Lineage plasticity and commitment in T-cell development

Distinct Genetic Networks Orchestrate the Emergence of Specific Waves of Fetal and Adult B-1 and B-2 Development

B cell development is often depicted as a linear process initiating in the fetus and continuing postnatally. Using a PU.1 hypomorphic mouse model, we found that B-1 and B-2 lymphopoiesis occurred in distinct fetal and adult waves differentially dependent on the Sfpi1 14 kB upstream regulatory element. The initial wave of fetal B-1 development was absent in PU.1 hypomorphic mice, while subsequent fetal and adult waves emerged. In contrast, B-2 lymphopoiesis occurred in distinct fetal and adult waves. Whole-transcriptome profiling of fetal and adult B cell progenitors supported the existence of three waves of B-1 and two waves of B-2 development and revealed that the network of transcription factors governing B lineage specification and commitment was highly divergent between B-1 and B-2 progenitors. These findings support the view that the B-1 and B-2 lineages are distinct and provide a genetic basis for layering of immune system development.

A Histone Methyltransferase ESET Is Critical for T Cell Development

ESET/SETDB1, one of the major histone methyltransferases, catalyzes histone 3 lysine 9 (H3K9) trimethylation. ESET is critical for suppressing expression of retroviral elements in embryonic stem cells; however, its role in the immune system is not known. We found that thymocyte-specific deletion of ESET caused impaired T cell development, with CD8 lineage cells being most severely affected. Increased apoptosis of CD8 single-positive cells was observed, and TCR-induced ERK activation was severely inhibited in ESET(-/-) thymocytes. Genome-wide comprehensive analysis of mRNA expression and H3K9 trimethylation revealed that ESET regulates expression of numerous genes in thymocytes. Among them, FcγRIIB, whose signaling can inhibit ERK activation, was strongly and ectopically expressed in ESET(-/-) thymocytes. Indeed, genetic depletion of FcγRIIB in ESET(-/-) thymocytes rescued impaired ERK activation and partially restored defective positive selection in ESET(-/-) mice. Therefore, impaired T cell development in ESET(-/-) mice is partly due to the aberrant expression of FcγRIIB. Collectively, to our knowledge, we identify ESET as the first trimethylated H3K9 histone methyltransferase playing a crucial role in T cell development.

Repressed BMP signaling reactivates NKL homeobox gene MSX1 in a T-ALL subset

In T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL), several members of the NK-like (NKL) homeobox genes are aberrantly expressed. Here, we have analyzed the activity of NKL homeobox gene MSX1 using pediatric T-ALL in silico data, detecting overexpression in 11% of patients. Quantification of MSX1 transcripts in a panel of 24 T-ALL cell lines demonstrated overexpression in two examples. Comparative expression profiling indicated inhibition of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling pathway, which was shown to inhibit MSX1 transcription. In the LOUCY cell line we identified conspicuous expression of CHRDL1 encoding a BMP inhibitor which mediated activation of MSX1. Promoter analyses demonstrated activation of CHRDL1 by oncogenic PITX1. Furthermore, knockdown and overexpression studies of hematopoietic transcription factors demonstrated that GATA2 and FOXC1 mediate activation and GATA3, LEF1, TAL1 and TOX repression of MSX1 transcription. Collectively, our findings suggest that MSX1 is physiologically restricted to lymphoid progenitors. The identification of deregulated BMP signaling may provide novel therapeutic options for the treatment of T-ALL.

Stage-specific epigenetic gene silencing during thymocyte lineage commitment

During lineage commitment, precursor cells must establish their signature gene expression programs to endow them with the requisite set of cellular functions. To maintain cellular identity, the gene expression program must be inherited stably by progeny of lineage-committed cells. Epigenetic regulation serves as a central mechanism to maintain such cellular memory. Although a lot of progress has been made in the last decade towards defining the spectrum of epigenetic modifications on histones and DNA, as well as the relevant enzymatic machinery, the mechanisms by which these modifiers are controlled during development remain poorly understood. Gene regulation at the Cd4 and Thpok loci provides ideal models for developmentally regulated gene silencing. A single transcriptional silencer at each locus establishes heritable, irreversible epigenetic silencing only in lineage-committed cells, whereas the same silencer elements establish a reversible repressive state in precursor cells. The dynamic versus permanent silencing of developmentally regulated loci by the stage-specific functions of silencers will be discussed in the context of cell lineage commitment.

Epigenetic Thpok silencing limits the time window to choose CD4(+) helper-lineage fate in the thymus

CD4(+) helper and CD8(+) cytotoxic T cells differentiate from common precursors in the thymus after T-cell receptor (TCR)-mediated selection. Commitment to the helper lineage depends on persistent TCR signals and expression of the ThPOK transcription factor, whereas a ThPOK cis-regulatory element, ThPOK silencer, represses Thpok gene expression during commitment to the cytotoxic lineage. Here, we show that silencer-mediated alterations of chromatin structures in cytotoxic-lineage thymocytes establish a repressive state that is epigenetically inherited in peripheral CD8(+) T cells even after removal of the silencer. When silencer activity is enhanced in helper-lineage cells, by increasing its copy number, a similar heritable Thpok silencing occurs. Epigenetic locking of the Thpok locus may therefore be an independent event from commitment to the cytotoxic lineage. These findings imply that long-lasting TCR signals are needed to establish stable Thpok expression activity to commit to helper T-cell fate and that full commitment to the helper lineage requires persistent reversal of silencer activity during a particular time window.

