Thymic selection revisited: how essential is it?

The Role of Leptin in the Association between Obesity and Psoriasis

Adipose tissue secretes many adipokines which contribute to various metabolic processes, such as blood pressure, glucose homeostasis, inflammation and angiogenesis. The biology of adipose tissue in an obese individual is abnormally altered in a manner that increases the body’s vulnerability to immune diseases, such as psoriasis. Psoriasis is considered a chronic inflammatory skin disease which is closely associated with being overweight and obese. Additionally, secretion of leptin, a type of adipokine, increases dependently on adipose cell size and adipose accumulation. Likewise, high leptin levels also aggravate obesity via development of leptin resistance, suggesting that leptin and obesity are closely related. Leptin induction in psoriatic patients is mainly driven by the interleukin (IL)-23/helper T (Th) 17 axis pathway. Furthermore, leptin can have an effect on various types of immune cells such as T cells and dendritic cells. Here, we discuss the relationship between obesity and leptin expression as well as the linkage between effect of leptin on immune cells and psoriasis progression.

The T Cell Antigen Receptor α Transmembrane Domain Coordinates Triggering through Regulation of Bilayer Immersion and CD3 Subunit Associations

Initial molecular details of cellular activation following αβT cell antigen receptor (TCR) ligation by peptide-major histocompatibility complexes (pMHC) remain unexplored. We determined the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) structure of the TCRα subunit transmembrane (TM) domain revealing a bipartite helix whose segmentation fosters dynamic movement. Positively charged TM residues Arg251 and Lys256 project from opposite faces of the helix, with Lys256 controlling immersion depth. Their modification caused stepwise reduction in TCR associations with CD3ζζ homodimers and CD3εγ plus CD3εδ heterodimers, respectively, leading to an activated transcriptome. Optical tweezers revealed that Arg251 and Lys256 mutations altered αβTCR-pMHC bond lifetimes, while mutations within interacting TCRα connecting peptide and CD3δ CxxC motif juxtamembrane elements selectively attenuated signal transduction. Our findings suggest that mechanical forces applied during pMHC ligation initiate T cell activation via a dissociative mechanism, shifting disposition of those basic sidechains to rearrange TCR complex membrane topology and weaken TCRαβ and CD3 associations.

Messengers of tolerance

The use of immunosuppressant drugs after organ transplantation has brought great success in the field of organ transplantation with respect to short-term outcome. However, major challenges (i.e., limited improvement of long-term survival, immunosuppressant toxicity, infections and carcinoma) demand alternate treatment approaches that minimizes the use of immunosuppressants. Interestingly, few studies have identified groups of transplant patients who developed operational tolerance and thereby keep their allograft without complications in absence of immunosuppressants. These rare groups of patients are of particular interest as study subjects for understanding mechanisms of graft tolerance that could be leveraged in future for inducing tolerance and for understanding mechanisms involved in improving long-term allograft outcomes. Also, biomarkers from these studies could benefit the larger transplant population by their application in immunosuppressant tailoring and identification of tolerant patients among patients with stably functioning allografts. This review compiles several gene expression studies performed in samples from tolerant patients in different solid organ transplantations to identify key genes and associated molecular pathways relevant to tolerance. This review is aimed at putting forth all this important work done thus far and to identify research gaps that need to be filled, in order to achieve the greater purpose of these studies.

Enteric α-defensins on the verge of intestinal immune tolerance and inflammation

The gut is the biggest immune organ in the body that encloses commensal microbiota which aids in food digestion. Paneth cells, positioned at the frontline of host-microbiota interphase, can modulate the composition of microbiota. Paneth cells achieve this via the delivery of microbicidal substances, among which enteric α-defensins play the primary role. If microbiota is dysregulated, it can impact the function of the local mucosal immune system. Importantly, this system is also exposed to an enormous number of antigens which are derived from the gut-resident microbiota and processed food, and may potentially trigger undesirable local inflammatory responses. To understand the intricate regulations and liaisons between Paneth cells, microbiota and the immune system in this intestinal-specific setting, one must consider their mode of interaction in a wider context of regulatory processes which impose immune tolerance not only to self, but also to microbiota and food-derived antigens. These include, but are not limited to, tolerogenic mechanisms of central tolerance in the thymus and peripheral tolerance in the secondary lymphoid organs, and the intestine itself. Defects in these processes can compromise homeostasis in the intestinal mucosal immunity. In this review, which is focused on tolerance to intestinal antigens and its relevance for the pathogenesis of gut immune diseases, we provide an outline of such multilayered immune control mechanisms and highlight functional links that underpin their cooperative nature.

NMR-directed design of pre-TCRβ and pMHC molecules implies a distinct geometry for pre-TCR relative to αβTCR recognition of pMHC

The pre-T cell receptor (pre-TCR) guides early thymocytes through maturation processes within the thymus via interaction with self-ligands displayed on thymic epithelial cells. The pre-TCR is a disulfide-linked heterodimer composed of an invariant pre-TCR α (pTα) subunit and a variable β subunit, the latter of which is incorporated into the mature TCR in subsequent developmental progression. This interaction of pre-TCR with peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) molecules has recently been shown to drive robust pre-TCR signaling and thymocyte maturation. Although the native sequences of β are properly folded and suitable for NMR studies in isolation, a tendency to self-associate rendered binding studies with physiological ligands difficult to interpret. Consequently, to structurally define this critical interaction, we have re-engineered the extracellular regions of β, designated as β-c1, for prokaryotic production to be used in NMR spectroscopy. Given the large size of the full extracellular domain of class I MHC molecules such as H-K^b, we produced a truncated form termed K^b-t harboring properties favorable for NMR measurements. This system has enabled robust measurement of a pre-TCR-pMHC interaction directly analogous to that of TCRαβ-pMHC. Binding surface analysis identified a contact surface comparable in size to that of the TCRαβ-pMHC but potentially with a rather distinct binding orientation. A tilting of the pre-TCRβ when bound to the pMHC ligand recognition surface versus the upright orientation of TCRαβ would alter the direction of force application between pre-TCR and TCR mechanosensors, impacting signal initiation.

