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de Zwarte SMC, Brouwer RM, Agartz I, Alda M, Aleman A, Alpert KI, Bearden CE, Bertolino A, Bois C, Bonvino A, Bramon E, Buimer EEL, Cahn W, Cannon DM, Cannon TD, Caseras X, Castro-Fornieles J, Chen Q, Chung Y, De la Serna E, Di Giorgio A, Doucet GE, Eker MC, Erk S, Fears SC, Foley SF, Frangou S, Frankland A, Fullerton JM, Glahn DC, Goghari VM, Goldman AL, Gonul AS, Gruber O, de Haan L, Hajek T, Hawkins EL, Heinz A, Hillegers MHJ, Hulshoff Pol HE, Hultman CM, Ingvar M, Johansson V, Jönsson EG, Kane F, Kempton MJ, Koenis MMG, Kopecek M, Krabbendam L, Krämer B, Lawrie SM, Lenroot RK, Marcelis M, Marsman JBC, Mattay VS, McDonald C, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Michielse S, Mitchell PB, Moreno D, Murray RM, Mwangi B, Najt P, Neilson E, Newport J, van Os J, Overs B, Ozerdem A, Picchioni MM, Richter A, Roberts G, Aydogan AS, Schofield PR, Simsek F, Soares JC, Sugranyes G, Toulopoulou T, Tronchin G, Walter H, Wang L, Weinberger DR, Whalley HC, Yalin N, Andreassen OA, Ching CRK, van Erp TGM, Turner JA, Jahanshad N, Thompson PM, Kahn RS, van Haren NEM. The Association Between Familial Risk and Brain Abnormalities Is Disease Specific: An ENIGMA-Relatives Study of Schizophrenia and Bipolar Disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2019; 86:545-556. [PMID: 31443932 PMCID: PMC7068800 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.03.985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share genetic liability, and some structural brain abnormalities are common to both conditions. First-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia (FDRs-SZ) show similar brain abnormalities to patients, albeit with smaller effect sizes. Imaging findings in first-degree relatives of patients with bipolar disorder (FDRs-BD) have been inconsistent in the past, but recent studies report regionally greater volumes compared with control subjects. METHODS We performed a meta-analysis of global and subcortical brain measures of 6008 individuals (1228 FDRs-SZ, 852 FDRs-BD, 2246 control subjects, 1016 patients with schizophrenia, 666 patients with bipolar disorder) from 34 schizophrenia and/or bipolar disorder family cohorts with standardized methods. Analyses were repeated with a correction for intracranial volume (ICV) and for the presence of any psychopathology in the relatives and control subjects. RESULTS FDRs-BD had significantly larger ICV (d = +0.16, q < .05 corrected), whereas FDRs-SZ showed smaller thalamic volumes than control subjects (d = -0.12, q < .05 corrected). ICV explained the enlargements in the brain measures in FDRs-BD. In FDRs-SZ, after correction for ICV, total brain, cortical gray matter, cerebral white matter, cerebellar gray and white matter, and thalamus volumes were significantly smaller; the cortex was thinner (d < -0.09, q < .05 corrected); and third ventricle was larger (d = +0.15, q < .05 corrected). The findings were not explained by psychopathology in the relatives or control subjects. CONCLUSIONS Despite shared genetic liability, FDRs-SZ and FDRs-BD show a differential pattern of structural brain abnormalities, specifically a divergent effect in ICV. This may imply that the neurodevelopmental trajectories leading to brain anomalies in schizophrenia or bipolar disorder are distinct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja M C de Zwarte
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands.