Transcriptional priming of intrathymic precursors for dendritic cell development

Specialized dendritic cells (DCs) within the thymus are crucial for the deletion of autoreactive T cells. The question of whether these cells arise from intrathymic precursors with T-cell potential has been hotly debated, and the regulatory pathways and signals that direct their development remain unclear. Here, we compared the gene expression profiles of thymic DC subsets with those of four early thymic precursor subsets: early T-cell precursors (ETPs), double-negative 1c (DN1c), double-negative 1d (DN1d) and double-negative 1e (DN1e) subsets. We found that the DN1d subset expressed Spi-B, HEBCan, Ccr7 and Ccr4, similar to thymic plasmacytoid DCs, whereas the DN1e subset expressed Id2, Ccr7 and Ccr4, similar to thymic conventional DCs. The expression of Ccr7 and Ccr4 in DN1d and DN1e cells suggested that they might be able to migrate towards the medulla (low in Dll proteins) and away from the cortex (high in Dll proteins) where early T-cell development occurs. We therefore assessed the sensitivity of developing DC precursors to Dll-Notch signaling, and found that high levels of Dll1 or Dll4 were inhibitory to DC development, whereas medium levels of Dll4 allowed DC development but not myeloid development. To evaluate directly the lineage potential of the ETP, DN1d and DN1e subsets, we injected them into nonirradiated congenic hosts intrathymically or intravenously, and found that they were all able to form medullary DCs in vivo. Therefore, DN1d and DN1e cells are transcriptionally primed to home to the thymus, migrate into DC-permissive microenvironments and develop into medullary DCs.

Control of central and peripheral tolerance by Aire

The negative selection of self-reactive thymocytes depends on the expression of tissue-specific antigens by medullary thymic epithelial cells. The autoimmune regulator (Aire) protein plays an important role in turning on these antigens, and the absence of even one Aire-induced tissue-specific antigen in the thymus can lead to autoimmunity in the antigen-expressing target organ. Recently, Aire protein has been detected in peripheral lymphoid organs, suggesting that peripheral Aire plays a complementary role here. In these peripheral sites, Aire was found to regulate the expression of a group of tissue-specific antigens that is distinct from those expressed in the thymus. Furthermore, transgenic antigen expression in extrathymic Aire-expressing cells (eTACs) can mediate deletional tolerance, but the immunological relevance of Aire-dependent, endogenous tissue-specific antigens remains to be determined.

Polycomb repressor complex 2 regulates HOXA9 and HOXA10, activating ID2 in NK/T-cell lines

BACKGROUND

NK- and T-cells are closely related lymphocytes, originating from the same early progenitor cells during hematopoiesis. In these differentiation processes deregulation of developmental genes may contribute to leukemogenesis. Here, we compared expression profiles of NK- and T-cell lines for identification of aberrantly expressed genes in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL) which physiologically regulate the differentiation program of the NK-cell lineage.

RESULTS

This analysis showed high expression levels of HOXA9, HOXA10 and ID2 in NK-cell lines in addition to T-cell line LOUCY, suggesting leukemic deregulation therein. Overexpression experiments, chromatin immuno-precipitation and promoter analysis demonstrated that HOXA9 and HOXA10 directly activated expression of ID2. Concomitantly elevated expression levels of HOXA9 and HOXA10 together with ID2 in cell lines containing MLL translocations confirmed this form of regulation in both ALL and acute myeloid leukemia. Overexpression of HOXA9, HOXA10 or ID2 resulted in repressed expression of apoptosis factor BIM. Furthermore, profiling data of genes coding for chromatin regulators of homeobox genes, including components of polycomb repressor complex 2 (PRC2), indicated lacking expression of EZH2 in LOUCY and exclusive expression of HOP in NK-cell lines. Subsequent treatment of T-cell lines JURKAT and LOUCY with DZNep, an inhibitor of EZH2/PRC2, resulted in elevated and unchanged HOXA9/10 expression levels, respectively. Moreover, siRNA-mediated knockdown of EZH2 in JURKAT enhanced HOXA10 expression, confirming HOXA10-repression by EZH2. Additionally, profiling data and overexpression analysis indicated that reduced expression of E2F cofactor TFDP1 contributed to the lack of EZH2 in LOUCY. Forced expression of HOP in JURKAT cells resulted in reduced HOXA10 and ID2 expression levels, suggesting enhancement of PRC2 repression.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results show that major differentiation factors of the NK-cell lineage, including HOXA9, HOXA10 and ID2, were (de)regulated via PRC2 which therefore contributes to T-cell leukemogenesis.

Alpha versus beta: are we on the way to resolve the mystery as to which is the endogenous ligand for natural killer T cells?