Dendritic Cells As Inducers of Peripheral Tolerance

Mechanisms of tolerance initiated in the thymus are indispensable for establishing immune homeostasis, but they may not be sufficient to prevent tissue-specific autoimmune diseases. In the periphery, dendritic cells (DCs) play a crucial tolerogenic role, extending the maintenance of immune homeostasis and blocking autoimmune responses. We review here these essential roles of DCs in orchestrating mechanisms of peripheral T cell tolerance as determined by targeted delivery of defined antigens to DCs in vivo in combination with various genetic modifications of DCs. Further, we discuss how DC functions empowered by specific delivery of T cell antigens could be harnessed for tolerance induction in clinical settings.

Of the multiple mechanisms leading to type 1 diabetes, T cell receptor revision may play a prominent role (is type 1 diabetes more than a single disease?)

A single determinant factor for autoimmunity does not exist; disease development probably involves contributions from genetics, the environment and immune dysfunction. Type 1 diabetes is no exception. Genomewide-associated studies (GWAS) analysis in T1D has proved disappointing in revealing contributors to disease prediction; the only reliable marker has been human leucocyte antigen (HLA). Specific HLAs include DR3/DR4/DQ2/DQ8, for example. Because HLA molecules present antigen to T cells, it is reasonable that certain HLA molecules have a higher affinity to present self-antigen. Recent studies have shown that additional polymorphisms in HLA that are restricted to autoimmune conditions are further contributory. A caveat is that not all individuals with the appropriate 'pro-autoimmune' HLA develop an autoimmune disease. Another crucial component is autoaggressive T cells. Finding a biomarker to discriminate autoaggressive T cells has been elusive. However, a subset of CD4 helper cells that express the CD40 receptor have been described as becoming pathogenic. An interesting function of CD40 on T cells is to induce the recombination-activating gene (RAG)1/RAG2 T cell receptor recombination machinery. This observation is contrary to immunology paradigms that changes in TCR molecules cannot take place outside the thymic microenvironment. Alteration in TCR, called TCR revision, not only occurs, but may help to account for the development of autoaggressive T cells. Another interesting facet is that type 1 diabetes (T1D) may be more than a single disease; that is, multiple cellular components contribute uniquely, but result ultimately in the same clinical outcome, T1D. This review considers the process of T cell maturation and how that could favor auto-aggressive T cell development in T1D. The potential contribution of TCR revision to autoimmunity is also considered.

Unpredicted phenotypes of two mutants of the TcR DMF5

When a T-cell Receptor (TcR) interacts with its cognate peptide-MHC (pMHC), it triggers activation of a signaling cascade that results in the elicitation of a T cell effector function. Different models have been proposed to understand which parameters are needed to obtain an optimal activation of the signaling. It was speculated that improving the binding of a TcR could bring a stronger pMHC recognition, hence a stronger stimulation of the T cell. However, it was recently shown that an increase in affinity does not seem to be sufficient to guarantee improved functionality. A combination of factors is necessary to place the modified TcR in an optimal functional window. We here compared the binding parameters of two mutants of the melanoma antigen peptide MART-127-35 specific TcR DMF5. The first mutant was previously isolated by others in a screen for improved TcR. It was reported to have an increased CD8-independent activity. We confirmed these data and showed that the enhancement was neither due to change in half life (t1/2) nor Kd of the pMHC-TcR complex. The second mutant was designed based on a previous report claiming that a particular polymorphic residue in the TRAV12-2 chain was stabilizing the TcR. We created a DMF5 mutant for this residue and showed that, unexpectedly, this TcR had acquired a reduced overall activity although the TcR-pMHC complex was more stable when compared to the TcR wild type complex (increased t1/2). In addition, the soluble TcR form of this mutant bound target cells less efficiently. From this we concluded that kinetic parameters do not always predict the superior functionality of mutant TcRs.

T Cells: Soldiers and Spies--The Surveillance and Control of Effector T Cells by Regulatory T Cells

Traditionally, T cells were CD4+ helper or CD8+ cytotoxic T cells, and with antibodies, they were the soldiers of immunity. Now, many functionally distinct subsets of activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells have been described, each with distinct cytokine and transcription factor expression. For CD4+ T cells, these include Th1 cells expressing the transcription factor T-bet and cytokines IL-2, IFN-γ, and TNF-β; Th2 cells expressing GATA-3 and the cytokines IL-4, IL-5, and IL-13; and Th17 cells expressing RORγt and cytokines IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-21, and IL-22. The cytokines produced determine the immune inflammation that they mediate. T cells of the effector lineage can be naïve T cells, recently activated T cells, or memory T cells that can be distinguished by cell surface markers. T regulatory cells or spies were characterized as CD8+ T cells expressing I-J in the 1970s. In the 1980s, suppressor cells fell into disrepute when the gene for I-J was not present in the mouse MHC I region. At that time, a CD4+ T cell expressing CD25, the IL-2 receptor-α, was identified to transfer transplant tolerance. This was the same phenotype of activated CD4+ CD25+ T cells that mediated rejection. Thus, the cells that could induce tolerance and undermine rejection had similar badges and uniforms as the cells effecting rejection. Later, FOXP3, a transcription factor that confers suppressor function, was described and distinguishes T regulatory cells from effector T cells. Many subtypes of T regulatory cells can be characterized by different expressions of cytokines and receptors for cytokines or chemokines. In intense immune inflammation, T regulatory cells express cytokines characteristic of effector cells; for example, Th1-like T regulatory cells express T-bet, and IFN-γ-like Th1 cells and effector T cells can change sides by converting to T regulatory cells. Effector T cells and T regulatory cells use similar molecules to be activated and mediate their function, and thus, it can be very difficult to distinguish soldiers from spies.