| | - Rachel M Brouwer
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Ingrid Agartz
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), K.G. Jebsen Centre, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Centre for Psychiatric Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, Diakonhjemmet Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Martin Alda
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - André Aleman
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Kathryn I Alpert
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | - Carrie E Bearden
- Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Alessandro Bertolino
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Catherine Bois
- Division of Psychiatry, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Aurora Bonvino
- Department of Basic Medical Science, Neuroscience and Sense Organs, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - Elvira Bramon
- Division of Psychiatry, Neuroscience in Mental Health Research Department, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth E L Buimer
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Wiepke Cahn
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Dara M Cannon
- Centre for Neuroimaging and Cognitive Genomics and National Centre for Biomedical Engineering (NCBES), Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Tyrone D Cannon
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United Kingdom
| | - Xavier Caseras
- MRC Centre for Neuropsychiatric Genetics and Genomics, Cardiff University, United Kingdom
| | - Josefina Castro-Fornieles
- Psychology and Psychology, 2017SGR881, Institute of Neuroscience, Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Institute d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Qiang Chen
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Yoonho Chung
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United Kingdom
| | - Elena De la Serna
- Psychology and Psychology, 2017SGR881, Institute of Neuroscience, Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Institute d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Annabella Di Giorgio
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | - Gaelle E Doucet
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Mehmet Cagdas Eker
- SoCAT LAB, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Psychiatry, Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York
| | - Susanne Erk
- Research Division of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Scott C Fears
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Center for Neurobehavioral Genetics, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Sonya F Foley
- Cardiff University Brain Research Imaging Centre, Cardiff University, United Kingdom
| | - Sophia Frangou
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Andrew Frankland
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Janice M Fullerton
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia
| | - David C Glahn
- Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut; Tommy Fuss Center for Neuropsychiatric Disease Research, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Vina M Goghari
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Graduate Department of Psychological Clinical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Ali Saffet Gonul
- SoCAT LAB, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Mercer University School of Medicine, Macon, Georgia
| | - Oliver Gruber
- Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging, Department of General Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Lieuwe de Haan
- Early Psychosis Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Tomas Hajek
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada; National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic
| | - Emma L Hawkins
- Division of Psychiatry, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Heinz
- Research Division of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Manon H J Hillegers
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Hilleke E Hulshoff Pol
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands
| | - Christina M Hultman
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Ingvar
- Centre for Psychiatric Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Viktoria Johansson
- Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erik G Jönsson
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), K.G. Jebsen Centre, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Centre for Psychiatric Research, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Fergus Kane
- Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew J Kempton
- Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marinka M G Koenis
- Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford Hospital, Hartford, Connecticut; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Miloslav Kopecek
- National Institute of Mental Health, Klecany, Czech Republic; Department of Psychiatry, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Lydia Krabbendam
- Department of Clinical, Neuro and Developmental Psychology, Faculty of Behaviour and Movement Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Bernd Krämer
- Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging, Department of General Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Stephen M Lawrie
- Division of Psychiatry, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Rhoshel K Lenroot
- Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia; Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico
| | - Machteld Marcelis
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Jan-Bernard C Marsman
- Cognitive Neuroscience Center, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Venkata S Mattay
- Lieber Institute for Brain Development, Baltimore, Maryland; Department of Radiology, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Colm McDonald
- Centre for Neuroimaging and Cognitive Genomics and National Centre for Biomedical Engineering (NCBES), Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Andreas Meyer-Lindenberg
- Clinical Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Central Institute of Mental Health, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Stijn Michielse
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Philip B Mitchell
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Dolores Moreno
- Child and Adolescent Psychiatry Department, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Robin M Murray
- Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Benson Mwangi
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Pablo Najt
- Centre for Neuroimaging and Cognitive Genomics and National Centre for Biomedical Engineering (NCBES), Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Emma Neilson
- Division of Psychiatry, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Jason Newport
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Jim van Os
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University Medical Centre, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | | | - Aysegul Ozerdem
- Department of Psychiatry, Renaissance School of Medicine at Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Neurosciences, Health Sciences Institute, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Marco M Picchioni