Natural killer T (NKT) lymphocytes are a unique subset of cells that play a role in regulating the immune system. For the past decade, studies have focused upon attempts to define these cells and to determine the ligand(s) that are required for their development and peripheral activation. Many research groups have focused upon determining the mechanisms for activating or inhibiting NKT cells in an attempt to control immune-mediated disorders as well as infectious and malignant conditions by using different ligand structures. Alpha-anomeric glycolipids and phospholipids derived from mammalian, bacterial, protozoan and plant species have been suggested as potential ligands for these lymphocytes. Some of these ligands were structured in forms that can bind to CD1d molecules. The lack of alpha-anomeric glycosphingolipids in mammals and the modest effect of these ligands in human studies, along with recent data from animal models and humans on the NKT-dependent immunomodulatory effect of beta-glycosphingolipids, suggest that the beta-anomeric ligands have the potential to be the endogenous NKT ligand.

Glucocerebroside: an evolutionary advantage for patients with Gaucher disease and a new immunomodulatory agent

Gaucher disease (GD) is caused by the reduced activity of a lysosomal enzyme, glucocerebrosidase, leading to the accumulation of glucocerebroside (GC). The relatively high prevalence of this disease within an ethnic group is believed to reflect a selective advantage. Treatment with enzyme replacement therapy (ERT) is safe and effective in ameliorating the primary symptoms of the disease, yet there have been reports that some patients on ERT have developed type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome, malignancies and central nervous system disorders. A series of animal studies suggest that these complications may be related to the reduction of GC levels by the enzyme administered. GC has been shown to have an immunomodulatory effect through the promotion of dendritic cells, natural killer T cells, and regulatory T cells. The break down of GC to ceramide can underline part of these findings. Clinical trials suggested a beneficial effect of GC in type 2 diabetes or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis. This review of the data from animal models and humans proposes that the increased level of GC may provide an evolutionary advantage for patients with GD. Indirectly, these data support treating symptomatic patients with mild/moderate GD with low-dose ERT and re-evaluating the use of ERT in asymptomatic patients.

T-cell differentiation of multipotent hematopoietic cell line EML in the OP9-DL1 coculture system

OBJECTIVE

Multipotent hematopoietic cell line EML can differentiate into myeloid, erythroid, megakaryocytic, and B-lymphoid lineages, but it remained unknown whether EML cells have T-cell developmental potential as well. The goal of this study was to determine whether the coculture with OP9 stromal cells expressing Notch ligand Delta-like 1 (OP9-DL1) could induce differentiation of EML cells into T-cell lineage.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

EML cells were cocultured with control OP9 or OP9-DL1 stromal cells in the presence of cytokines (stem cell factor, interleukin-7, and Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand). Their T-cell lineage differentiation was assessed through flow cytometry and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction expression analysis of cell surface markers and genes characterizing and associated with specific stages of T-cell development.

RESULTS

The phenotypic, molecular, and functional analysis has revealed that in EML/OP9-DL1 cocultures with cytokines, but not in control EML/OP9 cocultures, EML cell line undergoes T-cell lineage commitment and differentiation. In OP9-DL1 cocultures, EML cell line has differentiated into cells that 1) resembled double-negative, double-positive, and single-positive stages of T-cell development; 2) initiated expression of GATA-3, Pre-Talpha, RAG-1, and T-cell receptor-Vbeta genes; and 3) produced interferon-gamma in response to T-cell receptor stimulation.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the notion that EML cell line has the capacity for T-cell differentiation. Remarkably, induction of T-lineage gene expression and differentiation of EML cells into distinct stages of T-cell development were very similar to previously described T-cell differentiation of adult hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors in OP9-DL1 cocultures. Thus, EML/OP9-DL1 coculture could be a useful experimental system to study the role of particular genes in T-cell lineage specification, commitment, and differentiation.

Adoptive precursor cell therapy to enhance immune reconstitution after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in mouse and man

Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation is a curative therapy for hematological malignancies. T cell deficiency following transplantation is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. In this review, we discuss adoptive transfer of committed precursor cells to enhance T cell reconstitution and improve overall prognosis after transplantation.

Cascading suppression of transcriptional silencers by ThPOK seals helper T cell fate

CD4 and the transcription factor ThPOK are essential for the differentiation of major histocompatibility complex class II-restricted thymocytes into the helper T cell lineage; their genes (Cd4 and Zbtb7b (called 'ThPOK' here)) are repressed by transcriptional silencer elements in cytotoxic T cells. The molecular mechanisms regulating expression of these genes during helper T cell lineage differentiation remain unknown. Here we showed that inefficient upregulation of ThPOK, induced by removal of the proximal enhancer from the ThPOK locus, resulted in the transdifferentiation of helper lineage-specified cells into the cytotoxic T cell lineage. Furthermore, direct antagonism by ThPOK of the Cd4 and ThPOK silencers generated two regulatory loops that initially inhibited Cd4 downregulation and later stabilized ThPOK expression. Our results show how an initial lineage-specification signal can be amplified and stabilized during the lineage-commitment process.

beta-Glycosphingolipids as immune modulators

beta-Glycosphingolipids have emerged as a family of potential ligands for natural killer T (NKT)-regulatory lymphocytes. This subset of regulatory lymphocytes has been implicated in the regulation of autoimmune processes. The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) Class I-like CD1d glycoprotein is a member of the CD1 family of antigen-presenting molecules and is responsible for selection of NKT cells. beta-Glycolipids have been shown to alter immune responses in the opposing settings of autoimmune diseases or cancer. In this review, we discuss the potential use of beta-glycoshpingolipids for NKT-based immunotherapy.