Force-dependent transition in the T-cell receptor β-subunit allosterically regulates peptide discrimination and pMHC bond lifetime

The αβ T-cell receptor (TCR) on each T lymphocyte mediates exquisite specificity for a particular foreign peptide bound to a major histocompatibility complex molecule (pMHC) displayed on the surface of altered cells. This recognition stimulates protection in the mammalian host against intracellular pathogens, including viruses, and involves piconewton forces that accompany pMHC ligation. Physical forces are generated by T-lymphocyte movement during immune surveillance as well as by cytoskeletal rearrangements at the immunological synapse following cessation of cell migration. The mechanistic explanation for how TCRs distinguish between foreign and self-peptides bound to a given MHC molecule is unclear: peptide residues themselves comprise few of the TCR contacts on the pMHC, and pathogen-derived peptides are scant among myriad self-peptides bound to the same MHC class arrayed on infected cells. Using optical tweezers and DNA tether spacer technology that permit piconewton force application and nanometer scale precision, we have determined how bioforces relate to self versus nonself discrimination. Single-molecule analyses involving isolated αβ-heterodimers as well as complete TCR complexes on T lymphocytes reveal that the FG loop in the β-subunit constant domain allosterically controls both the variable domain module's catch bond lifetime and peptide discrimination via force-driven conformational transition. In contrast to integrins, the TCR interrogates its ligand via a strong force-loaded state with release through a weakened, extended state. Our work defines a key element of TCR mechanotransduction, explaining why the FG loop structure evolved for adaptive immunity in αβ but not γδTCRs or immunoglobulins.

Bcl11b prevents the intrathymic development of innate CD8 T cells in a cell intrinsic manner

If Bcl11b activity is compromised, CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive (DP) thymocytes produce a greatly increased fraction of innate CD8(+) single-positive (SP) cells highly producing IFN-γ, which are also increased in mice deficient of genes such as Itk, Id3 and NF-κB1 that affect TCR signaling. Of interest, the increase in the former two is due to the bystander effect of IL-4 that is secreted by promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger-expressing NKT and γδT cells whereas the increase in the latter is cell intrinsic. Bcl11b zinc-finger proteins play key roles in T cell development and T cell-mediated immune response likely through TCR signaling. We examined thymocytes at and after the DP stage in Bcl11b (F/S826G) CD4cre, Bcl11b (F/+) CD4cre and Bcl11b (+/S826G) mice, carrying the allele that substituted serine for glycine at the position of 826. Here we show that Bcl11b impairment leads to an increase in the population of TCRαβ(high)CD44(high)CD122(high) innate CD8SP thymocytes, together with two different developmental abnormalities: impaired positive and negative selection accompanying a reduction in the number of CD8SP cells, and developmental arrest of NKT cells at multiple steps. The innate CD8SP thymocytes express Eomes and secrete IFN-γ after stimulation with PMA and ionomycin, and in this case their increase is not due to a bystander effect of IL-4 but cell intrinsic. Those results indicate that Bcl11b regulates development of different thymocyte subsets at multiple stages and prevents an excess of innate CD8SP thymocytes.

A signal integration model of thymic selection and natural regulatory T cell commitment

The extent of TCR self-reactivity is the basis for selection of a functional and self-tolerant T cell repertoire and is quantified by repeated engagement of TCRs with a diverse pool of self-peptides complexed with self-MHC molecules. The strength of a TCR signal depends on the binding properties of a TCR to the peptide and the MHC, but it is not clear how the specificity to both components drives fate decisions. In this study, we propose a TCR signal-integration model of thymic selection that describes how thymocytes decide among distinct fates, not only based on a single TCR-ligand interaction, but taking into account the TCR stimulation history. These fates are separated based on sustained accumulated signals for positive selection and transient peak signals for negative selection. This spans up the cells into a two-dimensional space where they are either neglected, positively selected, negatively selected, or selected as natural regulatory T cells (nTregs). We show that the dynamics of the integrated signal can serve as a successful basis for extracting specificity of thymocytes to MHC and detecting the existence of cognate self-peptide-MHC. It allows to select a self-MHC-biased and self-peptide-tolerant T cell repertoire. Furthermore, nTregs in the model are enriched with MHC-specific TCRs. This allows nTregs to be more sensitive to activation and more cross-reactive than conventional T cells. This study provides a mechanistic model showing that time integration of TCR-mediated signals, as opposed to single-cell interaction events, is needed to gain a full view on the properties emerging from thymic selection.

Day/night changes of thymus-deriving natural regulatory T cell development and function

Activity of the immune system shows day/night rhythmicity. Changes in the migration and biological activities of immune cells are strongly regulated by the HPA axis. Another mechanism governing the level of the immune response is based on the suppressive activity of natural regulatory T cells CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ (nTregs) which play a crucial role in the maintenance of self-tolerance and immune homeostasis. The aim of our study was to answer the question: are nTregs changing their development and suppressive activity according to day/night cycle? We demonstrated the effect of day time on nTreg distribution in the thymus and their suppressive potential to inhibit the proliferation of activated responder T cells.

Strict Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecule Class-Specific Binding by Co-Receptors Enforces MHC-Restricted αβ TCR Recognition during T Lineage Subset Commitment

Since the discovery of co-receptor dependent αβTCR recognition, considerable effort has been spent on elucidating the basis of CD4 and CD8 lineage commitment in the thymus. The latter is responsible for generating mature CD4 helper and CD8αβ cytotoxic T cell subsets. Although CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell recognition of peptide antigens is known to be MHC class II- and MHC class I-restricted, respectively, the mechanism of single positive (SP) thymocyte lineage commitment from bipotential double-positive (DP) progenitors is not fully elucidated. Classical models to explain thymic CD4 vs. CD8 fate determination have included a stochastic selection model or instructional models. The latter are based either on strength of signal or duration of signal impacting fate. More recently, differential co-receptor gene imprinting has been shown to be involved in expression of transcription factors impacting cytotoxic T cell development. Here, we address commitment from a structural perspective, focusing on the nature of co-receptor binding to MHC molecules. By surveying 58 MHC class II and 224 MHC class I crystal structures in the Protein Data Bank, it becomes clear that CD4 cannot bind to MHC I molecules, nor can CD8αβ or CD8αα bind to MHC II molecules. Given that the co-receptor delivers Lck to phosphorylate exposed CD3 ITAMs within a peptide/MHC (pMHC)-ligated TCR complex to initiate cell signaling, this strict co-receptor recognition fosters MHC class-restricted SP thymocyte lineage commitment at the DP stage even though both co-receptors are expressed on a single cell. In short, the binding preference of an αβTCR for a peptide complexed with an MHC molecule dictates which co-receptor subsequently binds, thereby supporting development of that subset lineage. How function within the lineage is linked further to biopotential fate determination is discussed.

