reduction in antimicrobial activity. Analysis of the tertiary structures of the peptides in SDS micelles by NMR spectroscopy revealed that they have a well-defined a-helical structure. Among the analogues, anal-3 has the longest a-helix, from Val4 to Trp18. The enhanced hydrophobicity and increased a-helicity results in enhanced antimicrobial activity in anal-3 without an increase in haemolytic activity. Fluorescence experiments proved that the bacterial-cell selectivity of the anal-3 peptide is due to its high binding affinity for negatively charged phospholipids in bacterial cells. Results showing the effect of spin-labels on the NMR spectra indicated that the side chains in the hydrophobic phase of the amphiphilic a-helix are buried on the surface of the micelle and the tryptophan indole ring is anchored in the membrane surface. Because anal-3 shows high selectivity towards bacterial and fungal cells, it may provide an avenue for the development of new antibiotics.

Antimicrobial peptides: New candidates in the fight against bacterial infections

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) of innate origin are agents of the most ancient form of defense systems. They can be found in a wide variety of species ranging from bacteria through insects to humans. Through the course of evolution, host organisms developed arsenals of AMPs that protect them against a large variety of invading pathogens including both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. At a time of increasing bacterial resistance, AMPs have been the focus of investigation in a number of laboratories worldwide. Although recent studies show that some of the peptides are likely to have intracellular targets, the vast majority of AMPs appear to act by permeabilization of the bacterial cell membrane. Their activity and selectivity are governed by the physicochemical parameters of the peptide chains as well as the properties of the membrane system itself. In this review, we will summarize some of the recent developments that provide us with a better understanding of the mode of action of this unique family of antibacterial agents. Particular attention will be given to the determinants of AMP-lipid bilayer interactions as well as to the different pore formation mechanisms. The emphasis will be on linear AMPs but representatives of cysteine-bridged AMPs will also be discussed.

Conformational studies of antimetastatic laminin-1 derived peptides in different solvent systems, using solution NMR spectroscopy

Due to its critical role in cancer progression, interactions between laminin-1 and the 67 kDa Laminin-Binding Protein (the 67 kDa LBP) have been the focus of a number of structural and biological studies. As laminin-1 is such a large and complex molecule, research interests have turned to the investigation of bioactive peptides derived from binding domains of laminin-1. Two peptides of interest, CDPGYIGSR (peptide 11) and YIGSR, both derived from the beta1 chain of laminin-1, have been shown to block invasion of basement membranes by tumor cells. Substituting the C-terminal arginine to lysine, a conservative substitution, results in a loss of peptide antimetastatic activity. This difference in bioactivity has been attributed, based on numerous modeling studies of free peptide conformations, to structural differences between YIGSR and YIGSK. Yet the nature of the 'active' free peptide backbone conformation has been a matter of debate and controversy. In order to test the validity of the structural modeling claims, we have undertaken detailed conformational studies of the two laminin-1 derived peptides YIGSR and CDPGYIGSR along with the biologically inactive YIGSK analog by two-dimensional solution 1H NMR spectroscopy in three different solvent systems. Herein we report that although both the active (YIGSR, CDPGYIGSR) and the inactive (YIGSK) peptides can adopt several closely related conformations in solution, the two peptides share similar conformational preferences, and there are no significant structural differences between the active and inactive peptides, contrary to previously reported modeling data. We conclude that the basis of the peptide biological activity, in contrast to published models, cannot be attributed to well-defined structural preferences of the free peptides. We infer that the difference in bioactivity observed between YIGSR and YIGSK originates primarily from the chemical nature of the arginine versus lysine sidechain substitution, rather than being due to a structural change in the free peptide conformations.

Effect of asymmetric modification on the conformation of ascidiacyclamide analogs

Ascidiacyclamide (ASC), cyclo(-Ile1-Oxz2-d-Val3-Thz4-)2 (Oxz=oxazoline and Thz=thiazole) has a C2-symmetric sequence, and the relationships between its conformation and symmetry have been studied. In a previous study, we performed asymmetric modifications in which an Ile residue was replaced by Gly, Leu or Phe to disturb the symmetry [Doi et al. (1999) Biopolymers49, 459-469]. In this study, the modifications were extended. The Ile1 residue was replaced by Gly, Ala, aminoisobutyric acid (Aib), Val, Leu, Phe or d-Ile, and the d-Val3 residue was replaced by Val. The structures of these analogs were analyzed by X-ray diffraction, 1H NMR and CD techniques. X-Ray diffraction analyses revealed that the [Ala1], [Aib1] and [Phe1]ASC analogs are folded, whereas [Val1]ASC has a square form. These structures are the first examples of folded structures for ASC analogs in the crystal state and are similar to the previously reported structures of [Gly1] and [Phe1]ASC in solution. The resonances of amide NH and Thz CH protons linearly shift with temperature changes; in particular, those of [Aib1], [d-Ile1] and [Val3]ASCs exhibited a large temperature dependence. DMSO titration caused nonlinear shifts of proton resonances for all analogs and largely affected [d-Ile1] and [Val3]ASCs. A similar tendency was observed upon the addition of acetone to peptide solutions. Regarding peptide concentration changes, amide NH and Thz CH protons of [Gly1]ASC showed a relatively large dependence. CD spectra of these analogs indicated approximately two patterns in MeCN solution, which were related to the crystal structures. However, all spectra showed a similar positive Cotton effect in TFE solution, except that of [Val3]ASC. In the cytotoxicity test using P388 cells, [Val1]ASC exhibited the strongest activity, whereas the epimers of ASC ([d-Ile1] and [Val3]ASCs), showed fairly moderate activities.