Foxp3 transcription-factor-dependent and -independent regulation of the regulatory T cell transcriptional signature

The CD4(+)CD25(+) lineage of regulatory T (Treg) cells plays a key role in controlling immune and autoimmune responses and is characterized by a unique transcriptional signature. The transcription factor Foxp3 had been thought to determine the Treg cell lineage, a hypothesis challenged by recent observations. We have performed a cross-sectional analysis of the Treg cell signature in Treg-like cells generated under a number of conditions, with or without Foxp3, to delineate the elements that can be ascribed to T cell activation, interleukin-2, transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) signaling, or Foxp3 itself. These influences synergized to determine many of the signature's components. Much of the Treg cell signature was not ascribable to Foxp3 because it contained gene clusters that are coregulated with, but not transactivated by, Foxp3. Thus, a higher level of regulation upstream of Foxp3 determines the lineage, distinct from elements downstream of Foxp3 that are essential for its regulatory properties.

Molecular dissection of prethymic progenitor entry into the T lymphocyte developmental pathway

Notch signaling activates T lineage differentiation from hemopoietic progenitors, but relatively few regulators that initiate this program have been identified, e.g., GATA3 and T cell factor-1 (TCF-1) (gene name Tcf7). To identify additional regulators of T cell specification, a cDNA library from mouse Pro-T cells was screened for genes that are specifically up-regulated in intrathymic T cell precursors as compared with myeloid progenitors. Over 90 genes of interest were identified, and 35 of 44 tested were confirmed to be more highly expressed in T lineage precursors relative to precursors of B and/or myeloid lineage. To a remarkable extent, however, expression of these T lineage-enriched genes, including zinc finger transcription factor, helicase, and signaling adaptor genes, was also shared by stem cells (Lin(-)Sca-1(+)Kit(+)CD27(-)) and multipotent progenitors (Lin(-)Sca-1(+)Kit(+)CD27(+)), although down-regulated in other lineages. Thus, a major fraction of these early T lineage genes are a regulatory legacy from stem cells. The few genes sharply up-regulated between multipotent progenitors and Pro-T cell stages included those encoding transcription factors Bcl11b, TCF-1 (Tcf7), and HEBalt, Notch target Deltex1, Deltex3L, Fkbp5, Eva1, and Tmem131. Like GATA3 and Deltex1, Bcl11b, Fkbp5, and Eva1 were dependent on Notch/Delta signaling for induction in fetal liver precursors, but only Bcl11b and HEBalt were up-regulated between the first two stages of intrathymic T cell development (double negative 1 and double negative 2) corresponding to T lineage specification. Bcl11b was uniquely T lineage restricted and induced by Notch/Delta signaling specifically upon entry into the T lineage differentiation pathway.

A mutation in a chromosome condensin II subunit, kleisin beta, specifically disrupts T cell development

Condensins are ubiquitously expressed multiprotein complexes that are important for chromosome condensation and epigenetic regulation of gene transcription, but whose specific roles in vertebrates are poorly understood. We describe a mouse strain, nessy, isolated during an ethylnitrosourea screen for recessive immunological mutations. The nessy mouse has a defect in T lymphocyte development that decreases circulating T cell numbers, increases their expression of the activation/memory marker CD44, and dramatically decreases the numbers of CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes and their immediate DN4 precursors. A missense mutation in an unusual alternatively spliced first exon of the kleisin beta gene, a member of the condensin II complex, was shown to be responsible and act in a T cell-autonomous manner. Despite the ubiquitous expression and role of condensins, kleisin beta(nes/nes) mice were viable, fertile, and showed no defects even in the parallel pathway of B cell lymphocyte differentiation. These data define a unique lineage-specific requirement for kleisin beta in mammalian T cell differentiation.

Immunological system status and the appearance of respiratory system disturbances in thymectomized patients

Introduction

Adult-onset thymoma may be responsible for several diseases, such as pure red cell aplasia, myasthenia gravis, and immunodeficiency (Good’s syndrome). Thymectomy does not always improve the patient’s condition, and may even produce additional symptoms. Its pathogenesis is still not entirely understood, but autoimmunological processes and bone marrow defect are the most frequently suggested.

Materials and Methods

Eleven patients (mean age: 56.2 ± 15.5 years) were analyzed 6 months to 10 years after thymectomy due to thymoma as were 25 healthy persons serving as controls. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry techniques were used to evaluate the immunological status of the subjects.

Results

Good’s syndrome was diagnosed in one patient, 4 subjects suffered from myasthenia gravis, and recurrent infections of upper and lower respiratory tract appeared in 9 patients. The immunological analyses (ELISA and flow cytometry) revealed a significantly lower IgG level (p < 0.05), percentage of peripheral blood B lymphocytes (p < 0.0005), and CD4:CD8 ratio (p < 0.05) in thymectomized patients compared with the healthy controls. The percentages of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T lymphocytes expressing CD28 antigen were significantly lower in thymectomized patients than in healthy subjects (p < 0.005 and p < 0.01, respectively). The percentage of naïve T helper lymphocytes was significantly lower in the patients than in the control group (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Immunodeficiency and recurrent infections may be the first symptoms of immunological disturbances after thymectomy in adults. It is suggested that regular medical monitoring of these patients is important in preventing further complications, which may result in irreversible lung tissue destruction.