Alloreactivity

The alloimmune response between individuals genetically disparate for antigens encoded within the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) remains a substantial barrier to transplantation of solid organs, tissues, and hematopoietic stem cells. Alloreactivity has been an immunological paradox because of its apparent contradiction to the requirement of MHC restriction for the induction of normal T lymphocyte mediated immune responses. Through crystallographic analyses and experimental systems utilizing murine CD8(+) cytolytic T cell clones, major advances have been achieved in understanding the molecular and structural basis of T cell receptor recognition of MHC-peptide complexes and the basis of T cell mediated alloreactivity. These studies have further provided an explanation for the relatively high frequencies of alloreactive T cells compared to the frequencies of T cells for microbial derived antigens.

Transplant tolerance: new insights and strategies for long-term allograft acceptance

One of the greatest advances in medicine during the past century is the introduction of organ transplantation. This therapeutic strategy designed to treat organ failure and organ dysfunction allows to prolong the survival of many patients that are faced with no other treatment option. Today, organ transplantation between genetically dissimilar individuals (allogeneic grafting) is a procedure widely used as a therapeutic alternative in cases of organ failure, hematological disease treatment, and some malignancies. Despite the potential of organ transplantation, the administration of immunosuppressive drugs required for allograft acceptance induces severe immunosuppression in transplanted patients, which leads to serious side effects such as infection with opportunistic pathogens and the occurrence of neoplasias, in addition to the known intrinsic toxicity of these drugs. To solve this setback in allotransplantation, researchers have focused on manipulating the immune response in order to create a state of tolerance rather than unspecific immunosuppression. Here, we describe the different treatments and some of the novel immunotherapeutic strategies undertaken to induce transplantation tolerance.

The interdisciplinary science of T-cell recognition

The recognition of peptide/MHC antigens by T-cells has continued to challenge the imagination of immunologists, biochemists, and cell biologists alike. This is at least in part because T-cell recognition connects a diversity of issues and transcends many scientific disciplines. A fundamental unsolved issue is how T-cells manage to detect even a single molecule of an agonist pMHC complex, which is vastly outnumbered by endogenous pMHCs, many of which involve the same MHC molecule. They do so although TCRs are cross-reactive and typically low in affinity when measured in isolation. Importantly, T-cell antigen recognition takes place within the contact zone between a T-cell and the antigen-presenting cell, termed the immunological synapse. This bimembrane structure sets the stage for the antigen-binding events and all subsequent molecular recognition events. There is increasing evidence that the molecular dynamics of receptor-ligand interactions are not only dependent on the intrinsic properties of the binding partners but also become transformed by cell biological parameters such as the geometrical constraints within the immune synapse, mechanical forces, and local molecular crowding. To appreciate the complete picture, we think a multidisciplinary approach is imperative, which includes genetics, biochemistry, and structure determination and also biophysical analyses and the latest molecular imaging techniques. Here, we review earlier pioneering work and also recent developments in the fascinating and interdisciplinary science of T-cell antigen recognition. In many ways, this work may present a useful "roadmap" for work in other systems of cell-cell recognition, which underlie many fundamental biological phenomenons of interest.

Reduced TCR signaling potential impairs negative selection but does not result in autoimmune disease

TCR signal attenuation selectively favors Foxp3 expression and T reg cell lineage commitment.

Negative selection and regulatory T (T reg) cell development are two thymus-dependent processes necessary for the enforcement of self-tolerance, and both require high-affinity interactions between the T cell receptor (TCR) and self-ligands. However, it remains unclear if they are similarly impacted by alterations in TCR signaling potential. We generated a knock-in allele (6F) of the TCR ζ chain gene encoding a mutant protein lacking signaling capability whose expression is controlled by endogenous ζ regulatory sequences. Although negative selection was defective in 6F/6F mice, leading to the survival of autoreactive T cells, 6F/6F mice did not develop autoimmune disease. We found that 6F/6F mice generated increased numbers of thymus-derived T reg cells. We show that attenuation of TCR signaling potential selectively impacts downstream signaling responses and that this differential effect favors Foxp3 expression and T reg cell lineage commitment. These results identify a potential compensatory pathway for the enforcement of immune tolerance in response to defective negative selection caused by reduced TCR signaling capability.

Thymocyte responsiveness to endogenous glucocorticoids is required for immunological fitness

Generation of a self-tolerant but antigen-responsive T cell repertoire occurs in the thymus. Although glucocorticoids are usually considered immunosuppressive, there is also evidence that they play a positive role in thymocyte selection. To address the question of how endogenous glucocorticoids might influence the adaptive immune response, we generated GRlck-Cre mice, in which the glucocorticoid receptor gene (GR) is deleted in thymocytes prior to selection. These mice were immunocompromised, with reduced polyclonal T cell proliferative responses to alloantigen, defined peptide antigens, and viral infection. This was not due to an intrinsic proliferation defect, because GR-deficient T cells responded normally when the TCR was cross-linked with antibodies or when the T cell repertoire was "fixed" with αβ TCR transgenes. Varying the affinity of self ligands in αβ TCR transgenic mice showed that affinities that would normally lead to thymocyte-positive selection caused negative selection, and alterations in the TCR repertoire of polyclonal T cells were confirmed by analysis of TCR Vβ CDR3 regions. Thus, endogenous glucocorticoids are required for a robust adaptive immune response because of their promotion of the selection of T cells that have sufficient affinity for self, and the absence of thymocyte glucocorticoid signaling results in an immunocompromised state.

The Mst1 and Mst2 kinases control activation of rho family GTPases and thymic egress of mature thymocytes

In mice lacking both Mst1 and Mst2 in the lymphoid compartment, thymocyte development is normal, but single-positive thymocytes exhibit excessive apoptosis and greatly diminished thymic egress, accompanied by loss of chemokine activation of RhoA and Rac1.