Biochemical characterisation and genetic analysis of aureocin A53, a new, atypical bacteriocin from Staphylococcus aureus

Aureocin A53 is produced by Staphylococcus aureus A53. It is encoded on a 10.4 kb plasmid, pRJ9, and is active against Listeria monocytogenes. Aureocin A53 is a highly cationic 51-residue peptide containing ten lysine and five tryptophan residues. Aureocin A53 was purified to homogeneity by hydrophobic-interaction, cation-exchange, and reverse-phase chromatography. MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry yielded a molecular mass of 6012.5 Da, which was 28 Da higher than predicted from the structural gene sequence of the bacteriocin. The mass increment resulted from an N-formylmethionine residue, indicating that the aureocin A53 is synthesised and secreted without a typical bacteriocin leader sequence or sec-dependent signal peptide. The structural identity of aureocin A53 was verified by Edman sequencing after de-blocking with cyanogen bromide and extensive mass spectrometry analysis of enzymatically and laser-generated fragments. The complete sequence of pRJ9 was determined and none of the open reading frames identified in the vicinity of the structural gene aucA showed similarity to genes that are typically found in bacteriocin gene clusters. Thus, neither a dedicated protease or transporter, nor modifying enzymes and regulatory elements seemed to be involved in the production of aureocin A53. Further unique features that distinguish aureocin A53 from other peptide bacteriocins include remarkable protease stability and a defined, rigid structure in aqueous solution.

Structural studies of porcine myeloid antibacterial peptide PMAP-23 and its analogues in DPC micelles by NMR spectroscopy

PMAP-23 is a cathelicidin-derived antimicrobial peptide identified from porcine leukocytes. PMAP-23 was reported to show potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria without hemolytic activity. To study the structure-antibiotic activity relationships of PMAP-23, two analogues by replacing Trp with Ala were synthesized and their tertiary structures bound to DPC micelles have been studied by NMR spectroscopy. PMAP-23 has two alpha-helices, one from Arg1 to Arg10 in the N-terminal region and the other from Phe18 to Arg23 in the C-terminal region. PMAP-1 (Trp(7)-->Ala) shows similar structure to PMAP-23, while PMAP-2 (Trp(21)-->Ala) has a random structure in the C-terminus. PMAP-2 was found to show less antibacterial and vesicle-disrupting activities than PMAP-23 and PMAP-1 [J. H. Kang, S. Y. Shin, S. Y. Jang, K. L. Kim, and K.-S. Hahm (1999) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 264, 281-286]. Trp(21) in PMAP-23 which induces an alpha-helical structure in the second alpha-helix is essential for the antibacterial activity of PMAP-23. Also, the fluorescence data proved that Trp(21) at the second alpha-helix is buried deep into the phospholipid in the membrane. Therefore, it implies that Trp(21) in the second alpha-helix at the C-terminus of PMAP-23 may play an important role on the interactions with the membrane and the flexible region including two proline residues may allow this alpha-helix to span the lipid bilayer.

Interactions between mastoparan B and the membrane studied by 1H NMR spectroscopy

Mastoparan B (MP-B) is an antimicrobial cationic tetradecapeptide amide isolated from the venom of the hornet Vespa basalis. NMR spectroscopy was used to study the membrane associated structures of MP-B in various model membrane systems such as 120 mM DPC micelles, 200 mM SDS micelles, and 3%(w/v) DMPC/DHPC (1:2) bicelles. In all systems, MP-B has an amphiphilic alpha-helical structure from Lys2 to Leu14. NOESY experiments performed on MP-B in nondeuterated SDS micelles show that protons in the indole ring of Trp9 are in close contact with methylene protons of SDS micelles. T1 relaxation data and NOE data revealed that the bound form of MP-B may be dominant in SDS micelles. The interactions between MP-B and zwitterionic DPC micelles were much weaker than those between MP-B and anionic SDS micelles. By substitution of Trp9 with Ala9, the pore-forming activity of MP-B was decreased dramatically. All of these results imply that strong electrostatic interactions between the positively charged Lys residues in MP-B and the anionic phospholipid head groups must be the primary factor for MP-B binding to the cell membrane. Then, insertion of the indole ring of Trp9 into the membrane, as well as the amphiphilic alpha-helical structures of MP-B may allow MP-B to span the lipid bilayer through the C-terminal portion. These structural features are crucial for the potent antibiotic activities of MP-B.