Progression of regulatory gene expression states in fetal and adult pro-T-cell development

Precursors entering the T-cell developmental pathway traverse a progression of states characterized by distinctive patterns of gene expression. Of particular interest are regulatory genes, which ultimately control the dwell time of cells in each state and establish the mechanisms that propel them forward to subsequent states. Under particular genetic and developmental circumstances, the transitions between these states occur with different timing, and environmental feedbacks may shift the steady-state accumulations of cells in each state. The fetal transit through pro-T-cell stages is faster than in the adult and subject to somewhat different genetic requirements. To explore causes of such variation, this review presents previously unpublished data on differentiation gene activation in pro-T cells of pre-T-cell receptor-deficient mutant mice and a quantitative comparison of the profiles of transcription factor gene expression in pro-T-cell subsets of fetal and adult wildtype mice. Against a background of consistent gene expression, several regulatory genes show marked differences between fetal and adult expression profiles, including those encoding two basic helix-loop-helix antagonist Id factors, the Ets family factor SpiB and the Notch target gene Deltex1. The results also reveal global differences in regulatory alterations triggered by the first T-cell receptor-dependent selection events in fetal and adult thymopoiesis.

Notch/Delta signaling constrains reengineering of pro-T cells by PU.1

PU.1 is essential for early stages of mouse T cell development but antagonizes it if expressed constitutively. Two separable mechanisms are involved: attenuation and diversion. Dysregulated PU.1 expression inhibits pro-T cell survival, proliferation, and passage through beta-selection by blocking essential T cell transcription factors, signaling molecules, and Rag gene expression, which expression of a rearranged T cell antigen receptor transgene cannot rescue. However, Bcl2 transgenic cells are protected from this attenuation and may even undergo beta-selection, as shown by PU.1 transduction of defined subsets of Bcl2 transgenic fetal thymocytes with differentiation in OP9-DL1 and OP9 control cultures. The outcome of PU.1 expression in these cells depends on Notch/Delta signaling. PU.1 can efficiently divert thymocytes toward a myeloid-like state with multigene regulatory changes, but Notch/Delta signaling vetoes diversion. Gene expression analysis distinguishes sets of critical T lineage regulatory genes with different combinatorial responses to PU.1 and Notch/Delta signals, suggesting particular importance for inhibition of E proteins, Myb, and/or Gfi1 (growth factor independence 1) in diversion. However, Notch signaling only protects against diversion of cells that have undergone T lineage specification after Thy-1 and CD25 up-regulation. The results imply that in T cell precursors, Notch/Delta signaling normally acts to modulate and channel PU.1 transcriptional activities during the stages from T lineage specification until commitment.

Gene expression microarrays: glimpses of the immunological genome

Successful microarray experimentation can generate enormous amounts of data, potentially very rich but also very unwieldy. Bold outlooks and new methods for data analysis and presentation should yield additional insight into the complexities of the immune system.

T-sing progenitors to commit

T-cell development in the thymus is a complex and highly regulated process. During the process of differentiation from multipotent progenitor cells to mature T cells, proliferation, restriction of lineage potential, TCR gene rearrangements and selection events occur, all accompanied by changes in gene expression. A comprehensive understanding of thymocyte differentiation remains to be established. Two related, key issues have received much attention recently: the nature of the thymus seeding cell and the regulation of T-cell lineage commitment. Here we review the perspectives of different researchers working both on murine and human T-cell development and argue that a true T-cell commitment factor might not be required because of the unique properties of the thymus.

At the crossroads: diverse roles of early thymocyte transcriptional regulators

Transcriptional regulation of T-cell development involves successive interactions between complexes of transcriptional regulators and their binding sites within the regulatory regions of each gene. The regulatory modules that control expression of T-lineage genes frequently include binding sites for a core set of regulators that set the T-cell-specific background for signal-dependent control, including GATA-3, Notch/CSL, c-myb, TCF-1, Ikaros, HEB/E2A, Ets, and Runx factors. Additional regulators in early thymocytes include PU.1, Id-2, SCL, Spi-B, Erg, Gfi-1, and Gli. Many of these factors are involved in simultaneous regulation of non-T-lineage genes, T-lineage genes, and genes involved in cell cycle control, apoptosis, or survival. Potential and known interactions between early thymic transcription factors such as GATA-3, SCL, PU.1, Erg, and Spi-B are explored. Regulatory modules involved in the expression of several critical T-lineage genes are described, and models are presented for shifting occupancy of the DNA-binding sites in the regulatory modules of pre-Talpha, T-cell receptor beta (TCRbeta), recombinase activating genes 1 and 2 (Rag-1/2), and CD4 during T-cell development. Finally, evidence is presented that c-kit, Erg, Hes-1, and HEBAlt are expressed differently in Rag-2(-/-) thymocytes versus normal early thymocytes, which provide insight into potential regulatory interactions that occur during normal T-cell development.