The Mst1 kinase is an important regulator of murine T cell adhesion, migration, proliferation, and apoptosis. In this study, we analyze mice lacking both Mst1 and Mst2 in hematopoietic cells. Compared with wild-type mice, these double knockout (DKO) mice exhibit a severe reduction in the number of mature T cells in the circulation and in secondary lymphoid organs (SLOs). CD4⁺CD8⁻ and CD4⁻CD8⁺ single-positive (SP) thymocytes in DKO mice resemble mature T cells of wild-type mice but undergo excessive apoptosis, and their egress from the thymus is reduced by >90%. Even when placed directly in the circulation, DKO SP thymocytes failed to enter SLOs. In SP thymocytes, deficiency of Mst1 and Mst2 abolished sphingosine-1 phosphate– and CCL21-induced Mob1 phosphorylation, Rac1 and RhoA GTP charging, and subsequent cell migration. When phosphorylated by Mst1 or Mst2, Mob1 binds and activates the Rac1 guanyl nucleotide exchanger Dock8, which is abundant in the thymus. Thus, the Mst1 and Mst2 kinases control Rho GTPase activation and the migratory responses of SP thymocytes.

Immune regulation through mitochondrion-dependent dendritic cell death induced by T regulatory cells

Dendritic cells (DCs) harbor an active mitochondrion-dependent cell death pathway regulated by Bcl-2 family members and undergo rapid turnover in vivo. However, the functions for mitochondrion-dependent cell death of DCs in immune regulation remain to be elucidated. In this article, we show that DC-specific knockout of proapoptotic Bcl-2 family members, Bax and Bak, induced spontaneous T cell activation and autoimmunity in mice. In addition to a defect in spontaneous cell death, Bax(-/-)Bak(-/-) DCs were resistant to killing by CD4(+)Foxp3(+) T regulatory cells (Tregs) compared with wild-type DCs. Tregs inhibited the activation of T effector cells by wild-type, but not Bax(-/-)Bak(-/-), DCs. Bax(-/-)Bak(-/-) DCs showed increased propensity for inducing autoantibodies. Moreover, the autoimmune potential of Bax(-/-)Bak(-/-) DCs was resistant to suppression by Tregs. Our data suggested that Bax and Bak mediate intrinsic spontaneous cell death in DCs, as well as regulate DC killing triggered by Tregs. Bax- and Bak-dependent cell death mechanisms help to maintain DC homeostasis and contribute to the regulation of T cell activation and the suppression of autoimmunity.

T cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic contributions of the IFNAR/STAT1-axis to thymocyte survival

STAT1 is an essential part of interferon signaling, and STAT1-deficiency results in heightened susceptibility to infections or autoimmunity in both mice and humans. Here we report that mice lacking the IFNα/β-receptor (IFNAR1) or STAT1 display impaired deletion of autoreactive CD4⁺CD8⁺-T-cells. Strikingly, co-existence of WT T cells restored thymic elimination of self-reactive STAT1-deficient CD4⁺CD8⁺-T cells. Analysis of STAT1-deficient thymocytes further revealed reduced Bim expression, which was restored in the presence of WT T cells. These results indicate that type I interferons and STAT1 play an important role in the survival of MHC class I-restricted T cells in a T cell intrinsic and non-cell intrinsic manner that involves regulation of Bim expression through feedback provided by mature STAT1-competent T cells.

Caspase-1-processed IL-1 family cytokines play a vital role in driving innate IL-17

The interleukin (IL)-1 cyokine family plays a vital role in inflammatory responses during infection and in autoimmune diseases. The pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1β and IL-18 are members of the IL-1 family that require cleavage by caspase-1 in the inflammasome to generate the mature active cytokines. Cells of the innate immune system, including γδ T cells and invariant natural killer T (iNKT) cells respond rapidly to invading pathogens by producing inflammatory cytokines, such as IFN-γ and IL-17. IL-1β or IL-18 in combination with IL-23 can induce IL-17 production by γδ T cells without T cell receptor (TCR) engagement. IL-1β and IL-23 can also synergize to induce IL-17 production by iNKT cells. Furthermore, CD4+ αβ effector memory T cells secrete IL-17 in response to IL-23 in combination with either IL-1β or IL-18, in the absence of any TCR stimulation. The early IL-17 produced by innate cells induces recruitment of neutrophils to the site of infection, stimulates local epithelial cells to secrete anti-microbial proteins, such as lipocalins and calgranulins, induces production of structural proteins important in tight junction stability, and promotes production of matrix metalloproteinases. Caspase-1 processed IL-1 family cytokines therefore play a vital role in the innate immune response and induction of IL-17 from innate immune cells which functions to fight infections and promote autoimmunity.

The effect of mutations on the alloreactive T cell receptor/peptide-MHC interface structure: a molecular dynamics study

T cells orchestrate adaptive, pathogen-specific immune responses. T cells have a surface receptor (called TCR) whose ligands are complexes (pMHCs) of peptides (derived from pathogens or host proteins) and major histocompatibility complex proteins (MHCs). MHC proteins vary between hosts. During organ transplants, host TCRs interact with peptides present in complex with genetically different MHCs. This usually causes a vigorous immune response: alloreactivity. Studies of alloreactive protein interactions have yielded results that present a puzzle. Some crystallographic studies concluded that the alloreactive TCR/MHC interface is essentially unaffected by changing the TCR peptide-binding region, suggesting that the peptide does not influence the interface. Another biochemical study concluded from mutation data that different peptides can alter the binding interface with the same TCR. To explore the origin of this puzzle, we used molecular dynamics simulations to study the dependence of the TCR/pMHC interface on changes in both the peptide and the TCR. Our simulations show that the footprint of the TCR on the pMHC is insensitive to mutations of the TCR peptide-binding loops, but peptide mutations can make multiple local changes to TCR/pMHC contacts. Therefore, our results demonstrate that the structural and mutation data do not conflict and reveal how subtle, but important, characteristics of the alloreactive TCR/pMHC interface are influenced by the TCR and the peptide.