- Department of Forensic and Neurodevelopmental Science, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Anja Richter
- Experimental Psychopathology and Neuroimaging, Department of General Psychiatry, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Gloria Roberts
- School of Psychiatry, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Aybala Saricicek Aydogan
- Department of Neurosciences, Health Sciences Institute, Dokuz Eylül University, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Peter R Schofield
- School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, Australia
| | - Fatma Simsek
- SoCAT LAB, Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Ege University, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey; Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Psychiatry, Cigli State Hospital, Izmir, Turkey
| | - Jair C Soares
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas
| | - Gisela Sugranyes
- Psychology and Psychology, 2017SGR881, Institute of Neuroscience, Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Institute d'Investigacions Biomèdiques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), University of Barcelona, Spain
| | - Timothea Toulopoulou
- Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom; Department of Psychology, Bilkent University, Ankara, Turkey; Department of Psychology, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Giulia Tronchin
- Centre for Neuroimaging and Cognitive Genomics and National Centre for Biomedical Engineering (NCBES), Galway Neuroscience Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Henrik Walter
- Research Division of Mind and Brain, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, corporate member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lei Wang
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois
| | | | - Heather C Whalley
- Division of Psychiatry, Royal Edinburgh Hospital, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Nefize Yalin
- Centre for Affective Disorders, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ole A Andreassen
- Norwegian Centre for Mental Disorders Research (NORMENT), K.G. Jebsen Centre, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Division of Mental Health and Addiction, Oslo University Hospital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Christopher R K Ching
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California; Imaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, California
| | - Theo G M van Erp
- Clinical Translational Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California; Center for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, California
| | - Jessica A Turner
- Department of Psychology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia; Neuroscience Institute, Georgia State University, Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Neda Jahanshad
- Imaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, California
| | - Paul M Thompson
- Imaging Genetics Center, Mark and Mary Stevens Neuroimaging and Informatics Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Marina del Rey, California
| | - René S Kahn
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York
| | - Neeltje E M van Haren
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht Brain Center, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands; Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry/Psychology, Erasmus University Medical Center-Sophia Children's Hospital, Rotterdam, Netherlands
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Kremen WS, Fennema-Notestine C, Eyler LT, Panizzon MS, Chen CH, Franz CE, Lyons MJ, Thompson WK, Dale AM. Genetics of brain structure: contributions from the Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 2013; 162B:751-61. [PMID: 24132907 PMCID: PMC4754776 DOI: 10.1002/ajmg.b.32162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Accepted: 03/15/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the genetics of neuropsychiatric disorders requires an understanding of the genetics of brain structure and function. The Vietnam Era Twin Study of Aging (VETSA) is a longitudinal behavioral genetic study focused on cognitive and brain aging. Here, we describe basic science work carried out within the VETSA MRI study that provides meaningful contributions toward the study of neuropsychiatric disorders. VETSA produced the first comprehensive assessment of the heritability of cortical and subcortical brain structure sizes, all within the same individuals. We showed that neocortical thickness and surface area are largely genetically distinct. With continuous neocortical thickness maps, we demonstrated regional specificity of genetic influences, and that genetic factors did not conform to traditional regions of interest (ROIs). However, there was some evidence for different genetic factors accounting for different types of cortex, and for genetic relationships across cortical regions corresponding to anatomical and functional connectivity and brain maturation patterns. With continuous neocortical surface area maps, we confirmed the anterior-posterior gradient of genetic influences on cortical area patterning demonstrated in animal models. Finally, we used twin methods to create the first map of cortical ROIs based entirely on genetically informative data. We conclude that these genetically based cortical phenotypes may be more appropriate for genetic studies than traditional ROIs based on structure or function. Our results also suggest that cortical volume-the product of thickness and surface area-is a problematic phenotype for genetic studies because two independent sets of genes may be obscured. Examples supporting the validity of these conclusions are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- William S. Kremen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Twin Research Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Center of Excellence for Stress and Mental Health, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, California,Correspondence to: William S. Kremen, Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093.,
| | - Christine Fennema-Notestine
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Lisa T. Eyler
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Mental Illness Research, Education, and Clinical Center, VA San Diego Healthcare System, La Jolla, California
| | - Matthew S. Panizzon
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Twin Research Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Chi-Hua Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Twin Research Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Carol E. Franz
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Twin Research Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Michael J. Lyons
- Department of Psychology, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Wesley K. Thompson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Twin Research Laboratory, Center for Behavioral Genomics, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
| | - Anders M. Dale
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Department of Radiology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California,Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California
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