Lineage promiscuous expression of transcription factors in normal hematopoiesis

Hematopoiesis has provided a valuable model for examining how genetic programs are established and executed in terms of cell fate decision. Identification of common myeloid and lymphoid progenitors allows us to directly assess the regulatory mechanisms of lineage commitment. Multiple markers of hematopoietic lineages are coexpressed in hematopoietic stem cells and progenitors, a phenomenon referred to as lineage priming. Promiscuous expression of several lineage-affiliated genes precedes lineage commitment but does not alter the biological potential of hematopoietic stem cells and multipotent progenitors. Promiscuous accessibility of multiple programs allows flexibility in cell fate commitment at the multipotent stages, indicating that transcriptional promiscuity can operate in stem cells and progenitors to control their transition from multipotency to single-lineage commitment.

Dose-dependent effects of the Notch ligand Delta1 on ex vivo differentiation and in vivo marrow repopulating ability of cord blood cells

Although significant advances have been made over the last decade with respect to our understanding of stem cell biology, progress has been limited in the development of successful techniques for clinically significant ex vivo expansion of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. We here describe the effect of Notch ligand density on induction of Notch signaling and subsequent cell fate of human CD34+CD38- cord blood progenitors. Lower densities of Delta1(ext-IgG) enhanced the generation of CD34+ cells as well as CD14+ and CD7+ cells, consistent with early myeloid and lymphoid differentiation, respectively. However, culture with increased amounts of Delta1(ext-IgG) induced apoptosis of CD34+ precursors resulting in decreased cell numbers, without affecting generation of CD7+ cells. RNA interference studies revealed that the promotion of lymphoid differentiation was primarily mediated by Delta1 activation of Notch1. Furthermore, enhanced generation of NOD/SCID repopulating cells was seen following culture with lower but not higher densities of ligand. These studies indicate critical, quantitative aspects of Notch signaling in affecting hematopoietic precursor cell-fate outcomes and suggest that density of Notch ligands in different organ systems may be an important determinant in regulating cell-fate outcomes. Moreover, these findings contribute to the development of methodology for manipulation of hematopoietic precursors for therapeutic purposes.

Delayed, asynchronous, and reversible T-lineage specification induced by Notch/Delta signaling

Using the OP9-DL1 system to deliver temporally controlled Notch/Delta signaling, we show that pluripotent hematolymphoid progenitors undergo T-lineage specification and B-lineage inhibition in response to Notch signaling in a delayed and asynchronous way. Highly enriched progenitors from fetal liver require > or =3 d to begin B- or T-lineage differentiation. Clonal switch-culture analysis shows that progeny of some single cells can still generate both B- and T-lineage cells, after 1 wk of continuous delivery or deprivation of Notch/Delta signaling. Notch signaling induces T-cell genes and represses B-cell genes, but kinetics of activation of lineage-specific transcription factors are significantly delayed after induction of Notch target genes and can be temporally uncoupled from the Notch response. In the cells that initiate T-cell differentiation and gene expression most slowly in response to Notch/Delta signaling, Notch target genes are induced to the same level as in the cells that respond most rapidly. Early lineage-specific gene expression is also rapidly reversible in switch cultures. Thus, while necessary to induce and sustain T-cell development, Notch/Delta signaling is not sufficient for T-lineage specification and commitment, but instead can be permissive for the maintenance and proliferation of uncommitted progenitors that are omitted in binary-choice models.

Subversion of T lineage commitment by PU.1 in a clonal cell line system

Specification of mammalian T lymphocytes involves prolonged developmental plasticity even after lineage-specific gene expression begins. Expression of transcription factor PU.1 may maintain some myeloid-like developmental alternatives until commitment. Commitment could reflect PU.1 shutoff, resistance to PU.1 effects, and/or imposition of a suicide penalty for diversion. Here, we describe subclones from the SCID.adh murine thymic lymphoma, adh.2C2 and adh.6D4, that represent a new tool for probing these mechanisms. PU.1 can induce many adh.2C2 cells to undergo diversion to a myeloid-like phenotype, in an all-or-none fashion with multiple, coordinate gene expression changes; adh.6D4 cells resist diversion, and most die. Diversion depends on the PU.1 Ets domain but not on known interactions in the PEST or Q-rich domains, although the Q-rich domain enhances diversion frequency. Protein kinase C/MAP kinase stimulation can make adh.6D4 cells permissive for diversion without protecting from suicide. These results show distinct roles for regulated cell death and another stimulation-sensitive function that establishes a threshold for diversion competence. PU.1 also diverts normal T-cell precursors from wild type or Bcl2-transgenic mice to a myeloid-like phenotype, upon transduction in short-term culture. The adh.2C2 and adh.6D4 clones thus provide an accessible system for defining mechanisms controlling developmental plasticity in early T-cell development.

Molecular genetics of T cell development

T cell development is guided by a complex set of transcription factors that act recursively, in different combinations, at each of the developmental choice points from T-lineage specification to peripheral T cell specialization. This review describes the modes of action of the major T-lineage-defining transcription factors and the signal pathways that activate them during intrathymic differentiation from pluripotent precursors. Roles of Notch and its effector RBPSuh (CSL), GATA-3, E2A/HEB and Id proteins, c-Myb, TCF-1, and members of the Runx, Ets, and Ikaros families are critical. Less known transcription factors that are newly recognized as being required for T cell development at particular checkpoints are also described. The transcriptional regulation of T cell development is contrasted with that of B cell development, in terms of their different degrees of overlap with the stem-cell program and the different roles of key transcription factors in gene regulatory networks leading to lineage commitment.