HLA class I-associated diseases with a suspected autoimmune etiology: HLA-B27 subtypes as a model system

Although most autoimmune diseases are connected to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II alleles, a small number of these disorders exhibit a variable degree of association with selected MHC class I genes, like certain human HLA-A and HLA-B alleles. The basis for these associations, however, has so far remained elusive. An understanding might be obtained by comparing functional, biochemical, and biophysical properties of alleles that are minimally distinct from each other, but are nevertheless differentially associated to a given disease, like the HLA-B*27:05 and HLA-B*27:09 antigens, which differ only by a single amino acid residue (Asp116His) that is deeply buried within the binding groove. We have employed a number of approaches, including X-ray crystallography and isotope-edited infrared spectroscopy, to investigate biophysical characteristics of the two HLA-B27 subtypes complexed with up to ten different peptides. Our findings demonstrate that the binding of these peptides as well as the conformational flexibility of the subtypes is greatly influenced by interactions of the C-terminal peptide residue. In particular, a basic C-terminal peptide residue is favoured by the disease-associated subtype HLA-B*27:05, but not by HLA-B*27:09. This property appears also as the only common denominator of distinct HLA class I alleles, among them HLA-B*27:05, HLA-A*03:01 or HLA-A*11:01, that are associated with diseases suspected to have an autoimmune etiology. We postulate here that the products of these alleles, due to their unusual ability to bind with high affinity to a particular peptide set during positive T cell selection in the thymus, are involved in shaping an abnormal T cell repertoire which predisposes to the acquisition of autoimmune diseases.

A conserved hydrophobic patch on Vβ domains revealed by TCRβ chain crystal structures: Implications for pre-TCR dimerization

The αβ T cell receptor (TCR) is a multimeric complex whose β chain plays a crucial role in thymocyte development as well as antigen recognition by mature T lymphocytes. We report here crystal structures of individual β subunits, termed N15β (Vβ5.2Dβ2Jβ2.6Cβ2) and N30β (Vβ13Dβ1Jβ1.1Cβ2), derived from two αβ TCRs specific for the immunodominant vesicular stomatitis virus octapeptide (VSV-8) bound to the murine H-2K^b MHC class I molecule. The crystal packing of the N15β structure reveals a homodimer formed through two Vβ domains. The Vβ/Vβ module is topologically very similar to the Vα/Vβ module in the N15αβ heterodimer. By contrast, in the N30β structure, the Vβ domain’s external hydrophobic CFG face is covered by the neighboring molecule’s Cβ domain. In conjunction with systematic investigation of previously published TCR single-subunit structures, we identified several conserved residues forming a concave hydrophobic patch at the center of the CFG outer face of the Vβ and other V-type Ig-like domains. This hydrophobic patch is shielded from solvent exposure in the crystal packing, implying that it is unlikely to be thermodynamically stable if exposed on the thymocyte surface. Accordingly, we propose a dimeric pre-TCR model distinct from those suggested previously by others and discuss its functional and structural implications.

Immunodrugs: breaking B- but not T-cell tolerance with therapeutic anticytokine vaccines

Pathology in most chronic inflammatory diseases is characterized by an imbalance in cytokine expression. Targeting cytokines with monoclonal antibodies has proven to be a highly effective treatment. However, monoclonal antibody therapy has disadvantages such as high production costs, generation of antimonoclonal antibodies and the inconvenience of frequent injections. Therapeutic vaccines have the potential to overcome these limitations. The aim of active vaccination is to induce B-cell responses and obtain autoantibodies capable of neutralizing the interaction of the targeted cytokine with its receptor. In order to achieve this, therapeutic vaccines need to circumvent the potent tolerance mechanisms that exist to prevent immune responses against self-molecules. This article focuses on the tolerance mechanisms of the B- and T-cell compartments and how these may be manipulated to obtain high-affinity autoantibodies without inducing potentially dangerous autoreactive T-cell responses.

Protein kinase C regulates mitochondrial targeting of Nur77 and its family member Nor-1 in thymocytes undergoing apoptosis

Nur77 orphan steroid receptor and its family member Nor-1 are required for apoptosis of developing T cells. In thymocytes, signals from the TCR complex induce Nur77 and Nor-1 expression followed by translocation from the nucleus to mitochondria. Nur77 and Nor-1 associate with Bcl-2 in the mitochondria, resulting in a conformation change that exposes the Bcl-2 BH3 domain, a presumed pro-apoptotic molecule of Bcl-2. As Nur77 and Nor-1 are heavily phosphorylated, we examined the requirement of Nur77 and Nor-1 phosphorylation in mitochondria translocation and Bcl-2 BH3 exposure. We found that HK434, a PKC agonist, in combination with calcium ionophore, can induce Nur77 and Nor-1 phosphorylation, translocation, Bcl-2 BH3 exposure and thymocyte apoptosis. Inhibitors of both classical and novel forms of PKC were able to block this process. In contrast, only the general but not classical PKC-specific inhibitors were able to block the same process initiated by PMA, a commonly used PKC agonist. These data demonstrate a differential activation of PKC isoforms by PMA and HK434 in thymocytes, and show the importance of PKC in mitochondria translocation of Nur77/Nor-1 and Bcl-2 conformation change during TCR-induced thymocyte apoptosis.

The transcription cofactor Hopx is required for regulatory T cell function in dendritic cell-mediated peripheral T cell unresponsiveness

Induced T regulatory (iT_reg) cells can be generated by peripheral dendritic cells (DCs) that mediate T cell-unresponsiveness to re-challenge with antigen. The molecular factors required for the function of such iT_reg cells remain unknown. We report a critical role for the transcription co-factor Homeodomain only protein (Hop, also know as Hopx) in iT_regs cells to mediate T cell unresponsiveness in vivo. Hopx-sufficient iT_reg cells down-regulate the expression of the AP-1 complex and suppress other T cells. In the absence of Hopx, iT_reg cells express high levels of the AP-1 complex, proliferate and fail to mediate T cell-unresponsiveness to re-challenge with antigen. Thus, Hopx is required for the function of T_reg cells induced by DCs and the promotion of DC-mediated T cell unresponsiveness in vivo.