Thymic Anlage Is Colonized by Progenitors Restricted to T, NK, and Dendritic Cell Lineages

It remains controversial whether the thymus-colonizing progenitors are committed to the T cell lineage. A major problem that has impeded the characterization of thymic immigrants has been that the earliest intrathymic progenitors thus far identified do not necessarily represent the genuine thymic immigrants, because their developmental potential should have been influenced by contact with the thymic microenvironment. In the present study, we examined the developmental potential of the ontogenically earliest thymic progenitors of day 11 murine fetus. These cells reside in the surrounding mesenchymal region and have not encountered thymic epithelial components. Flow cytometric and immunohistochemical analyses demonstrated that these cells are exclusively Lin(-)c-kit(+)IL-7R(+). Limiting dilution analyses disclosed that the progenitors with T cell potential were abundant, while those with B cell potential were virtually absent in the region of day 11 thymic anlage. Clonal analyses reveled that they are restricted to T, NK, and dendritic cell lineages. Each progenitor was capable of forming a large number of precursors that may clonally accommodate highly diverse TCRbeta chains. These results provide direct evidence that the progenitors restricted to the T/NK/dendritic cell lineage selectively immigrate into the thymus.

Function of the Src-family kinases, Lck and Fyn, in T-cell development and activation

The function of the Src-family kinases (SFKs) Lck and Fyn in T cells has been intensively studied over the past 15 years. Animal models and cell line studies both indicate a critical role for Lck and Fyn in proximal T-cell antigen receptor (TCR) signal transduction. Recruited SFKs phosphorylate TCR ITAMs (immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motifs) in the CD3 and zeta chains, which then serve as docking sites for Syk-family kinases. SFKs then phosphorylate and activate the recruited Syk-family kinase. Lck and Fyn are spatially segregated in cell membranes due to differential lipid raft localization, and may undergo sequential activation. In addition to the CD4 and CD8 coreceptors, a recently described adaptor, Unc119, may link SFKs to the TCR. CD45 and Csk provide positive and negative regulatory control of SFK functions, respectively, and Csk is constitutively bound to the transmembrane adapter protein, PAG/Cbp. TCR-based signaling is required at several stages of T-cell development, including at least pre-TCR signaling, positive selection, peripheral maintenance of naive T cells, and lymphopenia-induced proliferation. SFKs are required for each of these TCR-based signals, and Lck seems to be the major contributor.

B lineage-specific regulation of V(D)J recombinase activity is established in common lymphoid progenitors

Expression of V(D)J recombinase activity in developing lymphocytes is absolutely required for initiation of V(D)J recombination at antigen receptor loci. However, little is known about when during hematopoietic development the V(D)J recombinase is first active, nor is it known what elements activate the recombinase in multipotent hematopoietic progenitors. Using mice that express a fluorescent transgenic V(D)J recombination reporter, we show that the V(D)J recombinase is active as early as common lymphoid progenitors (CLPs) but not in the upstream progenitors that retain myeloid lineage potential. Evidence of this recombinase activity is detectable in all four progeny lineages (B, T, and NK, and DC), and rag2 levels are the highest in progenitor subsets immediately downstream of the CLP. By single cell PCR, we demonstrate that V(D)J rearrangements are detectable at IgH loci in ∼5% of splenic natural killer cells. Finally, we show that recombinase activity in CLPs is largely controlled by the Erag enhancer. As activity of the Erag enhancer is restricted to the B cell lineage, this provides the first molecular evidence for establishment of a lineage-specific transcription program in multipotent progenitors.

Identification of the earliest prethymic T-cell progenitors in murine fetal blood

During murine fetal development, hemato-poietic progenitors start to colonize the thymic anlage at day 11 of gestation via blood stream. The present study aims at identifying the earliest prethymic progenitors in circulation. Here, we show that the interleukin-7 receptor-positive (IL-7R+) cells in Lin- c-kit+ population are circulating exclusively between days 11 and 14 of fetal age. Clonal analysis revealed that these IL-7R+ cells mostly contain T-cell lineage-restricted progenitors (p-Ts). The proportion of circulating p-Ts reaches 30% of the total p-Ts during these fetal ages, whereas virtually all B-cell lineage-restricted progenitors stay in the fetal liver, suggesting that the p-Ts are selectively released to the circulation. The circulating p-Ts retain the potential to generate natural killer cells and dendritic cells and exhibit extensive proliferation before the occurrence of T-cell receptor beta (TCRbeta) chain gene rearrangement. We propose that the wave of p-Ts in fetal blood disclosed by this study represents the ontogenically earliest thymic immigrants.

Identification of a novel subpopulation of human cord blood CD34-CD133-CD7-CD45+lineage- cells capable of lymphoid/NK cell differentiation after in vitro exposure to IL-15

The hemopoietic stem cell (HSC) compartment encompasses cell subsets with heterogeneous proliferative and developmental potential. Numerous CD34(-) cell subsets that might reside at an earlier stage of differentiation than CD34(+) HSCs have been described and characterized within human umbilical cord blood (UCB). We identified a novel subpopulation of CD34(-)CD133(-)CD7(-)CD45(dim)lineage (lin)(-) HSCs contained within human UCB that were endowed with low but measurable extended long-term culture-initiating cell activity. Exposure of CD34(-)CD133(-)CD7(-)CD45(dim)lin(-) HSCs to stem cell factor preserved cell viability and was associated with the following: 1) concordant expression of the stem cell-associated Ags CD34 and CD133, 2) generation of CFU-granulocyte-macrophage, burst-forming unit erythroid, and megakaryocytic aggregates, 3) significant extended long-term culture-initiating cell activity, and 4) up-regulation of mRNA signals for myeloperoxidase. At variance with CD34(+)lin(-) cells, CD34(-)CD133(-)CD7(-)CD45(dim)lin(-) HSCs maintained with IL-15, but not with IL-2 or IL-7, proliferated vigorously and differentiated into a homogeneous population of CD7(+)CD45(bright)CD25(+)CD44(+) lymphoid progenitors with high expression of the T cell-associated transcription factor GATA-3. Although they harbored nonclonally rearranged TCRgamma genes, IL-15-primed CD34(-)CD133(-)CD7(-)CD45(dim)lin(-) HSCs failed to achieve full maturation, as manifested in their CD3(-)TCRalphabeta(-)gammadelta(-) phenotype. Conversely, culture on stromal cells supplemented with IL-15 was associated with the acquisition of phenotypic and functional features of NK cells. Collectively, CD34(-)CD133(-)CD7(-)CD45(dim)lin(-) HSCs from human UCB displayed an exquisite sensitivity to IL-15 and differentiated into lymphoid/NK cells. Whether the transplantation of CD34(-)lin(-) HSCs possessing T/NK cell differentiation potential may impact on immunological reconstitution and control of minimal residual disease after HSC transplantation for autoimmune or malignant diseases remains to be determined.

GATA-1 Converts Lymphoid and Myelomonocytic Progenitors into the Megakaryocyte/Erythrocyte Lineages

GATA-1 is an essential transcription factor for megakaryocyte and erythrocyte (MegE) development. Here we show that hematopoietic progenitors can be reprogrammed by the instructive action of GATA-1. Enforced expression of GATA-1 in hematopoietic stem cells led to loss of self-renewal activity and the exclusive generation of MegE lineages. Strikingly, ectopic GATA-1 reprogrammed common lymphoid progenitors as well as granulocyte/monocyte (GM) progenitors to differentiate into MegE lineages, while inhibiting normal lymphoid or GM differentiation. GATA-1 upregulated critical MegE-related transcription factors such as FOG-1 and GATA-2 in lymphoid and GM progenitors, and their MegE development did not require "permissive" erythropoietin signals. Furthermore, GATA-1 induced apoptosis of proB and myelomonocytic cells, which could not be prevented by enforced permissive Bcl-2 or myeloid cytokine signals. Thus, GATA-1 specifically instructs MegE commitment while excluding other fate outcomes in stem and progenitor cells, suggesting that regulation of GATA-1 is critical in maintaining multilineage homeostasis.

Surface expression of Notch1 on thymocytes: correlation with the double-negative to double-positive transition

Notch1 plays a critical role in regulating T lineage commitment during the differentiation of lymphoid precursors. The physiological relevance of Notch1 signaling during subsequent stages of T cell differentiation has been more controversial. This is due in part to conflicting data from studies examining the overexpression or targeted deletion of Notch1 and to difficulties in distinguishing between the activities of multiple Notch family members and their ligands, which are expressed in the thymus. We employed a polyclonal antiserum against the extracellular domain of Notch1 to study surface expression during thymopoiesis. We found high levels of Notch1 on the cell surface only on double negative (DN) stage 2 through the immature single-positive stage of thymocyte development, before the double-positive (DP) stage. The Notch signaling pathway, as read out by Deltex1 expression levels, is highly active in DN thymocytes. When an active Notch1 transgene, Notch1IC, is exogenously introduced into thymocytes of recombinase-activating gene 2-deficient mice, it promotes proliferation and development to the DP stage following anti-CD3 treatment without apparently affecting the intensity of pre-TCR signaling. In addition, a stromal cell line expressing the Notch ligand, Delta-like-1, promotes the in vitro expansion of wild-type DN3 thymocytes in vitro. Consistent with other recent reports, these data suggest a role for Notch1 during the DN to DP stage of thymocyte maturation and suggest a cellular mechanism by which Notch1IC oncogenes could contribute to thymoma development and maintenance.

Regulatory coding of lymphoid lineage choice by hematopoietic transcription factors

During lymphopoiesis, precursor cells negotiate a complex regulatory space, defined by the levels of several competing and cross-regulating transcription factors, before arriving at stable states of commitment to the B-, T- and NK-specific developmental programs. Recent perturbation experiments provide evidence that this space has three major axes, corresponding to the PU.1 versus GATA-1 balance, the intensity of Notch signaling through the CSL pathway, and the ratio of E-box transcription factors to their Id protein antagonists.