Graded attenuation of TCR signaling elicits distinct autoimmune diseases by altering thymic T cell selection and regulatory T cell function

Mice with a mutation of the zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa gene (skg mutation) are genetically prone to develop autoimmune arthritis, depending on the environment. In a set of mice with the mutation, the amount of zeta-associated protein of 70 kDa protein as well as its tyrosine phosphorylation upon TCR stimulation decreased from +/+, skg/+, skg/skg, to skg/- mice in a stepwise manner. The reduction resulted in graded alterations of thymic positive and negative selection of self-reactive T cells and Foxp3(+) natural regulatory T cells (Tregs) and their respective functions. Consequently, skg/- mice spontaneously developed autoimmune arthritis even in a microbially clean environment, whereas skg/skg mice required stimulation through innate immunity for disease manifestation. After Treg depletion, organ-specific autoimmune diseases, especially autoimmune gastritis, predominantly developed in +/+, at a lesser incidence in skg/+, but not in skg/skg BALB/c mice, which suffered from other autoimmune diseases, especially autoimmune arthritis. In correlation with this change, gastritis-mediating TCR transgenic T cells were positively selected in +/+, less in skg/+, but not in skg/skg BALB/c mice. Similarly, on the genetic background of diabetes-prone NOD mice, diabetes spontaneously developed in +/+, at a lesser incidence in skg/+, but not in skg/skg mice, which instead succumbed to arthritis. Thus, the graded attenuation of TCR signaling alters the repertoire and the function of autoimmune T cells and natural Tregs in a progressive manner. It also changes the dependency of disease development on environmental stimuli. These findings collectively provide a model of how genetic anomaly of T cell signaling contributes to the development of autoimmune disease.

Regulatory role of leukocyte-common-antigen-related molecule (LAR) in thymocyte differentiation

The strength of interaction between the antigenic peptide-loaded MHC (MHC/p) and the TCR determines T-cell fate in the thymus. A high avidity interaction between the TCR and the MHC/p induces apoptosis of self-reactive T cells (negative selection), whereas a moderate avidity interaction rescues thymocytes from apoptosis and permits further differentiation to mature T cells (positive selection). Leukocyte common antigen-related molecule (LAR), a receptor-like protein tyrosine phosphatase, is expressed on immature thymocytes, but its role in thymocyte differentiation has not yet been fully elucidated. We analyzed LAR-deficient mice and demonstrated that LAR deficiency affected the differentiation and expansion of immature thymocytes as well as positive and negative selection. Furthermore, LAR deficiency resulted in a lower Ca2+ response. The results indicate that LAR is an important modulator of TCR signaling that controls thymocyte differentiation.

Bridging innate and adaptive antitumor immunity targeting glycans

Effective immunotherapy for cancer depends on cellular responses to tumor antigens. The role of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) in T-cell recognition and T-cell receptor repertoire selection has become a central tenet in immunology. Structurally, this does not contradict earlier findings that T-cells can differentiate between small hapten structures like simple glycans. Understanding T-cell recognition of antigens as defined genetically by MHC and combinatorially by T cell receptors led to the “altered self” hypothesis. This notion reflects a more fundamental principle underlying immune surveillance and integrating evolutionarily and mechanistically diverse elements of the immune system. Danger associated molecular patterns, including those generated by glycan remodeling, represent an instance of altered self. A prominent example is the modification of the tumor-associated antigen MUC1. Similar examples emphasize glycan reactivity patterns of antigen receptors as a phenomenon bridging innate and adaptive but also humoral and cellular immunity and providing templates for immunotherapies.

Statistical mechanical concepts in immunology

Higher organisms, such as humans, have an adaptive immune system that usually enables them to successfully combat diverse (and evolving) microbial pathogens. The adaptive immune system is not preprogrammed to respond to prescribed pathogens. Yet it mounts pathogen-specific responses against diverse microbes and establishes memory of past infections (the basis of vaccination). Although major advances have been made in understanding pertinent molecular and cellular phenomena, the mechanistic principles that govern many aspects of an immune response are not known. We illustrate how complementary approaches from the physical and life sciences can help confront this challenge. Specifically, we describe work that brings together statistical mechanics and cell biology to shed light on how key molecular/cellular components of the adaptive immune system are selected to enable pathogen-specific responses. We hope these examples encourage physical chemists to work at this crossroad of disciplines where fundamental discoveries with implications for human health might be made.

Impact of TCR reactivity and HLA phenotype on naive CD8 T cell frequency in humans

The impact of MHC phenotype on the shaping of the peripheral naive T cell repertoire in humans remains unknown. To address this, we compared the frequency and antigenic avidity of naive T cells specific for immunodominant self-, viral, and tumor Ags presented by a human MHC class I allele (HLA-A*02, referred to as A2) in individuals expressing or not this allele. Naive T cell frequencies varied from one Ag specificity to another but were restrained for a given specificity. Although A2-restricted T cells showed similar repertoire features and antigenic avidities in A2+ and A2- donors, A2 expression had either a positive, neutral, or negative impact on the frequency of A2-restricted naive CD8 T cells, depending on their fine specificity. We also identified in all donors CD4 T cells specific for A2/peptide complexes, whose frequencies were not affected by MHC class I expression, but nevertheless correlated with those of their naive CD8 T cell counterparts. Therefore, both selection by self-MHC and inherent TCR reactivity regulate the frequency of human naive T cell precursors. Moreover this study also suggests that T cell repertoire shaping by a given self-MHC allele is dispensable for generation of immunodominant T cell responses restricted by this particular allele.

Analysis of the inflammatory response in HY-TCR transgenic mice highlights the pathogenic potential of CD4- CD8- T cells

Transgenic mice expressing a rearranged T cell receptor (TCR)-αβ prematurely at the double-negative stage develop an abnormal population of peripheral T cells that lack CD4 and CD8 expression and are hyper-reactive to anti-TCR antibody stimulation. One such example is the HY-TCR transgenic mice. These mice express a TCR transgenic specific for the HY antigen that is expressed in male but not in female mice. As a result, male mice have an abnormal population of HY(+)/CD4(-)8(-) or HY(+)/CD4(-)CD8(low) T cells that are much lower in female mice. In this study, we investigated the potential patho/physiological function of these cells in vivo using a model of delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) reaction: the λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema. Interestingly, while both male and female HY-TCR mice develop a classical biphasic inflammatory response to λ-carrageenan, the degree of inflammation in the former was much higher than that in the latter. This was accompanied by a selective expansion of HY(+)/CD4(-)8(-) and HY(+)/CD4(-)CD8(low) T cells in male mice and by a markedly increased production of typical DTH cytokines compared with cells from female mice. These results were specific since analysis of the inflammatory response of HY-TCR transgenic mice subjected to zymosan-induced peritonitis showed no differences between male and female mice. Together, these findings provide novel evidence for the pathological role of self-reactive CD4(-)CD8(-) T cells, previously described in several autoimmune strains and recently identified in patients suffering from autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus.

Naive CD4+ T lymphocytes circulate through lymphoid organs to interact with endogenous antigens and upregulate their function

Naive T lymphocytes recirculate through the lymph-vascular system and enter and exit lymphoid organs. Using mice expressing the photoconvertible fluorescence protein Kaede, we demonstrated that naive T cells seek to interact with endogenous Ags after migrating to the lymphoid organs. The interaction with endogenous Ags transiently induces CD69 expression on T cells, which prolongs retention in the lymphoid organs. Cells that fail to express CD69 or lose CD69 expression migrate to other lymphoid organs. Functionally, CD69(+)-naive CD4(+) T cells exhibit faster and greater cytokine production than do CD69(-) naive CD4(+) T cells. These results indicate that CD4(+) T cells continuously migrate to interact with endogenous Ags, and such an interaction plays an important role in the Ag reactivity of naive CD4(+) T cells.

FoxM1, a forkhead transcription factor is a master cell cycle regulator for mouse mature T cells but not double positive thymocytes

FoxM1 is a forkhead box transcription factor and a known master regulator required for different phases of the cell cycle. In cell lines, FoxM1 deficient cells exhibit delayed S phase entry, aneuploidy, polyploidy and can't complete mitosis. In vivo, FoxM1 is expressed mostly in proliferating cells but is surprisingly also found in non-proliferating CD4(+)CD8(+) double positive thymocytes. Here, we addressed the role of FoxM1 in T cell development by generating and analyzing two different lines of T-cell specific FoxM1 deficient mice. As expected, FoxM1 is required for proliferation of early thymocytes and activated mature T cells. Defective expression of many cell cycle proteins was detected, including cyclin A, cyclin B1, cdc2, cdk2, p27 and the Rb family members p107 and p130 but surprisingly not survivin. Unexpectedly, loss of FoxM1 only affects a few cell cycle proteins in CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes and has little effect on their sensitivity to apoptosis and the subsequent steps of T cell differentiation. Thus, regulation of cell cycle genes by FoxM1 is stage- and context-dependent.

Differential geminin requirement for proliferation of thymocytes and mature T cells

Stem/progenitor cells coordinate proliferation and differentiation, giving rise to appropriate cell numbers of functionally specialized cells during organogenesis. In different experimental systems, Geminin was shown to maintain progenitor cells and participate in fate determination decisions and organogenesis. Although the exact mechanisms are unclear, Geminin has been postulated to influence proliferation versus differentiation decisions. To gain insight into the in vivo role of Geminin in progenitor cell division and differentiation, we have generated mice that specifically lack Geminin in cells of lymphoid lineage through Cre-mediated recombination. T cells lacking Geminin expression upregulate early activation markers efficiently upon TCR stimulation in vitro and are able to enter the S phase of cell cycle, but show a marked defect in completing the cycle, leading to a large proportion of T cells accumulating in S/G2/M phases. Accordingly, T cells deficient in Geminin show a reduced ability to repopulate lymphopenic hosts in vivo. Contrary to expectations, Geminin deficiency does not alter development and differentiation of T cells in vivo. Our data suggest that Geminin is required for the proliferation events taking place either in vitro upon TCR receptor activation or during homeostatic expansion, but appears to be redundant for the proliferation and differentiation of the majority of progenitor T cell populations.

Coupling of the cell cycle and apoptotic machineries in developing T cells

Proliferation and apoptosis are diametrically opposite processes. Expression of certain genes like c-Myc, however, can induce both, pointing to a possible linkage between them. Developing CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes are intrinsically sensitive to apoptosis, but the molecular basis is not known. We have found that these noncycling cells surprisingly express many cell cycle proteins. We generated transgenic mice expressing a CDK2 kinase-dead (CDK2-DN) protein in the T cell compartment. Analysis of these mice showed that the CDK2-DN protein acts as a dominant negative mutant in mature T cells as expected, but surprisingly, it acts as a dominant active protein in CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes. The levels of CDK2 kinase activity, cyclin E, cyclin A, and other cell cycle proteins in transgenic CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes are increased. Concurrently, caspase levels are elevated, and apoptosis is significantly enhanced in vitro and in vivo. E2F-1, the unique E2F member capable of inducing apoptosis when overexpressed, is specifically up-regulated in transgenic CD4(+)CD8(+) thymocytes but not in other T cell populations. These results demonstrate that the cell cycle and apoptotic machineries are normally linked, and expression of cell cycle proteins in developing T cells contributes to their inherent 1sensitivity to apoptosis.

Early T cell differentiation lessons from T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia

T cells develop from bone marrow-derived self-renewing hematopoietic stem cells (HSC). Upon entering the thymus, these cells undergo progressive commitment and differentiation driven by the thymic stroma and the pre-T cell receptor (pre-TCR). These processes are disrupted in T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia (T-ALL). More than 70% of recurring chromosomal rearrangements in T-ALL activate the expression of oncogenic transcription factors, belonging mostly to three families, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH), homeobox (HOX), and c-MYB. This prevalence is indicative of their importance in the T lineage, and their dominant mechanisms of transformation. For example, bHLH oncoproteins inhibit E2A and HEB, revealing their tumor suppressor function in the thymus. The induction of T-ALL, nonetheless, requires collaboration with constitutive NOTCH1 signaling and the pre-TCR, as well as loss-of-function mutations for CDKN2A and PTEN. Significantly, NOTCH1, the pre-TCR pathway, and E2A/HEB proteins control critical checkpoints and branchpoints in early thymocyte development whereas several oncogenic transcription factors, HOXA9, c-MYB, SCL, and LYL-1 control HSC self-renewal. Together, these genetic lesions alter key regulatory processes in the cell, favoring self-renewal and subvert the normal control of thymocyte homeostasis.